DUAL NATURE OF MATTER AND RADATION 7/31

Explanation of laws of photoelectric emission. photons falling per second on the metal surface

) Since one photon ejects one increases of cach photon remains the
but the energy
photoelectron
from a metal surface, therefore, number of same. This is the third law of photoclectric
photoelectrons emitted per second emission.
the number of photons falling on thedepends upon
metal surface iv) The phenomenon of photoelectric
per second which inturn depends on the intensity emission has been conceived as an effect of
an
of the incident light. If the intensity of the light is elastic collision between a photon and an clectron
increased, the number of incident inside the metal. As a result of it, the absorption of
photons
increases, which results in an increase in the
energy by the clectron of metal from the incident
number of photo- electrons ejected. This is the first
photon is a single event which involves transfer of
law of photoelectric emission. cnergy at once without any timc lag. Duc
to it, there

(ii) From (6), note that ifv is no time lag between the incident photon and the
we <
vo» K.E. is
ejected photoelectron. This is the fourth law of
negative, which is impossible. Hence, photoelectric photoelectric emission.
emission does not take place for the incident
radiation below threshold frequency. This is the Therefore, the photoclectric emission is
possible only if the incident light is in the form of
second law of photoelectric emission.
packets of energy, cach having a definite value,
ii) From (6), we note that if
Vo, K.E. « y >
more than the work function of the metal. This
v. This means kinetic energy of photoelectron shows that light is not of wave nature but of particle
depends only on the frequency (or wavelength) of nature. It is due to this reason that photoelectric
incident light. If the intensity of the incident light emission was accounted by quantum theory of
radiation is increased, the number of incident light. i.e. Particle nature of light.

Do vou NOW
to Einstein's theory of photo-electric emisslon,
one Incident photon of lght can eject
According
one photoelectron from the surface of metal. But It does not mean that the number of photo
number of photons incident on it. In
electrons emitted from the metal surface will be equal to the
not
fact all the photons falling on the metal surface are Involvedresult
only in ejecting the electrons from
also. As a of which the ratio of number of
a metal surface but in many other processes
photoelectrons ejected to the number the photons falling
of on the metal surface Is less than one.
This ratio can be increased by coating the surtace
of the metal with a layer of barium oxlde or
the work function of the metal surface ls lowered.
stonsium oxide, due to which
From (7). 8) and (9) we have
between cut off Potential,
7. KRelation
Frequency of the
incidentPhoton eVo= K.E mar
and Threshold Frequency hv hvo = (v
from Einstein's
=
h -vo) .(10)
established, If =wave length of the incident
As alrcady radiation,
photoelectric equation, threshold wavelength for the metal surface,
Max. kinetic energy
=
KEmax
= hv - W% (7) c velocity of light
Then v and
% is the cut off potential
and e is the charge o
Putting values in (10), we get
on the electron, then (8)
Max. K.E. -= eVo cVo eVo KEmax. -
the work
threshold frequency,
lf
vo is then
function
W hvo
..9) oreV K.E ,a hec .(11)
 deeps.Fundamental Physics

7/32 When the waves of

metal surface.
be ejected out of a metal surface it
of higher intensity falls on
332 nm light to the electrons in metal
Sample Problem 1.Liglht ofwavelength
1-07 will impart more energy
work function kinetic energy of the ejected
is incident on a metal surface of Due to which the
value of stopping potential This is against the
eK What will be the
electrons will increase.
electrons ?
enission of photo that the maximum kinetic energy
Tequired to stop experimental facts
is independent of the
h 6 62 x 107" Js. of the ejected photoelectrons
Wo intensity of incident light.
Solution. Vc1C to wave theory of light,
the
e 2. According
from a metal
10-34 x 3x 108 photoelectric emission is possible
6 62 x
surface by the waves of light
of all frequencies
16x 10l9 x 332 x 10 is sufficient to provide
10-19 provided the intensity of light
1-6 x electron for its emission.
1-07 x the required energy to the
1:6x 10-19 But it is against the experimental
fact that no
a metal
= 3.73 1 07 = 2 66 V. photoelectric emission takes place from
surface if the frequency of the incident light
is less
Sample Problem 2. The workfunction ofcaesium than the threshold frequency, no matter
whatsoever

R is2 14eK Find (a) the thresholdfrequencyforcaesium,

incident light ifthephoto may be its intensity.
O and (b) the wavelength of the 3. When the wave of light falls on a metal
B aurent is brought to zero by a stopping potential of surface, the energy of the wave of light will not go0
0-60 V Given h = 6 63 x 10-*Js. (N.C.E.R. T)
Solution. Here, Vo = 0 60 V to a particular clectron in metal but will be
distributed to all the electrons present in the
W =2-14eV=2.14 x 1-6 x 10-19J. illuminated portion of metal surface. As a result of
which the electrons will take sometime in
Wo accumulating the energy required for their
(a) Threshold frequency, Vo
emission from metal surface. This is also against the
2.14x1-6X 10==5-16 x 1014
104 Hz. l6 experimental fact that the emission of
6-63 x 10-34 photoelectrons takes place immediately after the
light is incident on the metal.
hc
)eV,-W,orev, +W (b Photoelectric Cell
Photoelectric cell. It is a device which
6-63 x 10-34x (3x 10 )
(16x 10x0-6+2.14 x 1 6 x 10-1 converts light energy into electrical energy. It is also
471 x 10*m = 471 nm.
called an electric eye.
Photoclectric cells are of three types, namely.
Failure of Wave Theory of Light to ) Photoemissive cell (ii) Photovoltaic cell,
Explain the Photoelectric Effect and (i) Photoconductive cell.
Huygen's wave theory of light could not ) Photo emissive cell (also calledphoto tube)
explain the photoelectric emission due to the is shown in Fig.
7(6).6.
following main reasons. Itconsists of an evacuated
tube. Inside the tube, there glass or quartz
1.According to wave theory of light, the is a
energy carried by a beam of light is measured in photo-sensitive metal plate C andsemi-cylindrical
a wire loop
A
terms of intensity of the beam. Ifthe which serve as cathode and
intensity of the tube is provided with
anode respectively. The
beam of light is increased, there will be increase in
insulating base on which
metallic pins are projected.
amplitude of waves and hence energy carried by The elements inside the
waves will increase. When beam of
light falls on a tube are connected to these
metal surface, the energy, carricd by light is pins, photocell is fitted intopins and through these
connected to the external circuit socket and
a s
distributed uniformly over the entire surface of
metal. All the free electrons present in the surface
having battery
a

of metal will receive the light energy and they will

mcroammeter (uA), and a load resistance
R in the circuit.
 Pradeeps FundamentalPhysics ( )
7/34
the Derivation of de-Broglie wavelength.
5. Photocells are also used to measure
temperature of stars and to study the spectrum
of According to Planck's quantum theory, the
of a radiation of frequency v and
the heavenly bodies. energy of a photon
wavelength A is
6. They are used to switch on and off the street
lighting system at dusk and dawn, without any E = hv ..(13)
manual attention. where h is a Planck's constant. If photon is
7. They are used in photometry to compare the considered to be a particle of mass m, the energy
associated with it, according to Einstein mass
illuminating powers of two sources.
8. They are used in industries for locating energy relation, is given by
minor flaws or holes in metallic sheets. E = mc .14)
9.They are used asphotoelectric sorters; to sort From (13) and (14), we get
out the materials of different shades. hv
10. They are used to determine the opacity of hv = mc or m .(15)
c2
solids and liquids.
Since each photon moves with the same
11. They arc used to control the temperature
velocity c, therefore, momentum of photon,
and chemical reactions.
12. They are used for the determination of P mass x velocity
Planck's constant. i.e. p = x c
7(b)Dual Nature of Radiation
The phenomena like interference, h Cc/v
diffraction and polarisation of light could be
explained satisfactorily by considering that
radiation is of electromagnetic nature i.e. radiation Or .(16)
is of wave nature. The phenomena of photoelectric P
effect and Compton effect were explained only by De-Broglie assumed that the equation (16) be
quantum theory of light i.e. radiation is of particle equally applicable to both the photons of radiation
nature. It means radiation sometimes behaves as a and other material particles.
wave and some times as a particle i.e. radiation has If amaterial particle of mass n, is
moving with
dual nature. velocity then momentum of thhe particle
b De Broglie Dualistic Hypothesis pmv. According to de-Brogie hypothesis, the
wavelength of wave associated with the moving
Dual nature of matter. Since radiation material particle is
has dual nature i.e. it possesses properties of both
wave and particle and universe is composed of
radiation and matter, therefore de Broglie (17
P mv
concluded that the matter must also possess dual
This is de-Broglie wave equation for material
nature, since nature loves symmetry.
particle
De-Broglie hypothesis. According to
de-Broglie a moving material particle sometimes From de-Broglie hypothesis, we conclude the
acts as a wave and sometimes as a particle or a wave following
is associated with moving material particle which )If v = 0, from (17), A = o

controls the particle in every respect. The wave and if U = o , then

associated with movingparticle is called matter wave It means the waves are
associated with the
or de-Broglie wave whose wavelength called material particles only if they are in motion. The
de-Broglie wavelength, is given by material particle may be
charged or uncharged bu
when it is in motion, the waves are
associated, whicn
.(12) are independent of charge. It means de-Brogi
waves cannot be electro- magnetic in
wherem andv are the mass and velocity of the
nature
electro- mnagnetic waves are produced by motion o
becasE
a Planck's constant.
particle and h is charged particles:
DUAL NATURE OF MATTER AND RADIATION 7/35

of an Electron
De-Broglle Wavelength
PARTICLE 760
(b10
eran electron of
Consider electron mass m and

charge e. Let v
an

be the velocity acquired by

d by electron
electron

rest through a potential

when accelerated from
difference of V volt. Then

Gain in kinetic energy of electron =mu

FIGURE 76).7 Work done on the clectron
=
ebV

(i) Since the position of a wave cannot be

located exactly, therefore, the wave nature of mu=evV
material particle introduces the problem of particle
location. It means the wavelength of a wave or v=V2e
associated with moving particle defines a region of
uncertainty, within which the whereabouts of associated
If A is the de-Broglie wavelength
unknown. A schematic diagram of a
particle are with the electron, then
de-Broglie wave is given in Fig. 7(6).7. h h .(18)
mu
m v2eV/m 2meV
2meV
What is the de-Broglie values in (18) get
Sample Problem 1.
we
with Substituting the standard
associated with an electron moving (a) 6.63 x 10-34
wavelength
10° ms, nd (b) a ball ofmass 150g 10-19x V
speedof54 x 6-63 x 10* Js,
mass 2 x9x 10-31x 1.6 x
?h =

travellingat 30-0ms (N.C.E.R.1T) 12.27x 10-10m= 12.21 A

A
9:11 x 10* kg.
of electron =

electron;
Solution. (a) For the
5:4 x 10 ms- what potential
9.11 x 10-3;v
=
Sample Problem. Through
m = 10-34
difference should an
electron be accelerated so
that
6 63 x becomes 0 4A?
x (5.4 x 10) its de-Broglie wavelength
= x 10i)
(9-11
10m
= 0-135 x Solution. À= A or 0-4
0135 nm. 10-3 kg;
= 150 x
ball ; m
=
150g
(6) For a
V= | = 941 0 V.
or
U 30-0 ms 6.63 x 10-34 0-4
30-0
A 150 x 10-3) x Experimental Demonstrs
imentelDemonstration

= 1.47 x 10-3 m.
de-Broglie
)oLWeve Nature of Electron
the The wave nature of slow moving
Problem
2. Find molecule
Sample with hydrogen
a electrons has been established experimentally by
wavelength
associated

velocity of 3 km/s. Davisson and Germer in 1927.

10 kg.
thermal
with a 1:67 x
moving 1am.u.
=
The apparatus as shown in Fig. 7(b).8, consists
10-34Js.
h=6 62 x
v
= 3 x 10 ms; of a filament F of tungsten coated with barium
Solution. Here,
which heating with current from low
molecule
oxide, on
Mass of hydrogen 1.67x 10-2 kg tension baltery emits large number of electrons.
lt
= 2 x
2amu.
6-62 x 10-34 acts as cathode. A is a cylinder with fine hole along
10-27 x 3 x 10 its axis. It is kept at positive potential w.r.t. cathode
*mv 2x1 67 x and is called anode. The cathode and anode form
10-" m. electrons
= 6.6 X an electron gun, by which a fine beam of
 8
8a)1Introduction
Atoms radius of the order of 10 m in which entire mass
and positive charge of the atom are uniformly
The structure of matter that
world around us has been a subject of
shapes the distributed. Inside this sphere, the electrons are
study since long. embedded like seeds in a watermelon or like plums
The first contribution came from Dalton, who
in a pudding. The number of electrons is such that
postulated that matter is made of atoms, which are their negative charge is equal to the positive
indivisiblc. J.J. Thomson proposed a structure for the of the atom, Fig. 8(a).1. Thus the atom is
charge
atom, which was modified by Rutherford and later by electrically
neutral.
Niels Bohr. In this unit, we shall discuss these models
of atoms in some detail. We shall also study some
fundamental information about the atomic nuclei.
The phenomenon of 'Radioactivity has probably
played the most significant role in the development of + +
both, the atomic and nuclear Physics. We shall study
mportant aspects ofthis phenomenon. Further, nuclear +
reactions provide useful information regarding
interaction of nuclei. This led us to the phenomena of
nuclear fission and nuclear fusion whereby the vast +
reservoirs of uclear energy were discovered.
FIGURE 8(a).1
DO VOuKNOW 2 Limitations of Thomson atom model were the
following
colours 1. It could not explain the
Just as dots of light of only three origin of spectral
combine to form almost every
concelvable series of hydrogen and other atoms,
100 dlstinct observed1
colour on T.V. screen, only about experimentally.
to form all the 2.It could not explain large
kinds of atoms combine angle scattering of
materials in this universe. a particles from thin metal
foils, as observed by
W e are all made of the same
kinds of atoms. Rutherford.
to person as
These atoms cycle from person
we breathe and as
our perspiration ls 8(a).Rutherford'sa Ray scattering
experiment-discovery of Atomic Nucleus
recyclable, Our
vaporized. Atoms are thus It is
atoms that were once an
important
brain may be made of experiment, wtich led
part of Albert Elnstein
and of Charlle Chaplin. Rutherford to the discovery of atomic nucleus.
An alpha particle is
2 protons and 2 helium nucleus containng
Thomson's Model of
Atom neutrons. Therefore, an alpha
model, every
particle has 4 units of mass and two units of positive
According to Thomson's charge. Many radioactive elements emit alpha
consists of a positively charged
sphere of
atom particles. The experimental set up used by
8/1
8/2 Pradeeps.Fundamental PhusicsXUU.
Rutherford and his collaborators, Geiger and i) very fewa-particles scatter through large
Marsden is shown in Fig. 8(a).2. angles (more than 90°).
(ii) rarely, an alpha particle rebounces i.e. it
is scattered through an angle of 180°.
GOLD FOblL
(10-m thick) Explanation. The scattering of a particles is
iue to Coulombian interaction of a-particles with
LEAD
ZnS positive charges and electrons in every atom of the
CAVITY SCREEN gold foil. If positive charges and electrons were
cOLLIMATOR listributed uniformly in atom (as per Thomson
MICRO an
model), the scattering angle 6 would be very small.
SCOPE
ROTATÀBLE
Ana particle is over 7000
FIGURE 8(a).2 DETECTOR than an electron, and in this times more
masSive
Sis speck of a experiment, particle
a

in lead cavity. The radioactive source* contained

a
is travelling at a
a
high speed, therefore, very strong
alpha particles emitted by the forces alone could have deflected them
source are collimated into a
large angles. through
helpof lead slit (collimator). The beam with the
narrow
a
is allowed to fall on a collimated beam
thin
This led Rutherford to postulate that the
the order of
2.1x
gold foil of thickness of entire
positive charge of the atom must be
scattered in different10
m. The
a-particles
directions are observed
concentrated in a tiny
central core of the atom. This
through a rotatable detector tiny central core of cach atom
was called atomic
sulphide screen and a microscope. consisting of a zinc nucleus.
The alpha
particles produce bright flashes or An alpha
the ZnS screen. scintillations on particle (1), tending to collide head
These are observed in on with the
microscope and counted at the nucleus, slows down due to
the direction of
incidence of
different
the beam.
angles from force of
the nucleus, finally stops and repulsive
is then
e of deviation of The angle repelled back. This a
alpha particle,
scattering through 180.therefore, retraces
an
direction is called its particle from its original its path,
scattering angle 6.
Observations. A Alpha particles 2,2' tending to hit the
scattering angle 6 andgraph
is plotted between
the number of the at its
periphery, experience strong nucleus
N (E), scattered
at L0 for a a-particles and get scattered through repulsive forces
a-particles. This is shown in very large number of large angles (> 90)
graph, we observe that Fig. 8(a).3. From the The alpha
distance from particles 3, 3' which
the nucleus pass at a
i) most of the
alpha
through the gold foil or particles pass
suffer very smallstraight
experience small
repulsive forces and get scattered
Scattering. angle angles, Fig 8(a).4. Thea through small
larger distances from theparticles which pass at still
104 undeviated. nucleus go almost
810

610

2
10
10 Oo-0- O
d=180
ATOMIC NUCLEUS

10
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
180
SCATTERING ANGLE (0)
FIGURE 8(a).3 o
FIGURE 8(a).4
ATOMIC NUCLEUS 8/3

Distance of Closest Approach then at the distance of closest approach, as

(Size of Nucleus) K.E P E

To calculate the nuclear
dimensions mu2 Ze(2e)
from the scattering experiment, Rutherford
assumed the following:
mv4 Eoo
i) The atomic nucleus is Ze (2e)
so heavy that its To ..(4)
motion during the impact is
disregarded. 4T
(i) The nucleus and the alpha particle both
are taken as
point charges having no dimensions. Obviously, the radius of the nucleus must be
(ii) The scattering is due to elastic collision smaller than the calculated value of ro, as an alpha
between nucleus and
a-particle. particle cannot touch the periphery of the nucleus
Suppose an a-particle with initial kinetic on account of strong repulsion.
energy E is directed towards the centre of the In the original experiment,
nucleus of an atom. On account of Coulomb's
repulsive force between nucleus and alpha particle, K.E. of a particle E =mv2 = 5 5 MeV
kinetic energy of alpha particle goes on decreasing
and in turn, electric potential energy of the particle =
5.5 x 1.6x 10-13 joule
goes on increasing. At a certain distance ro from the i.e. E =8:8 x 1013 joule
nucleus, K.E of a particle reduces to zero. The Z 79 for gold and
particle stops and it cannot go closer to the nucleus.
It is repelled by the nucleus and therefore it retraces
e = 1.6 x 10-1" coulomb.
its path, turning through 180°. Therefore, the From (4),
distance ro is known as the distance of closest
r4TEo (Ze)(2e)
1

approach. At this distance, the entire K.E. of a

particle is converted into electric potential energy.
m
Now, charge on a particle, q1 = + 2e 9x10°x79x2 (1 6x 10-19)2
ro 8-8 x 10-13
Charge onnucleus, q2 = +Ze,
=X9X2X16 x 1:6 x 10-29
r
where Z is the atomic number of material of
8-8 x 10-13
the foil and +e is charge on a proton.
Electric potential at distance ro due to the To4-13 x 10-14m. = 41 3 fermi.
nucleus This value is considerably larger than the sum
Ze of radii of gold nucleus and a
.(1) particle. Thus a
47 Eoo particle reverses its motion without ever actually
touching the gold nucleus.
where 4 =
T Eo9 x 10° Nm2C-3 Sample Problem. In a head on collision
Potential energy of alpha particle at this between an alpha particle and gold nucleus, the S
distance ro) from the nucleus closest distance of approach is 4 x 10 m.
= potential x charge Calculate the KE of a particle.
Ze(2e) Sol. Here, ro=4 x 10
Zex
4 7tEpo
(2e)=
4TEo ..(2)
Z
m,
79 (for gold) KE = ?

Kinetic energy of alpha particle of mass m

K.E. = PE, = e ) 2e)
4t E o
moving with velocity v is
9x 10 79x 2 (1 6 x
E=zmv2 .3) x 10-I9)2 B
4X 1 0 4
If we neglect the loss of energy
due to E
=
9.1x 10-13 J. M
interaction of a particle with the electrons,
 Pradeep's. Fundamental. Physics(KIl).
8/4

1-63 x 10' m/s in the coulomb field of a gold

8 Impactparameter
Impact parameter is defined as the
perpendicular distance of the velocity vector of the
alphu particle from the central ine of the nucleus,
when the particle is far awayfrom the mucleus of the
atom. Fig. 8(a).5 shows the path or trajectory of an
alpha particle in the coulomb field of a heavy
nucleus. The impact parameter b and scattering
angle are also shown in the diagram.
nucleus. The gold nucleus is supposed to be at the
origin O of the co-ordinate system. The values of
impact parameters chosen for alpha particles 1, 2,
3, 4 respectively are 2.5fn, 10fm, 20 fmm and
100 fm.
Rutherford calculated analytically
the
relation between the impact parameter b and
the
scattering angle 6, which is given by

b
b= 4TE Ze cot
E
8/2
(5)
VELOCITY
VECTOR OF
a PARTICLE
where E =mv is kinetic energy of alpha
particle, when it is far away from the atom.
--. Equation (5) shows that an alpha particle close
to the nucleus (small impact parameter b) will have a
CENTRALLINE large deflection (6) whereas an alpha particle far awayy
from the nucleus (large impact
NUCLEUS a small deflection
parameterb) will have
(6). Also, if the kinetic energy E of
FIGURE 8(a).5 the alpha particle is large,
impact parameter b can be
For small for the same deflection.
large impact parameters, force
experienced by the alpha particle is weak, because A given beam of alpha particles has some
F varies as
1/(distance). Therefore, when impact distribution of impact parameters (b). Therefore,
parameter is large, an alpha particle will deviate the beam is scattered in various
directions with
through a much smaller angle. However, when different probabilities.
impact parameter is small, force experienced is
large and hence the alpha particle will scatter
through a large angle. For the case of head on
collision, impact parameter b tends to zero. The vou NOW
alpha particle will rebound like a ball thrown The relation between the
and the scattering angle impact
against a wall, scattering through 180°. parameter b
Fig. 8(a).6 shows theoretically calculated depends on the
nature of the force law between
paths of alpha particles moving with a speed of the target
scatterer and the alpha
particle.
8a)
100 Rutherford's Atom Model
The essential features
of Rutherford's
nuclear model of the atom or
atom are
as follows planetary model of the
1. Every atom consists of
called the a
tiny central core,
atomic nucleus, in which the entire
20
positive charge and almost entire mass of the
are concentráted. atom
10
2.5 2.The size of nucleus is of
the order of 101m,
DISTANCE (fm) which is ery small as
compared to the size of the
FIGURE 8(a).6 atom which is of the order of 10-10m.