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Contents
Preface xvi
About the 11th Edition of This Book xvi
Changes in the 11th Edition xvii
Instructor’s Resource Manual With Tests and Practica xviii
Acknowledgments xviii
To the Student xix
Using This Book to Study for the Behavior Analysis Certification Board®
Examinations xx
PART I THE BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION APPROACH 1
CHAPTER 1 Introduction 2
What Is Behavior? 3
What Is Behavior Modification? 5
What Is Behavioral Assessment? 6
Some Historical Highlights of Behavior Modification 6
Current Use of “Behavior Modification,” “Behavior Modifier,”
and Related Terms 7
Some Misconceptions About Behavior Modification 8
The Approach of This Book 8
Summary of Chapter 1 11
Application Exercises 11
Notes for Further Learning 12
CHAPTER 2 Areas of Application: An Overview 14

Parenting and Child Management 14
Education: From Preschool to University 15
Developmental Disabilities 15
Schizophrenia 17
Psychological Problems Treated in Clinical Settings 17
Self-Management of Personal Problems 18
Medical and Health Care 18
Gerontology 19
Behavioral Community Psychology 20
Business, Industry, and Government 20
Behavioral Sport Psychology 20
Behavior Modification With Diverse Populations 21
Conclusion 21
Application Exercise 22
Note for Further Learning 22
viii Contents
CHAPTER 3 Defining, Measuring, and Recording Target Behavior 24

Improving Darren’s Cooperative Behavior 24
Minimal Phases of a Behavior Modification Program 25
Indirect, Direct, and Experimental Behavioral Assessments 26
Characteristics of Behavior for Direct Assessment 29
Strategies for Recording Behavior 34
Minimal Time Strategies for Measuring the Amount of Behavior-Recording
Methods 35
Assessing the Accuracy of Observations 36
Assessing the Accuracy of a Treatment 37
Data! Data! Data! Why Bother? 38
CHAPTER 4 Doing Behavior Modification Research 43

Helping Kelly Solve Math Problems 43
The Reversal-Replication (ABAB) Design 44
Multiple-Baseline Designs 46
The Changing-Criterion Design 48
Alternating-Treatments (or Multielement) Design 49
Data Analysis and Interpretation 50
PART II BASIC BEHAVIORAL PRINCIPLES AND PROCEDURES 55
CHAPTER 5 Respondent (Classical, Pavlovian) Conditioning of Reflexive Behavior 56

Development of Fear in a Young Figure Skater 56
Behavioral Principles and Procedures 56
Principle of Respondent Conditioning 56
Higher-Order Conditioning 58
Common Respondently Conditioned Responses 59
Procedures for Eliminating a Conditioned Reflex 60
Generalization and Discrimination of Respondent Behavior 62
Applications of Respondent Conditioning and Extinction 62
An Introduction to Operant Conditioning: Another Type of Learning 63
CHAPTER 6 Increasing a Behavior With Positive Reinforcement 66

Reinforcing Jill’s Walking Behavior 66
Positive Reinforcement 66
Factors Influencing the Effectiveness of Positive Reinforcement 68
Contents ix
Pitfalls of Positive Reinforcement 76

Guidelines for the Effective Application of Positive Reinforcement 78
CHAPTER 7 Increasing Behavior With Conditioned Reinforcement 82

Erin’s Points Program 82
Unconditioned and Conditioned Reinforcers 82
Factors Influencing the Effectiveness of Conditioned Reinforcement 85
Pitfalls of Conditioned Reinforcement 86
Guidelines for the Effective Application of Conditioned Reinforcement 86
CHAPTER 8 Decreasing a Behavior With Operant Extinction 89

Decreasing Gregory’s Yelling 89
Operant Extinction 89
Factors Influencing the Effectiveness of Operant Extinction 90
Pitfalls of Operant Extinction 95
Guidelines for the Effective Application of Operant Extinction 95
CHAPTER 9 Getting a New Behavior to Occur With Shaping 99

Improving Frank’s Exercising 99
Shaping 99
Factors Influencing the Effectiveness of Shaping 102
Pitfalls of Shaping 103
Guidelines for the Effective Application of Shaping 105
CHAPTER 10 Developing Behavioral Persistence With Schedules of Reinforcement 108

Improving Jan’s Work Rate in Math Class 108
Some Definitions 108
Ratio Schedules 109
Simple Interval Schedules 111
Schedules With a Limited Hold 112
Duration Schedules 114
Overview of Six Commonly Used Intermittent Reinforcement Schedules
for Increasing and Maintaining Behavior 116
x Contents
Concurrent Schedules of Reinforcement 116

Pitfalls of Intermittent Reinforcement 117
Guidelines for the Effective Application of Intermittent
Reinforcement 117
CHAPTER 11 Responding at the Right Time and Place: Operant Stimulus Discrimination and Stimulus
Generalization 121
Teaching Darcy When to Pick Up the Phone 121
Learning to Respond at the Right Time and Place 121
Types of Controlling Stimuli of Operant Behavior: SDs and S∆s 122
Operant Stimulus Discrimination 123
Operant Stimulus Generalization 123
Factors Influencing the Effectiveness of Operant Stimulus Discrimination
Training 126
Pitfalls of Operant Stimulus Discrimination Training 127
Guidelines for Effective Operant Stimulus Discrimination Training 127
CHAPTER 12 Changing the Stimulus Control of a Behavior With Fading 131

Teaching Peter His Name 131
Fading 131
Dimensions of Stimuli for Fading 133
Factors Influencing the Effectiveness of Fading 134
Fading Versus Shaping 136
Pitfalls of Fading 136
Guidelines for the Effective Application of Fading 136
CHAPTER 13 Getting a New Sequence of Behaviors to Occur With Behavior Chaining 139
Teaching Steve to Follow a Consistent Pre-putt Routine 139
Behavior Chaining 140
Methods for Teaching a Behavioral Chain 140
Chaining Compared With Fading and Shaping 144
Factors Influencing the Effectiveness of Behavioral Chaining 144
Pitfalls of Behavioral Chaining 146
Guidelines for the Effective Application of Behavioral Chaining 147
Contents xi
CHAPTER 14 Differential Reinforcement Procedures to Decrease

Behavior 149
Decreasing Tommy’s Talking Out 149
Decreasing Operant Behavior 149
Differential Reinforcement of Low Rates 150
Differential Reinforcement of Zero Responding 151
Differential Reinforcement of Incompatible Behavior 151
Differential Reinforcement of Alternative Behavior 152
Pitfalls of Differential Reinforcement Procedures for Decreasing
Behavior 153
Guidelines for the Effective Application of Differential Reinforcement to
Decrease Behavior 153
CHAPTER 15 Decreasing Behavior With Punishment 156

Eliminating Ben’s Aggressiveness 156
The Principle of Punishment 156
Types of Punishers 157
Factors Influencing the Effectiveness of Punishment 159
Some Examples of Therapeutic Punishment 161
Potential Harmful Side Effects of Punishment 163
Should Punishment Be Used? 164
Pitfalls of Punishment 165
Guidelines for the Effective Application of Punishment 165
CHAPTER 16 Establishing Behavior by Escape and Avoidance

Conditioning 169
Curing Joanne’s Slouching 169
Escape Conditioning (Negative Reinforcement) 170
Avoidance Conditioning 171
Pitfalls of Escape and Avoidance Conditioning 173
Guidelines for the Effective Application of Escape and Avoidance
Conditioning 174
CHAPTER 17 Respondent and Operant Conditioning Together 177

Responding to Meet Deadlines 177
Respondent and Operant Conditioning Compared 177
Operant-Respondent Interactions 178
xii Contents
Respondent and Operant Components of Emotions 180

Respondent and Operant Components of Thinking 183
Private Thoughts and Feelings: More Respondent-Operant
Interactions 185
CHAPTER 18 Transferring Behavior to New Settings and Making It Last: Programming of Generality
of Behavior Change 187
Helping Carole Have a Successful Class Presentation 187
Generality 188
Programming Generality of Operant Behavior 188
Programming Generality of Respondent Behavior 193
Pitfalls of Generality 195
Guidelines for Programming Generality of Operant Behavior 195
PART III CAPITALIZING ON OPERANT ANTECEDENT CONTROL PROCEDURES 199
CHAPTER 19 Antecedent Control: Rules and Goals 200

Helping Mary to Skate Well 200
Antecedent Control of Operant Behavior 200
Rules 201
Goals 206
CHAPTER 20 Antecedent Control: Modeling, Physical Guidance, and Situational Inducement 212
A Mindfulness-Based Intervention for Aggression 212
Capitalizing on Existing Stimulus Control 212
Modeling 213
Physical Guidance 215
Situational Inducement 216
CHAPTER 21 Antecedent Control: Motivation 222

Coach Dawson’s Motivation Program 222
A Traditional View of Motivation 222
A Behavioral View of Motivation 223
Contents xiii
Some Applications of Motivating Operations 226

Motivating Operations and Behavior Modification 227
PART IV PUTTING IT ALL TOGETHER TO DEVELOP EFFECTIVE BEHAVIORAL PROGRAMS 231
CHAPTER 22 Functional Assessment of Causes of Problem Behavior 232

Decreasing Susie’s Self-Injurious Behavior 232
Functional Assessment Procedures 232
Major Causes of Operant Problem Behaviors 237
Respondent or Elicited Problem Behaviors 240
Medical Causes of Problem Behaviors 240
Guidelines for Conducting a Functional Assessment 242
CHAPTER 23 Planning, Applying, and Evaluating a Behavioral Program 245

Overcoming Cindy’s Fear of Dogs 245
Deciding Whether to Design a Program Following a Referral 245
Selection and Implementation of a Pre-Program Assessment
Procedure 247
Strategies of Program Design 248
Preliminary Implementation Considerations 250
Implement the Program 251
Program Maintenance and Evaluation 251
CHAPTER 24 Token Economies 255

John’s Token Reinforcement Program 255
A Token Economy 255
Steps for Setting Up and Managing a Token Economy 257
Generality Programming to the Natural Environment 261
Contingency Management 261
Ethical Considerations 261
A Summary of Considerations Necessary in Designing a Token
Economy 262
Research on Token Economies 263
xiv Contents
CHAPTER 25 Helping an Individual to Develop Self-Control 267

Al’s Self-Control of Excessive-Eating Program 267
Causes of Self-Control Problems 268
A Behavioral Model for Self-Control 270
Steps in a Self-Control Program 270
Circumvention of the Therapist 280
PART V BEHAVIOR THERAPY FOR PSYCHOLOGICAL

DISORDERS 283
CHAPTER 26 Behavioral Approaches to Psychotherapy: Cognitive Restructuring, Self-Directed

Coping Methods, and Mindfulness and Acceptance Procedures 284
Introduction to Behavioral Approaches to Psychotherapy 284
A Behavioral Interpretation of Aspects of the Therapies in
This Chapter 292
Concluding Comments 294
CHAPTER 27 Psychological Disorders Treated by Behavioral and

Cognitive-Behavioral Therapies 297
Specific Phobias 298
Other Anxiety Disorders 301
Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder 302
Depression 303
Alcohol and Other Addictive Substance Use Disorders 304
Eating Disorders 305
Couple Distress 305
Sexual Dysfunction 306
Habit Disorders 307
PART VI A HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE AND ETHICAL ISSUES 309
CHAPTER 28 Giving It All Some Perspective: A Brief History 310

The Pavlovian-Wolpean Orientation 310
The Operant Conditioning Orientation: Applied Behavior Analysis 313
Social Learning Theory 316
Cognitive Behavior Therapy 316
The Terms Behavior Modification, Behavior Therapy, Cognitive Behavior Modification,
Cognitive Behavior Therapy, and Applied Behavior Analysis 317
Contents xv
The Future of Behavior Modification 318

CHAPTER 29 Ethical Issues 322

A Behavioral View of Ethics 323
Arguments Against Deliberately Controlling Behavior 324
Ethical Guidelines 325
Summary of Chapter 29 and Conclusion 329
Glossary 332
References 343
Author Index 387
Subject Index 396
Preface
About the 11th Edition of This Book

This 11th edition of Behavior Modification: What It Is and How to Do It, like its predecessors, assumes no specific prior
knowledge about psychology or behavior modification on the part of the reader. Those who want to know how to apply
behavior modification to their everyday life—from solving personal behavior problems to helping children learn life’s
necessary skills—will find the text useful. Mainly, however, this book is addressed to two audiences:(a) college and
university students taking courses in behavior modification, applied behavior analysis, behavior therapy, the psychology
of learning, and related areas; and (b) students and practitioners of various helping professions—clinical psychology,
counseling, education, medicine, nursing, occupational therapy, physiotherapy, psychiatric nursing, psychiatry, social
work, speech therapy, and sport psychology—who are concerned directly with enhancing various forms of behavioral
development.
From our separate experiences over the past 52 years in teaching members of the audiences above, we are con-
vinced that both groups learn the principles of behavior and how to apply them most effectively when the applications
are explained with reference to the underlying behavior principles on which they are based. For this reason, as our title
implies, this book deals equally with both the principles and the procedures of behavior modification.
Our goals and the manner in which we attempt to achieve them can be summarized as follows:
1. To introduce the reader to the behavioral orientation of the book (Chapter 1), and to describe the major areas of
application of behavior modification techniques for improving the behaviors of individuals in diverse settings
(Chapter 2). Questions for Learning distributed throughout each chapter promote the reader’s mastery of the
material and ability to generalize to situations not described in the text. These questions can also be used for
examination purposes in formal courses.
2. To teach how to define, measure, and record behavior to be changed in a behavior modification program (Chapter 3)
and how to evaluate the effects of behavioral treatments using single-subject research designs (Chapter 4).
3. To teach the elementary principles and procedures of behavior modification (Chapters 5–21). We start with the basic
principles and procedures, illustrate them with numerous examples and applications, and increase the complexity
of the material gradually. Each of the chapters begins with a case history drawn from the fields of autism spectrum
disorder, child development, coaching, developmental disabilities, early education, sport psychology, or normal
everyday activities of children and adults. Numerous examples are also given of how each principle operates in
everyday life and how it can operate to the detriment of those ignorant of it.
4. To teach practical how-to skills, such as how to recognize instances of reinforcement, extinction, and punishment
and their likely long-term effects; interpret behavioral episodes in terms of behavioral principles and procedures;
and design, implement, and evaluate behavioral programs. To accomplish these goals, we provide (a) Guidelines
for Effective Applications, (b) Application Exercises Involving Others and teach the reader how to analyze,
interpret, and develop programs for others’ behavior, (c) Self-Modification Exercises, which encourage the
reader to analyze, interpret, and develop programs for his or her own behavior, and (d) many examples of
applications.
5. To present the material in such a way that it will serve as an easy-to-use handbook for practitioners concerned with
overcoming behavioral deficits and excesses in a wide variety of populations and settings.
6. To provide advanced discussion and references to acquaint readers with the empirical and theoretical
underpinnings of the field. This occurs throughout the book, especially in Chapters 1–27. Advanced discussion
is also presented in the Notes for Further Learning at the end of each chapter. These sections can be omitted
without disrupting the continuity of the text. Questions for Further Learning are provided as aids for students
who wish to broaden their understanding of behavior modification or for instructors who wish to use them for
examinations. Instructors can also use information given in the Notes for Further Learning as springboards for
lecture material.
Preface xvii
7. To provide information and references regarding behavior therapy (BT), including cognitive behavior therapy (CBT),
acceptance and commitment therapy (ACT), and dialectical behavior therapy (DBT). In this book, students will not
be taught how to do these therapies, as they require advanced training and qualifications.
8. To describe briefly the most effective behavioral treatments for 10 representative psychological disorders, including
specific phobias, posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), and depression
(Chapters 26 and 27).
9. To describe historical highlights of behavior modification (Chapter 28).
10. To describe ethical guidelines for the design, implementation, and evaluation of behavioral treatment programs
(Chapter 29). Although we placed the chapter on ethical issues at the end of the book, we believe that this topic is
as important as any other topic we cover. In fact, we stress ethical issues throughout the book. Thus, the last chapter
provides a reiteration and elaboration of this vital subject. We hope that after reading the concluding chapter,
the reader will fully understand that the only justification for behavior modification is its usefulness in serving
humanity in general and its recipients in particular.
Changes in the 11th Edition

We made many changes in this edition in accordance with recommendations from reviewers, students, and colleagues.
First, we moved our description of procedures for defining, assessing, and recording behaviors and evaluating the
effects of treatments to Chapters 3 and 4, thus emphasizing the foundational nature of these topics. Many instructors
prefer to present the above procedures early before students study the basic principles and procedures of behavior
modification. Moreover, now that the research and analytical methods of the behavioral approach have become widely
accepted, we also believe that these methods should be presented early in this text.
Second, we added more examples to better illustrate the application of behavior principles in (a) specialized cen-
ters, (b) various educational institutions, and (c) a wide variety of everyday situations.
Third, we shortened and simplified the three chapters in Part III (Capitalizing on Operant Antecedent Control
Procedures) to make these chapters concise and easy to follow.
Fourth, we added lead cases to Chapters 22–25, so now Chapters 3–25 all start with lead cases. These lead cases
highlight the book’s logical and systematic consistency, a widely respected hallmark of the book throughout all its
editions.
Fifth, we added an overview to each part of the book and a summary at the end of every chapter to help readers
see the forest as well as the trees in the broad field of behavior modification.
Sixth, we have extensively revised all chapters to cover recent developments in the expanding field of behav-
ior modification and to enhance the readability of the text. Some of the specific chapter revisions we made were
as follows: In Chapter 1 we provided an overview of the entire book, defined basic behavior modification terms,
and updated the connections of this introductory chapter to the other chapters. In Chapter 2 we added many new
references to highlight the various areas in which behavior is currently being applied. In Chapter 3 we combined
Chapters 20 and 21 from the 10th edition, added a lead case, provided a more extensive discussion of the minimal
phases of a behavior modification program, added a section on procedural reliability, and discussed the current and
potential use of mobile technology in recording behavior. In Chapter 4 (originally Chapter 22 in the 10th edition)
we added a lead case and moved part of the section on social validity to the Notes for Further Learning section. In
Chapter 5 we added a new lead case, simplified some material, and clarified the distinction between respondent and
operant conditioning. In Chapter 6 we added a new lead case, a discussion of the similarities and differences between
the Premack principle and the response deprivation model, and a discussion on the relationship between emotion
and motivating operations. In Chapter 7 we clarified one of the learning objectives and the unaware-misapplication
pitfall. In Chapter 8 we added a new lead case and a detailed discussion of resurgence. In Chapter 9 we clarified the
learning objectives and discussed babbling and linguistic development. In Chapter 10 we moved material on pro-
gressive ratios to a new Note for Further Learning and added material on the matching law. In Chapter 11 we added
a new lead case, clarified that the chapter focused on operant discrimination and generalization, revised the learning
objectives, clarified a common pitfall, and added new material and references on concept learning. In Chapters 12 to
16 we extensively edited and updated all material, especially in regards to the Premack principle and the response
deprivation model. In Chapter 17 we expanded our treatment of thinking, emotion, and motivating operations. In
Chapter 18 we expanded on the learning objectives, clarified the differences between programming the generality of
xviii Preface
operant behavior versus respondent behavior, elaborated on the use of high-probability instructions to increase com-
pliance with low-probability instructions, and removed references to behavioral momentum because this theory has
not been supported by the evidence (see Odum, A. L. [2018]. Editorial: Nevin’s momentum. Journal of the Experimen-
tal Analysis of Behavior, 109(1), 1–3). In Chapters 19 to 21 we expanded the learning objectives, shortened and sim-
plified some parts, and added new material on rule-governed vs. contingency-shaped behavior, motivating operations,
and modeling. In Chapter 22 we expanded the learning objectives, shortened and simplified some parts, and discussed
the hypothesis-testing approach to functional analysis. In Chapter 23 we added a new lead case, revised the learning
objectives, and divided the section (from the 10th edition) on “Program Design and Implementation” into three sec-
tions. In Chapters 24 we added a new lead case and a systematic discussion on doing research on token economies.
In Chapter 25 we added a new lead case and literature on behavior modification and dieting. We also discussed the
problem of short-circuiting contingences. In Chapter 26 we provided a discussion and table on the generic cognitive
model. However, in discussing this model, we retained our position that cognitive techniques can be fruitfully inter-
preted in strictly behavioral terms—such as by appropriate reference to rule-governed behavior, self-instructions, and
covert or private behavior. In Chapter 27 we intensified our discussion of empirically established effective psychologi-
cal treatments, still referencing the Clinical Psychology Division of the American Psychological Association (Division
12) website on research-supported psychological treatments. We also continued to stress that these treatments are best
viewed behaviorally—i.e., reducible to the basic behavioral principles discussed in the earlier chapters. We also made
changes to ensure that our classification of technical terms, while remaining consistent with behavioral terminology,
are in accord with the classification scheme in the DSM-5. In Chapter 28 we added developments since the previous
edition that we believe will be shown to be of historical importance, such the growing emphasis on cognitive therapy
and current interpretations of it in strictly behavioral terms. In Chapter 29 we expanded on our discussion of creden-
tialing by organizations such as the Behavior Analyst Certification Board®(BACB®) and the increasing emphasis on
ethical codes by various professional organizations concerned with behavioral interventions. We also added material
on supervision to ensure high ethical practices.
Finally, we added over 140 new references across all chapters to accurately reflect recent developments in the field
and to ensure that the book is completely up-to-date in all areas of behavior modification. This has also allowed us to
cover state-of-the-art topics that are seldom or never touched upon in other introductory or even advanced behavior
modification textbooks.
Instructor’s Resource Manual With Tests and Practica

One of our goals is to help students learn to think about behavior modification critically and creatively. Thus, in
the Instructor’s Resource Manual accompanying this text, we have included operational definitions of higher-order
thinking based on Bloom’s Taxonomy.1 We have applied these definitions to the study questions in the text, which
we refer to as Questions for Learning to more clearly indicate their purpose. Taking these thinking levels into
account, we have provided an answer key to all Questions for Learning, including those in the Notes for Further
Learning. The thinking levels indicate how students are expected to answer these questions on tests and exams
in order to achieve the highest levels of critical thinking about the material. A pool of multiple-choice and/or
true/false questions has also been provided on a chapter-by-chapter basis. Finally, 15 in-class practica or minilab
exercises that have been developed and field-tested are also included in the Instructor’s Resource Manual. Each
exercise is to be completed by a group of two or three students during a regularly scheduled class. After students
have been tested on relevant chapters, completion of a practicum helps them to apply behavior modification prin-
ciples. Student feedback indicates that the exercises constitute an excellent teaching tool.
Acknowledgments
Writing the 11 editions of this book was made possible through the help of many individuals. We gratefully acknowledge
the cooperation and support of Dr. Glen Lowther (former Superintendent) and the staff at the Manitoba Developmental
Centre and Dr. Carl Stephens (former CEO) and the staff at the St. Amant Centre. Much of the material in this book was
initially generated while the authors were involved with these institutions.2 Without the support of the staff members of
the above institutions, this book would likely not have been written. Grateful acknowledgment is also due to our many
Preface xix
students for their constructive feedback on the current and earlier editions. We also thank Jack Michael, Rob Hawkins,
Bill Leonhart, and Iver Iversen and his students for their many excellent suggestions for improvements of earlier edi-
tions. For this edition, special thanks are due to Lauren Kaminski for her cheerful and efficient word processing, to
Lorraine De-Wiele for her excellent suggestions for updating Part V, and to Frances Falzarano for her skillful critiquing,
which greatly improved the book’s readability.
We are grateful to the anonymous reviewers whose helpful comments greatly improved this edition.
We also express our appreciation to Jennifer Bonnar and the other members of the very capable editorial and
production team of the Taylor & Francis Group.
Finally, we thank the Knowledge Translation Branch of the Canadian Institutes of Health Research that facilitated
the preparation of this edition with a grant (KAL 114098) to Joseph Pear.
To the Student
This book is designed to help you learn to talk about and apply behavior modification effectively. You need no prior
knowledge about behavior modification to read and understand this text from beginning to end. From experience
using previous editions of this book in our teaching, we are confident that students at all levels—from beginners to
advanced—will find the text informative and useful. Another important use of this book is as study material for those
taking the Board Certified Behavior Analyst® (BCBA®) or the Board Certified Assistant Behavior Analyst® (BCaBA®)
exams. The chapters relevant to these exams are outlined in the table following this Preface.
Behavior modification is a broad and complex field with many ramifications. Realizing that some students require
a deeper knowledge of behavior modification than others, we have separated foundational content from advanced
material that demands more thought and study. The foundational content is presented in the main body of the text. The
advanced content is presented at the end of each chapter in sections called Notes for Further Learning (NFL). Because
the main text does not depend on the material in the NFL sections, you can still obtain a good working knowledge of the
principles and procedures of behavior modification without referring to them. We believe, however, that many students
will find the NFL sections very informative and that many instructors will find the material useful in stimulating class
discussion and imparting additional background information.
Another major way we attempt to help you learn the material is by providing Guidelines for Effective Applications
of all the behavior modification methods discussed in the text. These guidelines provide useful summaries of the mate-
rial as well as assisting you in the application of the methods described in the text.
Most chapters also present numerous Questions for Learning and Application Exercises, including Self-
Modification Exercises and Excercise Involving Others. The Questions for Learning are intended to help you check
your knowledge of the material when preparing for tests and exams. The Application Exercises are intended to help you
develop the practical skills you will need to complete behavior modification projects effectively.
To help make your study productive and enjoyable, the book progresses from simpler to more complex material.
But a word of caution: Do not be misled by the seeming simplicity of the earlier chapters. Students who conclude that they
are skilled behavior modifiers after they have learned a few simple behavior modification principles unfortunately end
up proving the old maxim that “a little knowledge is a dangerous thing.” If we personally had to pick the most import-
ant chapter in this book in terms of a review of the knowledge and skills that define a competent behavior modifier, it
would be Chapter 23—Planning, Applying, and Evaluating a Behavioral Program. We therefore strongly suggest that you
reserve judgment about your abilities as a behavior modifier until you have mastered Chapter 23 and all the preliminary
material on which it is based.
We also point out that—as emphasized in Chapter 29 (Ethical Issues)—organizations regulating behavior mod-
ification are highly influential. If you are considering applying behavior modification on any level beyond per-
sonal, we strongly recommend that you check with the Behavior Analyst Certification Board (www.bacb.com), the
Analysis of Behavior International Accreditation Board (www.accreditation.abainternational.org), or other certifi-
cation bodies such as state or provincial psychological associations to determine how you may obtain the necessary
qualifications.
With those words of caution, we wish you much success and enjoyment as you pursue your studies in this exciting
and rapidly expanding field.
Garry Martin and Joseph Pear
xx Preface
Using This Book to Study for the Behavior Analysis Certification Board®
Examinations
For individuals using this book to study for the Board Certified Behavior Analyst® (BCBA®) or the Board Certified
Assistant Behavior Analyst® (BCaBA®) exam, the following are the chapters in this book where the content for the cur-
rent task list may be found:
Topics from the Fifth Edition Task List* Relevant Chapters

Section 1: Foundations
A. Philosophical Underpinnings 1, 17, 26, 27, 28
B. Concepts and Principles 5–18
C. Measurement, Data Display, and Interpretation 3, 23
D. Experimental Design 4
Section II: Applications
E. Ethics (behave in accordance with the 29
Professional and Ethical Compliance Code for
Behavior Analysts)
F. Behavioral Assessment 22
G. Behavior-Change Procedures 2, 19, 20, 21, 25
H. Selecting and Implementing Interventions 23, 24
I. Personal Supervision and Management 22
*Adapted from the Fifth Edition of the Behavior Analysis Certification Board® Task List.
©2018 the Behavior Analyst Certification Board®, Inc. All rights reserved. Reprinted and/or displayed by
permission. The most current versions of these documents are available at www.BACB.com. Contact the BACB
for permission to reprint and/or display this material.
Notes
1. Bloom, B. S., Engelhart, M. D., Furst, E. J., Hill, W. H., & Krathwohl, D. R. (1956). Taxonomy of Educational
Objectives. New York: Longmans, Green & Company; Pear, J.J., Crone-Todd, D.E., Wirth, K., & Simister, H. (2001).
Assessment of thinking levels in students’ answers. Academic Exchange Quarterly, 5(4), 94–98.
2. See Walters, K., & Thomson, K. (2013). The history of behavior analysis in Manitoba: A sparsely populated
Canadian province with an international influence on behavior analysis. The Behavior Analyst, 36(1), 57–72.
PART I
The Behavior Modification Approach
Behavior modification focuses on both the public or overt and private or covert behavior of individuals. Since its incep-
tion as a field of scientific study, behavior modification—which includes the subfields known as applied behavior anal-
ysis and behavior therapy—has proven to be an effective means of modifying behavior in a wide variety of applied
settings. This has been accomplished by the development of powerful scientific methods for studying behavior. Behavior
modification stresses an individual case design that does not rely on formal statistical methodology that focuses on
group averages.
1 Introduction
Learning Objectives
After studying this chapter, you will be able to:
� Define behavior, behavior modification, and behavioral assessment.

� Describe how behavior modifiers view traditional psychological concepts such as intelligence and creativity.
� Summarize historical highlights of behavior modification.
� Discuss the relationship between behavior modification, applied behavior analysis, and behavior therapy.
� State some common misconceptions about behavior modification.
M
ANY OF SOCIETY’S best achievements—from democratic government to helping the less fortunate,
and from great works of art to important scientific discoveries—as well as some of its most pressing
health and social challenges—from unhealthy lifestyles to environmental pollution and from racism to
terrorism—are firmly rooted in behavior. But what is behavior? Before attempting an answer, consider the follow-
ing scenarios:
1. Withdrawn behavior. A class of nursery school youngsters is in the playground. While most of the children are
playing, one little boy sits quietly by himself, making no effort to join in the fun.
2. Ineffective studying. With two term papers due next week and a midterm exam at the same time, Sam is wondering
how he is ever going to make it through his first year at university. Yet he continues to spend several hours each day
on social media.
3. Performance nervousness. Karen, a 14-year-old gymnast, is waiting for her turn to perform on the balance beam at
a championship. Showing signs of extreme nervousness, she says to herself, “What if I don’t perform well? What if
I fall on my backflip? I can’t believe how my heart is pounding.”
4. Campground littering. Tom and Sally have just arrived at the place where they intend to set up camp and are looking
in disgust and amazement at the litter left by previous campers. “Don’t they care about the environment?” asks Sally.
“If people keep this up,” Tom says, “there won’t be any nature left for anyone to enjoy.”
5. Migraine headaches. While preparing dinner for her family, Betty was vaguely aware of a familiar feeling creeping
up on her. Then, all at once, she felt nauseous. She looked around fearfully, knowing from past experience what
to expect. “Tom, Joe,” she called to her sons watching TV in the living room, “you’ll have to finish fixing dinner
yourselves—I’m having another migraine.”
6. Staff management. Jack and Brenda were having coffee one morning at the restaurant they owned. “We’re going to
have to do something about the evening staff,” said Brenda. “When I came in this morning, the ice cream machine
wasn’t properly cleaned and the cups and lids weren’t restocked.” “That’s only the tip of the iceberg,” said Jack. “You
should see the grill!”
7. Irrational thinking. Mary, after getting a poor mark on her first exam in her first year at college, thinks, “I’ll never be
a good student. I must do well in all of my courses. My professor must think I’m an idiot.”
Close inspection shows that each of the above vignettes involves some sort of human behavior. They illustrate
a few of the many problems with which specialists in behavior modification are trained to deal. Each of these types
of behavior problems and many others are discussed in the following pages. Behavior modification, as you will see, is
applicable to the entire range of human behavior.
Chapter 1 Introduction 3
What Is Behavior?
(In this book, key terms are found in bold, followed by their definitions. We encourage you to master them as you
encounter them.)
Essentially, behavior is anything that a person says or does. Some commonly used synonyms include “activity,” “action,”
“performance,” “responding,” “response,” and “reaction.” Technically, behavior is any muscular, glandular, or electrical activ-
ity of an organism. Is the color of someone’s eyes behavior? Is blinking behavior? Are the clothes someone is wearing
behavior? Is dressing behavior? If you said no to the first and third questions and yes to the second and fourth, we are in
agreement. One of the goals of this book is to encourage you to begin thinking and talking very specifically about behavior.
How about getting an “A” in a behavior modification course, or losing 10 pounds; are those behaviors? No. Those
are products of behavior. The behavior that produces an “A” is studying effectively. The behaviors that lead to weight loss
are resisting overeating and exercising more.
Walking, talking out loud, throwing a baseball, yelling at someone—are all overt behaviors that could be observed
and recorded by an individual other than the one performing the behavior. As will be discussed in later chapters, the
term behavior can also refer to covert activities that cannot be observed by others. However, in the field of behavior
modification, covert behaviors do not typically refer to behaviors done in private, such as undressing in one’s bedroom
with the door locked and the blinds closed. Nor do they usually refer to secretive actions, such as cheating on an exam.
Rather, in behavior modification they more commonly refer to activities that occur “within one’s skin” and that there-
fore require special instruments or procedures for others to observe. For example, just before stepping onto the ice at an
important competition, a figure skater might think, “I hope I don’t fall,” and he or she is likely to feel nervous. Covert as
well as overt behaviors can be influenced by behavior modification techniques.
The opposite of private or covert behavior is public or overt behavior. Although, as stated above, behavior modifiers
sometimes deal with covert behavior, they tend to focus on overt behavior, because the latter is generally more important
to the individual and to society as a whole. Also, it is easier to measure overt behavior more accurately than covert behavior.
Sometimes we think in words. This is called private self-talk and is illustrated by the figure skater mentioned pre-
viously. And sometimes we think by imagining. If you were asked to close your eyes and imagine a clear, blue sky with
a few white fluffy clouds, you would likely be able to do so although there are large differences between individuals in
the vividness of their imagery (Cui, Jeter, Yang, Montague, & Eagleman, 2007). Imagining is usually thought of as being
visual, but it can also involve other senses. For example, we can imagine a scent, a taste, and a feeling of rubbing one’s
hand across a rough surface. Imagining and private self-talk, in addition to being called covert behaviors, are some-
times referred to as cognitive behaviors.
Characteristics of behavior that can be measured are called dimensions of behavior. Three dimensions of behavior
are duration, rate, and intensity. The duration of a behavior is the length of time that it lasts (e.g., Mary studied for one
hour). The rate of a behavior is the number of instances that occur in a given period of time (e.g., Frank planted five
tomato plants in his garden in 30 minutes). The intensity or force of a behavior refers to the physical effort or energy
involved in emitting the behavior (e.g., Mary has a strong grip when shaking hands).
Questions for Learning

Note to reader: You will encounter sets of questions in each chapter. Because the questions are designed to enhance
your learning, we encourage you to (a) pause in your reading of the chapter; (b) prepare answers to those questions; and
(c) learn those answers. Doing so will help you to master the content of this book.
1. What is behavior, generally and technically? Give three synonyms for behavior.
2. Distinguish between behavior and products of behavior. Give an example of a behavior and a product of that
behavior that are not in this chapter.
3. Distinguish between overt and covert behaviors. Give two examples of each that are not in this chapter.
4. What are cognitive behaviors? Give two examples.
5. Describe two dimensions of behavior. Give an example of each.
Summary Labels for Behavior

While we have all learned to talk about behavior in various ways, we often do so in general terms. Terms such as “hon-
est,” “carefree,” “hardworking,” “unreliable,” “independent,” “selfish,” “incompetent,” “kind,” “graceful,” “unsociable,” and
4 Part I The Behavior Modification Approach
“nervous” are summary labels for human actions, but they do not refer to specific behaviors. If, for example, you were to
describe a man as nervous, others might know generally what you mean. But they would not know if you were referring
to that person’s tendency to chew his fingernails, his constant fidgeting, the tendency for his left eye to twitch when
talking to someone, his tendency to jump when startled, or some other behavior.
For behavior modification specialists, many terms that are commonly used by psychologists, such as intelligence,
attitudes, and creativity, are also summary labels for behavior. Behavior modifiers find it advantageous to talk about
these concepts behaviorally; or, in other words, in what is called a behavioral language. What do we mean when we say
that a person is intelligent? To many people, intelligence is something that you are born with, a sort of “inherited brain
power” or innate capacity for learning. But we never observe or directly measure any such thing. On an intelligence test,
for example, we simply measure people’s behavior—their answers to questions—as they take the test. The word intelli-
gent is best used in its adjective form (e.g., “he is an intelligent speaker,” “his speech is intelligent”) or its adverb form (e.g.,
“she writes intelligently”) to describe how people behave under certain conditions, such as taking a test, but not as a noun
for some “thing.” Perhaps a person described as intelligent readily solves problems that others find difficult, performs
well on most course examinations, reads many books, talks knowledgeably about many topics, or gets a high score on
an intelligence test. Depending on who uses the word, intelligence can mean any or all of these—but whatever it means,
it refers to ways of behaving. Therefore, in this book we avoid using the word intelligence as a noun. (For an excellent
discussion of a behavioral approach to intelligence, see Williams, Myerson, & Hale, 2008.)
What about an attitude? Suppose that Johnny’s teacher, Ms. Smith, reports that he has a bad attitude toward school.
What does Ms. Smith mean by this? Perhaps she means that Johnny frequently skips school, refuses to do his classwork
when he does attend, or swears at the teacher. Whatever she means when she talks about Johnny’s “bad attitude,” it is
clearly his behavior with which she is really concerned.
Creativity also refers to the kinds of behavior that a person is likely to engage under certain circumstances. The
creative individual frequently emits behaviors that are novel or unusual and that, at the same time, have desirable effects.
(For an excellent discussion of a behavioral approach to creativity, see Marr, 2003.)
Summary labels commonly used to refer to psychological problems include autism spectrum disorder, attention-
deficit/hyperactive disorder, anxiety, depression, low self-esteem, road rage, interpersonal difficulties, and sexual dysfunc-
tion. There are positive reasons that summary terms or labels for behavior patterns are so frequently used in psychology
and in everyday life—not in a special institutional or therapeutic situation. First, they may be useful for quickly pro-
viding general information about how an individual might perform. We would expect that a 10-year-old child who has
been labeled as having a severe developmental disability, for example, would not be able to read even at the first-grade
level. Second, the labels may imply that a particular treatment program will be helpful. Someone with road rage might
be encouraged to take an anger-management course. Someone who is unassertive might benefit from an assertiveness
training course. However, the use of summary labels also has disadvantages. One is that they may lead to pseudo-
explanations of behavior (pseudo meaning false). For example, a child who inverts words while reading, such as “saw” for
“was,” might be labeled as having dyslexia. If we ask why the child inverts words, and we are given the answer “Because
he has dyslexia,” then the summary label for the behavior has been used as a pseudo-explanation for the behavior.
Another name for pseudo-explanation is circular reasoning.
A second disadvantage of labeling is that labels can negatively affect the way an individual might be treated, such
as by focusing on an individual’s problem behaviors rather than strengths. Suppose, for example, that a teenager consis-
tently fails to make his bed but reliably mows the lawn and places the garbage cans on the street on pickup days. If the
parents describe their son as “lazy,” that label may cause them to focus more on the problem behavior than to praise the
positive behaviors. In some societies, racial minorities have been given the negative label “lazy” even though they were
the ones doing most of the hard, physical work.
In this book, we strongly stress the importance of defining all types of problems in terms of behavioral deficits
(too little behavior of a particular type) or behavioral excesses (too much behavior of a particular type). We do so for
several reasons. First, we want to avoid the problems of using general summary labels discussed earlier. Second, regard-
less of the labels attached to an individual, it is behavior that causes concern—and behavior that must be treated to
alleviate the problem. Certain behaviors that parents see and hear, or fail to see and hear, cause them to seek professional
help for their children. Certain behaviors teachers see and hear prompt them to seek professional help for their students.
Certain behaviors that can be seen or heard cause governments to set up institutions, clinics, community treatment
centers, and special programs. And certain behaviors that you emit might cause you to embark on a self-improvement
program. Third, specific procedures are now available that can be used to improve behavior in schools, in workplaces, in
home settings—in fact, just about anywhere that there is a need to establish more desirable behaviors. These techniques
are referred to collectively as behavior modification.

6. From a behavioral point of view, what do terms like intelligence or creativity refer to? Give an example of each.
7. What are two positive reasons that summary terms for behavior patterns are used frequently in psychology and in
everyday life?
8. What are two disadvantages of using summary labels to refer to individuals or their actions? Give an example of each.
9. What is a behavioral deficit? Give two examples that are not in this chapter.
10. What is a behavioral excess? Give two examples that are not in this chapter.
11. What are the three reasons why the authors describe behavior problems in terms of specific behavioral deficits or
excesses?
What Is Behavior Modification?

Behavior modification involves the systematic application of learning principles and techniques to assess and improve
the overt and covert behaviors of individuals in order to enhance their daily functioning. Behavior modification has
seven main characteristics. First, the most important characteristic is its strong emphasis on defining problems in terms
of behavior that can be measured in some way and using changes in the behavioral measure of the problem as the best
indicator of the extent to which the problem is being helped.
Second, its treatment procedures and techniques are ways of altering an individual’s current environment—i.e., the
individual’s immediate physical surroundings—to help that individual function more fully. The physical variables that
make up a person’s environment are called stimuli (plural of stimulus). More specifically, stimuli are the people, objects,
and events currently present in one’s immediate surroundings that impinge on one’s sense receptors and that can affect
behavior. For example, the teacher, other students, and the furniture in a classroom are all potential stimuli in a student’s
environment in a classroom setting. An individual’s own behavior can also be a part of the environment influencing
that individual’s subsequent behavior. When hitting a forehand shot in tennis, for example, both the sight of the ball
coming near and the behavior of completing your backswing provide stimuli for you to complete the forehand shot
and hit the ball over the net. Things that a therapist might say to a client are also a part of that client’s environment. But
behavior modification is much more than talk therapy or verbal psychotherapy. Although both behavior modifiers and
“talk” therapists talk to their clients, their approaches to therapy differ in several important ways. One difference is that a
behavior modifier is frequently actively involved in restructuring a client’s daily environment to strengthen appropriate
behavior, rather than spending a great deal of time discussing the client’s past experiences. While knowledge of a client’s
past experiences might provide useful information for designing a treatment program, knowledge of the current envi-
ronmental variables that control or, loosely speaking, “cause” a client’s behavior is necessary for designing an effective
behavioral treatment. Another difference between behavior modifiers and “talk” therapists is that a behavior modifier
frequently gives homework assignments to clients, in which the clients change their own everyday environments for
therapeutic purposes. Such homework assignments are discussed in Part V (Chapters 26 and 27).
A third characteristic of behavior modification is that its methods and rationales can be described precisely. This
makes it possible for behavior modifiers to read descriptions of procedures used by their colleagues, replicate them, and
get essentially the same results. It also makes it easier to teach behavior modification procedures than is the case with
many other forms of psychological treatment.
As a consequence of the third characteristic, a fourth characteristic of behavior modification is that the techniques
of behavior modification are often applied by individuals in everyday life. Although, as you will read in this book, appro-
priately trained professionals and paraprofessionals use behavior modification in helping others, the precise description
of behavior modification techniques makes it possible for individuals such as parents, teachers, coaches, and others to
apply behavior modification to help individuals in everyday situations.
A fifth characteristic of behavior modification is that, to a large extent, the techniques stem from basic and applied
research in the science of learning (e.g., see Pear, 2016a, 2016b). Therefore, in Part II we cover the principles of learning
in considerable detail and show how they are applicable to various types of behavior problems.
Two final characteristics are that behavior modification emphasizes scientific demonstration that a particular inter-
vention or treatment was responsible for a particular behavior change, and it places high value on accountability for every-
one involved in behavior modification programs: client, staff, administrators, consultants, and so on.1
Thus far, we have talked about the general approach that behavior modifiers take toward behavior. But how do
behavior modifiers determine which behaviors to modify? The answer to this question is that behavior modifiers make
use of procedures collectively called “behavioral assessment.”
What Is Behavioral Assessment?

The most important characteristic of behavior modification, as mentioned earlier, is its use of measures of behavior
to judge whether an individual’s behavior had been improved by a behavior modification program. Behaviors to be
improved in a behavior modification program are called target behaviors. For example, if a university student sets a
goal of studying 2 hours out of class for each hour spent in class, studying is the target behavior.
Behavioral assessment involves the collection and analysis of information and data in order to (a) identify and
describe target behaviors; (b) identify possible causes of the behavior; (c) guide the selection of an appropriate behav-
ioral treatment; and (d) evaluate treatment outcome. One type of behavioral assessment involves isolating through
experimentation the causes of problem behavior and removing or reversing them. As interest in behavior modification
has expanded over the past five decades; the demand for clear guidelines for conducting behavioral assessments has
also increased. For more information on behavioral assessment, refer to Chapters 3*** and 22, which cover the topic in
detail, or the books by Cipani (2017), Fisher, Piazza, and Roane (2011), and Ramsay, Reynolds, and Kamphaus (2002).

12. Define behavior modification.
13. What are stimuli? Describe two examples that are not in this chapter.
14. List seven defining characteristics of behavior modification.
15. What is meant by the term target behavior? Give an example of a target behavior of yours that you would like to
improve. Is your target behavior one that you want to increase (i.e., a behavioral deficit) or one that you want to
decrease (i.e., a behavioral excess)?
16. Define behavioral assessment.
Some Historical Highlights of Behavior Modification

In addition to the term behavior modification, other terms that have been used to describe the application of learning
principles to help individuals improve their behavior include behavior therapy, applied behavior analysis, and cognitive
behavior therapy. Although these terms overlap in many ways, there are also some rather subtle distinctions between
them. In this section, we will briefly describe some of the early history of these terms and the distinctions that have come
to characterize them. (A more detailed history is presented in Chapter 28.)
Pavlovian Conditioning and Early “Behavior Therapy”

If you have taken an introductory psychology course, you may recall that in the early 1900s a Russian physiologist, Ivan
P. Pavlov, demonstrated with a dog that pairing a stimulus such as a bell with food (which caused salivation) taught
the dog to salivate to the bell alone. Pavlov’s research initiated the study of a type of learning now known as classical,
Pavlovian, or respondent conditioning (which is described in Chapter 5). In a landmark experiment in 1920, John
B. Watson and Rosalie Rayner demonstrated Pavlovian conditioning of a fear response in an 11-month-old infant.
Although attempts to replicate the Watson and Rayner experiment were unsuccessful, a subsequent landmark exper-
iment by Mary Cover Jones (1924) clearly demonstrated the “de-conditioning” of a fear in an infant. Over the next
30 years, a number of experiments demonstrated that our fears and other emotions could be influenced by Pavlovian
conditioning. Then, in the 1950s in South Africa, a psychiatrist named Joseph Wolpe, drawing heavily on Pavlovian
conditioning and the work of Mary Cover Jones, developed a behavioral treatment for specific phobias, which are
intense irrational fears, such as a fear of heights or closed spaces. In 1960, British psychologist Hans Eysenck was the first
to refer to Wolpe’s approach as behavior therapy. In the early 1960s, Wolpe moved to the United States and his behavior
therapy approach for treating anxiety disorders gained in popularity. Applications of behavior therapy to treat a variety
of psychological disorders are described in Chapter 27.
Operant Conditioning and Early “Behavior Modification”

Pavlovian conditioning involves reflexes—automatic responses to prior stimuli. In 1938, B. F. Skinner distinguished
between Pavlovian conditioning and operant conditioning—a type of learning in which behavior is modified by its
consequences (“rewards” and “punishers”). In 1953, in his book Science and Human Behavior, Skinner offered his
interpretation of how basic learning principles could influence the behavior of people in all kinds of situations. In
the 1950s and 1960s, behavioral practitioners, influenced by Skinner, published a number of papers that demon-
strated applications of operant conditioning principles to help people in a variety of ways. These applications were
given the name behavior modification. Examples of these applications include helping an individual to overcome
stuttering, eliminating excessive regurgitation by a child with intellectual disabilities, and teaching a child with
autism spectrum disorder to wear his prescription glasses. In 1965, Ullmann and Krasner published an influential
collection of such readings in a book titled Case Studies in Behavior Modification, the first book with “behavior
modification” in its title.
Applied Behavior Analysis

The year 1968 saw the publication of the first issue of the Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis (JABA), a sister pub-
lication of the Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior (JEAB), which deals with basic behavior analysis. In
an important editorial article in the first issue of JABA, Donald Baer, Montrose Wolf, and Todd Risley identified the
dimensions of applied behavior analysis as including (a) a focus on measurable behavior that is socially significant (e.g.,
littering, parenting skills); (b) a strong emphasis on operant conditioning to develop treatment strategies; (c) an attempt
to clearly demonstrate that the applied treatment was responsible for the improvement in the behavior that was mea-
sured; and (d) a demonstration of generalizable and long-lasting improvements in behavior. Over the years, the term
applied behavior analysis has become increasingly popular (Bailey & Burch, 2006). In fact, some authors maintain that
behavior modification and applied behavior analysis are now “two terms used to identify virtually identical fields” (e.g.,
Miltenberger, 2016). We, however, present a different point of view in this book.
Cognitive Behavior Therapy

Do you ever find yourself thinking, “Why do I always screw things up?” or “Why does the worst always happen to
me?” The well-known cognitive therapist Albert Ellis considered such statements to be irrational—after all, you don’t
always screw things up and you do some things well. Ellis believed that such irrational thoughts could cause a variety
of troublesome emotions. His approach to therapy was to help people identify their irrational beliefs and to replace
them with more rational self-statements (Ellis, 1962). Independently of Ellis, Aaron Beck assumed that dysfunctional
thinking could cause depression and other problems, and he developed a therapeutic procedure that was similar to
that of Ellis. Beck (1970) referred to strategies for recognizing maladaptive thinking and replacing it with adaptive
thinking as cognitive therapy, and he contrasted cognitive therapy with behavior therapy (Beck, 1970). In the 1970s
and 1980s, the term cognitive behavior modification was commonly used to refer to this approach (e.g., Meichenbaum,
1977, 1986). However, during the last three decades, the term cognitive behavior therapy has become the more com-
mon term. Cognitive behavior therapy is discussed in more detail in Chapters 26 and 27.
Current Use of “Behavior Modification,” “Behavior Modifier,” and Related Terms

Behavior analysis is the science on which behavior modification is based. The term behavior analysis refers to the
study of the scientific laws that govern the behavior of human beings and other animals. As mentioned above, the
terms applied behavior analysis and behavior modification are often used interchangeably. Many individuals who
specialize in these areas call themselves applied behavior analysts. The terms behavior therapy and cognitive behavior
therapy are often also used interchangeably. However, many individuals who practice behavior therapy or cognitive
behavior therapy would not consider themselves to be applied behavior analysts, nor would they likely be considered
as such by the majority of certified behavior analysts. An additional consideration is that the terms behavior modifier,
behavior manager, and performance manager are often used to refer to an individual who, without formal training in
behavior modification, deliberately tries to improve someone’s behavior. The “behavior modifier” in such instances
might be a teacher, parent, spouse, peer, roommate, supervisor, colleague, or even a person modifying his/her own
behavior.
With this brief review of terms in mind, there are three types of individuals that the term behavior modi-
fier refers to: applied behavior analysts, cognitive behavior therapists (sometimes just called behavior therapists), and
everyone else. The first two groups are professional behavior modifiers. They have had extensive training in their
fields, have passed rigorous examinations on both the content and ethics of their fields, have earned a post-graduate
degree (typically a master’s degree or doctorate) from reputable institutions, and belong to professional organizations
that certify or license them and require them to remain current with the advances in their respective fields. Although
frequently used as a beginning text for individuals training to be a member of the first two groups, reading this book
does not by itself qualify you to be a member of the first two groups. The professional activities of these two groups
constitute the “what-it-is” rather than the “how-to-do-it” aspect of this book. The “how-to-do-it” aspect of this book
is directed toward the third group—i.e., everyone else. It teaches you how to use principles of behavior in your day-
to-day life but does not by itself teach you how to be a professional behavior modifier. When we use the term behavior
modifier in this book, we will generally be referring to an applied behavior analyst or cognitive behavior therapist
unless otherwise indicated. It is also important to note that a person being treated by a behavior modifier is referred
to as a client.
Behavior modification is the systematic application of learning principles and techniques to assess and improve
individuals’ covert and overt behaviors in order to enhance their daily functioning. Thus, in our view, the term behavior
modification is broader than and encompasses the other terms referred to above (for further discussion along these
lines, see Pear & Martin, 2012; Pear & Simister, 2016).

17. Briefly describe Joseph Wolpe’s contribution to the early history of behavior therapy.
18. Briefly describe B. F. Skinner’s early influence on behavior modification.
19. State the four dimensions of applied behavior analysis.
20. In 1970, what was Aaron Beck referring to with respect to the term “cognitive therapy”? In the 1970s and 1980s,
what term was commonly used to refer to “cognitive therapy”?
21. List and briefly describe three types of behavior modifiers.
Some Misconceptions About Behavior Modification

You have likely encountered the term behavior modification before reading this book. Unfortunately, because there are a
number of myths or misconceptions about this area, some of what you have heard is likely false. Consider the following
statements.
Myth 1: Use of rewards by behavior modifiers to change behavior is bribery.

Myth 2: Behavior modification involves the use of drugs and electroconvulsive therapy.
Myth 3: Behavior modification treats symptoms; it doesn’t get at the underlying problems.
Myth 4: Behavior modification can deal with simple problems, such as teaching toileting or overcoming fear of
heights, but it is not applicable for complex problems such as low self-esteem or depression.
Myth 5: Behavior modifiers are cold and unfeeling and don’t have empathy for their clients.
Myth 6: Behavior modifiers deal only with observable behavior; they don’t deal with thoughts and feelings of
clients.
Myth 7: Behavior modifiers deny the importance of genetics or heredity in determining behavior.
Myth 8: Behavior modification is outdated.
In various sections throughout this book, you will encounter evidence to dispel these myths or misconceptions.
The Approach of This Book

The main purpose of this book is to describe behavior modification techniques in an enjoyable, readable, and practical
manner. Because it has been written for people in helping professions as well as for students, we intend to help readers
learn not merely about behavior modification principles but also about how to use the techniques to change behavior.
Behavior that someone would like to improve can be classified as either a behavioral deficit or a behavioral excess and
can be overt or covert. Below are examples of each type.
Examples of behavioral deficits

1. A child does not pronounce words clearly and does not interact with other children.
2. A teenager does not complete homework assignments, help around the house, work in the yard, or discuss problems
and difficulties with her parents.
3. An adult does not pay attention to traffic regulations while driving, does not thank others for courtesies and favors,
or does not meet his/her partner at agreed-upon times.
4. A basketball player, encouraged by the coach to visualize the ball going into the net just before a foul shot, is unable
to do so.
Examples of behavioral excesses

1. A child frequently gets out of bed and throws tantrums at bedtime, throws food on the floor at mealtime, and hides
her mother’s tablet.
2. A teenager frequently interrupts conversations between his parents and other adults, uses abusive language, and
spends hours on social media or text messaging on his/her cell phone.
3. An adult watches TV continuously, frequently eats junk food between meals, smokes one cigarette after another,
and bites his/her fingernails.
4. A golfer often thinks negatively (e.g., “If I miss this one, I’ll lose!”) and experiences considerable anxiety (e.g., heart
pounding, palms sweating) just before important shots.
To identify a behavior as excessive or deficient, we must consider the context in which it occurs. For example,
a child drawing on paper is showing appropriate behavior, but most parents would consider the child repeatedly
drawing on the living room wall as a behavioral excess. A teenager might interact appropriately with members of
the same sex but be extremely embarrassed and have difficulty talking to members of the opposite sex—a behav-
ioral deficit. Some behavioral excesses—for example, self-injurious behavior—are inappropriate no matter what
the context. In most cases, however, the point at which a particular behavior is considered deficient or excessive is
determined primarily by the practices of one’s culture and the ethical views of concerned individuals.
To summarize, the behavior modification approach focuses primarily on behavior and involves current environ-
mental (as opposed to medical, pharmacological, or surgical) manipulations to change behavior. Individuals who are
labeled as having a developmental disability, autism spectrum disorder, schizophrenia, depression, or an anxiety dis-
order, for example, are individuals who show behavioral deficits or excesses. Similarly, individuals who are labeled lazy,
unmotivated, selfish, incompetent, or uncoordinated are also individuals who show behavioral deficits or excesses.
Behavior modification consists of a set of procedures that can be used to change behavior so that these individuals will
be considered less of whatever label has been given them. Traditional psychologists not trained in behavior modifica-
tion have tended to label and classify individuals. Regardless of the label given, however, the behavior of the individu-
als is still there and is still influenced by their environments. The mother in Figure 1.1, for example, is still concerned
about what to do with her child and how to handle the problem. That is where behavior modification comes in.
Some Ethical Issues

As behavior modification has evolved, a number of ethical or moral concerns have become prominent. These are con-
cerns that one should always bear in mind when applying behavior modification. Various groups and/or organiza-
tions, such as the Association for Behavioral and Cognitive Therapies, the American Psychological Association, and the
Association for Behavior Analysis International, have addressed the ethical issues involved in the application of behav-
ior modification (also see Bailey & Burch, 2016). In this section, we highlight ethical guidelines that you should keep in
mind when reading subsequent chapters. In the final chapter of this book, we present a more detailed discussion of the
relationship between cultural practices, ethics, and behavior modification.
Qualifications of the Applied Behavior Analyst or Behavior Therapist

As stated earlier, applied behavior analysts and behavior therapists should receive appropriate academic training, includ-
ing supervised practical training, to ensure competence in assessing behaviors, designing and implementing treatment
programs, and evaluating their results.
FIGURE 1.1 The experts “helping” mother with her child?
Definition of the Problem and Selection of Goals

Target behaviors selected for modification must be those that are most important for the individual and society. Ideally,
the client would be an active participant in the identification of target behaviors. Where this is not possible, competent
impartial third parties should be identified to act on behalf of the client.
Selection of Treatment
Applied behavior analysts and behavior therapists should use the most effective, empirically validated intervention
methods with the least discomfort and fewest negative side effects.
Record Keeping and Ongoing Evaluation

Applied behavior analysts and behavior therapists should perform a thorough behavioral assessment before apply-
ing the intervention. The intervention should include ongoing monitoring of target behaviors, as well as possible side
effects, and an appropriate follow-up evaluation after the treatment is concluded. It is the monitoring of data by con-
cerned parties and clients that is the cornerstone for ensuring ethical and effective treatment programs by applied
behavior analysts and behavior therapists.

22. List four myths or misconceptions about behavior modification.
23. List four subtopics that address ethical issues in behavior modification programs.
24. State two guidelines to ensure that target behaviors for behavior modification are the most important for the client
and society.
25. What is key to ensuring ethical and effective treatment programs by applied behavior analysts and behavior
therapists?
Summary of Chapter 1
Overt behavior is anything that a person says or does. Covert behavior is what a person thinks or feels. In this book, we
define covert and overt behavior problems in terms of behavioral excesses (too much of a particular behavior) or behav-
ioral deficits (too little of a particular behavior). Behavior modification involves the systematic application of learning
principles and techniques to assess and improve an individual’s covert and overt behaviors in order to enhance their
daily functioning. Behaviors to be improved in a behavior modification program are called target behaviors. Behavioral
assessment involves the collection and analysis of information and data in order to (a) identify and describe target
behaviors; (b) identify possible causes of the behavior; (c) guide the selection of an appropriate treatment; and (d) eval-
uate treatment outcome.
Behavior Modification Is Based on Principles of Learning

Two important categories of learning are respondent conditioning, described by Ivan Pavlov in the early 1900s, and
operant conditioning, popularized by B. F. Skinner in his book Science and Human Behavior (1953). In the first issue of
the Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis in 1968, Baer, Wolf, and Risley identified the dimensions of applied behavior
analysis, which is based largely on operant conditioning. Also in the 1960s and 1970s, Albert Ellis and Aaron Beck inde-
pendently focused on changing faulty thinking to help individuals overcome depression and other psychological prob-
lems. Their approach was originally called cognitive behavior modification and is now called cognitive behavior therapy.
The term applied behavior analyst refers to someone who has considerable formal training in applied behavior analysis.
The term behavior therapist refers to someone who has had considerable formal training in the application of behav-
ior therapy or cognitive behavior therapy for treating psychological disorders. The term behavior modifier refers to an
applied behavior analyst, a behavior therapist, or someone with no formal training in behavior modification principles
but who wishes to use behavior modification techniques to change their own or others’ behavior. Thus, the term behav-
ior modification is broader than and encompasses the other two behavioral terms mentioned above (Pear & Martin,
2012). Moreover, it is extremely important to distinguish between professional behavior modifiers and individuals who
use behavior modification in their everyday lives. Everyone uses the principles of behavior by virtue of living in a soci-
ety, but only highly trained professionals are qualified to use behavior modification to treat complex behavior problems.
In this chapter, we described eight misconceptions about behavior modification, and we described some exam-
ples of behavioral deficits and behavioral excesses treated by behavior modification. We also described several ethical
guidelines for applying behavior modification. For applied behavior analysts and behavior therapists, an important
ethical guideline is that interventions should include ongoing monitoring of target behaviors before, during, and after
the intervention. It is the monitoring of data of concerned parties and clients that is the cornerstone for ensuring ethical
and effective treatment programs by applied behavior analysts and behavior therapists.
Application Exercises
Note to reader: In most of the chapters of this book, we provide you with exercises to apply the concepts you learned
in the chapters. Generally, we present two types of Application Exercises: (a) Exercises Involving Others, and (b) Self-
Modification Exercises, in which you apply the behavior modification concepts you have learned to your own behavior.
A. Exercise Involving Others

Consider someone other than yourself. From your point of view, identify:
1. two behavioral deficits for that person to overcome.
2. two behavioral excesses to decrease.
For each example, indicate whether you have described:

a. a specific behavior or a general summary label.
b. an observable behavior or a covert behavior.
c. a behavior or the product of a behavior.
B. Self-Modification Exercise
Apply the above exercise to yourself.
Notes for Further Learning
1. Behavioral assessment emerged as an alternative to traditional psychodiagnostic assessment in the 1960s.

Psychoanalytic approaches to abnormal behavior originated with Sigmund Freud and others who viewed
abnormal behavior as a symptom of an underlying mental disturbance in a personality mechanism. A major
purpose of traditional diagnostic assessment was to identify the type of mental disorder assumed to underlie
abnormal behavior. To help therapists diagnose clients with different types of presumed mental illness, in 1952 the
American Psychiatric Association developed the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-I,
1952). The manual has been revised several times, with the most recent, DSM-5, being published in 2013. Because
they did not agree with Freud’s model of abnormal behavior, and because there was little evidence that diagnoses
based on that model were reliable or valid, applied behavior analysts and behavior therapists made little use of
the first three DSMs (Hersen, 1976). However, the DSMs beginning in 1987 were improved considerably over
their predecessors in several respects. First, they are based primarily on research rather than on theory. Second,
individual disorders—e.g., obsessive-compulsive disorder, generalized anxiety disorder, major depression—are
based on categories of problem behaviors. Third, they use a multidimensional recording system that provides extra
information for planning treatment, managing a case, and predicting outcomes. With these improvements, applied
behavior analysts and behavior therapists have used DSMs to classify their clients. They also do so in part because
official diagnoses are usually required by clinics, hospitals, schools, and social service agencies before treatment
can be provided, and because health insurance companies reimburse practitioners based on a DSM diagnosis.
However, it is important to remember that because a DSM-5 diagnosis such as autistic spectrum disorder refers
to an individual’s behaviors, it is likely to result in the individual being labeled autistic, which may lead to the
disadvantages of labeling mentioned in this chapter. Moreover, in spite of the implication that all individuals with
the same label (e.g., autistic) are the same, they are not. To avoid problems associated with labeling, we should use
what has come to be referred to as “people first language.” For example, rather than saying that Jerry is autistic, we
should say that Jerry has autism spectrum disorder. (As expressed by Malott, 2008, an even better approach would
be to say that Jerry has autistic behaviors.) Also, in addition to obtaining a DSM-5 diagnosis for an individual,
a behavior modifier should always conduct detailed behavioral assessments in order to obtain the necessary
information for designing the most effective, individualized treatment program. (An important point to be noted
here is that the DSM-5 broadened the term for “autism” to “autism spectrum disorder.” This term now encompasses
not only what was formerly called “autism,” but also a number of related conditions such as “Asperger syndrome,”
“pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified,” and “childhood disintegrative disorder.”)
2. If you are interested in learning more about applied behavior analysis, visit the website of the Association for
Behavior Analysis International (www.abainternational.org), an organization whose mission is “to contribute to the
well-being of society by developing, enhancing, and supporting the growth and vitality of the science of behavior
analysis through research, education, and practice” (ABAI Newsletter, 2008, No. 3, p. 1). You might also visit the
Behavior Analysis Online (BAO) website. BAO is a special interest group of ABAI that is dedicated to educating
the public about behavior analysis and is a resource for professionals involved in applied behavior analysis. The
BAO website provides access to currently eight online journals, with more journals planned, providing research
and applications in various sub-areas of applied behavior analysis.
Questions for Further Learning
1. What is the full title of the DSM-5? In a sentence, what is it?

2. Give five reasons why many behavior modifiers use the DSM-5.
3. What is a potential disadvantage of using the DSM-5?
4. What is meant by “people first language”? Illustrate with an example.
Note
1. The authors thank Rob Hawkins for these last two points.
2 Areas of Application
An Overview
Learning Objectives
After studying this chapter, you will be able to describe applications of behavior modification to:
� parenting and child management. � gerontology.

� self-management. � business, industry, and government.
� education. � schizophrenia.
� medicine and health care. � behavioral sport psychology.
� intellectual disabilities. � psychological problems.
� autism spectrum disorders. � diverse populations.
T
HE VALUE OF behavior modification techniques for improving a wide variety of behaviors has been amply
demonstrated in thousands of research reports. Successful applications have been documented with populations
ranging from persons with profound learning disabilities to the highly intelligent, from the very young to the
very old, and from controlled institutional programs to varied community settings. Modified behaviors range from
simple motor skills to complex problem solving. In areas such as education, social work, nursing, clinical psychology,
psychiatry, community psychology, medicine, rehabilitation, business, industry, and sports, applications are occurring
with ever-increasing frequency. This chapter briefly describes 12 major areas of application in which behavior modifi-
cation has a solid foundation and a promising future for further development.
Parenting and Child Management

Being a parent is a challenging job. In addition to meeting basic needs, parents are totally responsible for their children’s
initial behavioral development. That responsibility is shared with teachers and others as the child develops through
early childhood and adolescence and into adulthood. There are numerous books and articles on behavior modification
to teach parents ways to improve their child-rearing practices. Behavioral techniques have been applied to help par-
ents teach their children to walk, develop initial language skills, use the toilet, and perform household chores (Dishon,
Stormshak, & Kavanagh, 2012). Parents have also been taught behavioral strategies for solving their children’s sleep
problems (Wirth, 2014) and decreasing problem behaviors, such as nail biting, temper tantrums, aggressive behaviors,
disregarding rules, noncompliance with parents’ requests, and frequent arguing (Wilder & King-Peery, 2012). Some
child and adolescent behavior problems are so complex that, in addition to helping parents work with their children,
applied behavior analysts and behavior therapists treat the problems directly (Christner, Stewart, & Freeman, 2007;
Gimpel & Holland, 2003; Neef, Perrin, & Madden, 2013; Wahler, 2007). Moreover, a behavioral program referred to as
“Triple P” (“Positive Parenting Program”) has been demonstrated to be an effective multi-level—i.e., at both the child
and parental levels—parenting program to prevent and treat severe behavioral, emotional, and developmental problems
in children (Graaf, Speetjens, Smit, Wolff, & Tavecchio, 2008). Triple P has been expanded under the name of Family
Transition Triple P (FTTP) to deal with or prevent the emotional upheavals resulting from family transitions such as
divorce (Stallman & Sanders, 2014). Behavioral strategies have also been developed for helping communities prevent
youth violence (Mattaini & McGuire, 2006).
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DANCE ON STILTS AT THE GIRLS’ UNYAGO, NIUCHI
Newala, too, suffers from the distance of its water-supply—at least

the Newala of to-day does; there was once another Newala in a lovely
valley at the foot of the plateau. I visited it and found scarcely a trace
of houses, only a Christian cemetery, with the graves of several
missionaries and their converts, remaining as a monument of its
former glories. But the surroundings are wonderfully beautiful. A
thick grove of splendid mango-trees closes in the weather-worn
crosses and headstones; behind them, combining the useful and the
agreeable, is a whole plantation of lemon-trees covered with ripe
fruit; not the small African kind, but a much larger and also juicier
imported variety, which drops into the hands of the passing traveller,
without calling for any exertion on his part. Old Newala is now under
the jurisdiction of the native pastor, Daudi, at Chingulungulu, who,
as I am on very friendly terms with him, allows me, as a matter of
course, the use of this lemon-grove during my stay at Newala.
FEET MUTILATED BY THE RAVAGES OF THE “JIGGER”
(Sarcopsylla penetrans)
The water-supply of New Newala is in the bottom of the valley,

some 1,600 feet lower down. The way is not only long and fatiguing,
but the water, when we get it, is thoroughly bad. We are suffering not
only from this, but from the fact that the arrangements at Newala are
nothing short of luxurious. We have a separate kitchen—a hut built
against the boma palisade on the right of the baraza, the interior of
which is not visible from our usual position. Our two cooks were not
long in finding this out, and they consequently do—or rather neglect
to do—what they please. In any case they do not seem to be very
particular about the boiling of our drinking-water—at least I can
attribute to no other cause certain attacks of a dysenteric nature,
from which both Knudsen and I have suffered for some time. If a
man like Omari has to be left unwatched for a moment, he is capable
of anything. Besides this complaint, we are inconvenienced by the
state of our nails, which have become as hard as glass, and crack on
the slightest provocation, and I have the additional infliction of
pimples all over me. As if all this were not enough, we have also, for
the last week been waging war against the jigger, who has found his
Eldorado in the hot sand of the Makonde plateau. Our men are seen
all day long—whenever their chronic colds and the dysentery likewise
raging among them permit—occupied in removing this scourge of
Africa from their feet and trying to prevent the disastrous
consequences of its presence. It is quite common to see natives of
this place with one or two toes missing; many have lost all their toes,
or even the whole front part of the foot, so that a well-formed leg
ends in a shapeless stump. These ravages are caused by the female of
Sarcopsylla penetrans, which bores its way under the skin and there
develops an egg-sac the size of a pea. In all books on the subject, it is
stated that one’s attention is called to the presence of this parasite by
an intolerable itching. This agrees very well with my experience, so
far as the softer parts of the sole, the spaces between and under the
toes, and the side of the foot are concerned, but if the creature
penetrates through the harder parts of the heel or ball of the foot, it
may escape even the most careful search till it has reached maturity.
Then there is no time to be lost, if the horrible ulceration, of which
we see cases by the dozen every day, is to be prevented. It is much
easier, by the way, to discover the insect on the white skin of a
European than on that of a native, on which the dark speck scarcely
shows. The four or five jiggers which, in spite of the fact that I
constantly wore high laced boots, chose my feet to settle in, were
taken out for me by the all-accomplished Knudsen, after which I
thought it advisable to wash out the cavities with corrosive
sublimate. The natives have a different sort of disinfectant—they fill
the hole with scraped roots. In a tiny Makua village on the slope of
the plateau south of Newala, we saw an old woman who had filled all
the spaces under her toe-nails with powdered roots by way of
prophylactic treatment. What will be the result, if any, who can say?
The rest of the many trifling ills which trouble our existence are
really more comic than serious. In the absence of anything else to
smoke, Knudsen and I at last opened a box of cigars procured from
the Indian store-keeper at Lindi, and tried them, with the most
distressing results. Whether they contain opium or some other
narcotic, neither of us can say, but after the tenth puff we were both
“off,” three-quarters stupefied and unspeakably wretched. Slowly we
recovered—and what happened next? Half-an-hour later we were
once more smoking these poisonous concoctions—so insatiable is the
craving for tobacco in the tropics.
Even my present attacks of fever scarcely deserve to be taken
seriously. I have had no less than three here at Newala, all of which
have run their course in an incredibly short time. In the early
afternoon, I am busy with my old natives, asking questions and
making notes. The strong midday coffee has stimulated my spirits to
an extraordinary degree, the brain is active and vigorous, and work
progresses rapidly, while a pleasant warmth pervades the whole
body. Suddenly this gives place to a violent chill, forcing me to put on
my overcoat, though it is only half-past three and the afternoon sun
is at its hottest. Now the brain no longer works with such acuteness
and logical precision; more especially does it fail me in trying to
establish the syntax of the difficult Makua language on which I have
ventured, as if I had not enough to do without it. Under the
circumstances it seems advisable to take my temperature, and I do
so, to save trouble, without leaving my seat, and while going on with
my work. On examination, I find it to be 101·48°. My tutors are
abruptly dismissed and my bed set up in the baraza; a few minutes
later I am in it and treating myself internally with hot water and
lemon-juice.
Three hours later, the thermometer marks nearly 104°, and I make
them carry me back into the tent, bed and all, as I am now perspiring
heavily, and exposure to the cold wind just beginning to blow might
mean a fatal chill. I lie still for a little while, and then find, to my
great relief, that the temperature is not rising, but rather falling. This
is about 7.30 p.m. At 8 p.m. I find, to my unbounded astonishment,
that it has fallen below 98·6°, and I feel perfectly well. I read for an
hour or two, and could very well enjoy a smoke, if I had the
wherewithal—Indian cigars being out of the question.
Having no medical training, I am at a loss to account for this state
of things. It is impossible that these transitory attacks of high fever
should be malarial; it seems more probable that they are due to a
kind of sunstroke. On consulting my note-book, I become more and
more inclined to think this is the case, for these attacks regularly
follow extreme fatigue and long exposure to strong sunshine. They at
least have the advantage of being only short interruptions to my
work, as on the following morning I am always quite fresh and fit.
My treasure of a cook is suffering from an enormous hydrocele which
makes it difficult for him to get up, and Moritz is obliged to keep in
the dark on account of his inflamed eyes. Knudsen’s cook, a raw boy
from somewhere in the bush, knows still less of cooking than Omari;
consequently Nils Knudsen himself has been promoted to the vacant
post. Finding that we had come to the end of our supplies, he began
by sending to Chingulungulu for the four sucking-pigs which we had
bought from Matola and temporarily left in his charge; and when
they came up, neatly packed in a large crate, he callously slaughtered
the biggest of them. The first joint we were thoughtless enough to
entrust for roasting to Knudsen’s mshenzi cook, and it was
consequently uneatable; but we made the rest of the animal into a
jelly which we ate with great relish after weeks of underfeeding,
consuming incredible helpings of it at both midday and evening
meals. The only drawback is a certain want of variety in the tinned
vegetables. Dr. Jäger, to whom the Geographical Commission
entrusted the provisioning of the expeditions—mine as well as his
own—because he had more time on his hands than the rest of us,
seems to have laid in a huge stock of Teltow turnips,[46] an article of
food which is all very well for occasional use, but which quickly palls
when set before one every day; and we seem to have no other tins
left. There is no help for it—we must put up with the turnips; but I
am certain that, once I am home again, I shall not touch them for ten
years to come.
Amid all these minor evils, which, after all, go to make up the
genuine flavour of Africa, there is at least one cheering touch:
Knudsen has, with the dexterity of a skilled mechanic, repaired my 9
× 12 cm. camera, at least so far that I can use it with a little care.
How, in the absence of finger-nails, he was able to accomplish such a
ticklish piece of work, having no tool but a clumsy screw-driver for
taking to pieces and putting together again the complicated
mechanism of the instantaneous shutter, is still a mystery to me; but
he did it successfully. The loss of his finger-nails shows him in a light
contrasting curiously enough with the intelligence evinced by the
above operation; though, after all, it is scarcely surprising after his
ten years’ residence in the bush. One day, at Lindi, he had occasion
to wash a dog, which must have been in need of very thorough
cleansing, for the bottle handed to our friend for the purpose had an
extremely strong smell. Having performed his task in the most
conscientious manner, he perceived with some surprise that the dog
did not appear much the better for it, and was further surprised by
finding his own nails ulcerating away in the course of the next few
days. “How was I to know that carbolic acid has to be diluted?” he
mutters indignantly, from time to time, with a troubled gaze at his
mutilated finger-tips.
Since we came to Newala we have been making excursions in all
directions through the surrounding country, in accordance with old
habit, and also because the akida Sefu did not get together the tribal
elders from whom I wanted information so speedily as he had
promised. There is, however, no harm done, as, even if seen only
from the outside, the country and people are interesting enough.
The Makonde plateau is like a large rectangular table rounded off
at the corners. Measured from the Indian Ocean to Newala, it is
about seventy-five miles long, and between the Rovuma and the
Lukuledi it averages fifty miles in breadth, so that its superficial area
is about two-thirds of that of the kingdom of Saxony. The surface,
however, is not level, but uniformly inclined from its south-western
edge to the ocean. From the upper edge, on which Newala lies, the
eye ranges for many miles east and north-east, without encountering
any obstacle, over the Makonde bush. It is a green sea, from which
here and there thick clouds of smoke rise, to show that it, too, is
inhabited by men who carry on their tillage like so many other
primitive peoples, by cutting down and burning the bush, and
manuring with the ashes. Even in the radiant light of a tropical day
such a fire is a grand sight.
Much less effective is the impression produced just now by the
great western plain as seen from the edge of the plateau. As often as
time permits, I stroll along this edge, sometimes in one direction,
sometimes in another, in the hope of finding the air clear enough to
let me enjoy the view; but I have always been disappointed.
Wherever one looks, clouds of smoke rise from the burning bush,
and the air is full of smoke and vapour. It is a pity, for under more
favourable circumstances the panorama of the whole country up to
the distant Majeje hills must be truly magnificent. It is of little use
taking photographs now, and an outline sketch gives a very poor idea
of the scenery. In one of these excursions I went out of my way to
make a personal attempt on the Makonde bush. The present edge of
the plateau is the result of a far-reaching process of destruction
through erosion and denudation. The Makonde strata are
everywhere cut into by ravines, which, though short, are hundreds of
yards in depth. In consequence of the loose stratification of these
beds, not only are the walls of these ravines nearly vertical, but their
upper end is closed by an equally steep escarpment, so that the
western edge of the Makonde plateau is hemmed in by a series of
deep, basin-like valleys. In order to get from one side of such a ravine
to the other, I cut my way through the bush with a dozen of my men.
It was a very open part, with more grass than scrub, but even so the
short stretch of less than two hundred yards was very hard work; at
the end of it the men’s calicoes were in rags and they themselves
bleeding from hundreds of scratches, while even our strong khaki
suits had not escaped scatheless.
NATIVE PATH THROUGH THE MAKONDE BUSH, NEAR

MAHUTA
I see increasing reason to believe that the view formed some time
back as to the origin of the Makonde bush is the correct one. I have
no doubt that it is not a natural product, but the result of human
occupation. Those parts of the high country where man—as a very
slight amount of practice enables the eye to perceive at once—has not
yet penetrated with axe and hoe, are still occupied by a splendid
timber forest quite able to sustain a comparison with our mixed
forests in Germany. But wherever man has once built his hut or tilled
his field, this horrible bush springs up. Every phase of this process
may be seen in the course of a couple of hours’ walk along the main
road. From the bush to right or left, one hears the sound of the axe—
not from one spot only, but from several directions at once. A few
steps further on, we can see what is taking place. The brush has been
cut down and piled up in heaps to the height of a yard or more,
between which the trunks of the large trees stand up like the last
pillars of a magnificent ruined building. These, too, present a
melancholy spectacle: the destructive Makonde have ringed them—
cut a broad strip of bark all round to ensure their dying off—and also
piled up pyramids of brush round them. Father and son, mother and
son-in-law, are chopping away perseveringly in the background—too
busy, almost, to look round at the white stranger, who usually excites
so much interest. If you pass by the same place a week later, the piles
of brushwood have disappeared and a thick layer of ashes has taken
the place of the green forest. The large trees stretch their
smouldering trunks and branches in dumb accusation to heaven—if
they have not already fallen and been more or less reduced to ashes,
perhaps only showing as a white stripe on the dark ground.
This work of destruction is carried out by the Makonde alike on the
virgin forest and on the bush which has sprung up on sites already
cultivated and deserted. In the second case they are saved the trouble
of burning the large trees, these being entirely absent in the
secondary bush.
After burning this piece of forest ground and loosening it with the
hoe, the native sows his corn and plants his vegetables. All over the
country, he goes in for bed-culture, which requires, and, in fact,
receives, the most careful attention. Weeds are nowhere tolerated in
the south of German East Africa. The crops may fail on the plains,
where droughts are frequent, but never on the plateau with its
abundant rains and heavy dews. Its fortunate inhabitants even have
the satisfaction of seeing the proud Wayao and Wamakua working
for them as labourers, driven by hunger to serve where they were
accustomed to rule.
But the light, sandy soil is soon exhausted, and would yield no
harvest the second year if cultivated twice running. This fact has
been familiar to the native for ages; consequently he provides in
time, and, while his crop is growing, prepares the next plot with axe
and firebrand. Next year he plants this with his various crops and
lets the first piece lie fallow. For a short time it remains waste and
desolate; then nature steps in to repair the destruction wrought by
man; a thousand new growths spring out of the exhausted soil, and
even the old stumps put forth fresh shoots. Next year the new growth
is up to one’s knees, and in a few years more it is that terrible,
impenetrable bush, which maintains its position till the black
occupier of the land has made the round of all the available sites and
come back to his starting point.
The Makonde are, body and soul, so to speak, one with this bush.
According to my Yao informants, indeed, their name means nothing
else but “bush people.” Their own tradition says that they have been
settled up here for a very long time, but to my surprise they laid great
stress on an original immigration. Their old homes were in the
south-east, near Mikindani and the mouth of the Rovuma, whence
their peaceful forefathers were driven by the continual raids of the
Sakalavas from Madagascar and the warlike Shirazis[47] of the coast,
to take refuge on the almost inaccessible plateau. I have studied
African ethnology for twenty years, but the fact that changes of
population in this apparently quiet and peaceable corner of the earth
could have been occasioned by outside enterprises taking place on
the high seas, was completely new to me. It is, no doubt, however,
correct.
The charming tribal legend of the Makonde—besides informing us
of other interesting matters—explains why they have to live in the
thickest of the bush and a long way from the edge of the plateau,
instead of making their permanent homes beside the purling brooks
and springs of the low country.
“The place where the tribe originated is Mahuta, on the southern
side of the plateau towards the Rovuma, where of old time there was
nothing but thick bush. Out of this bush came a man who never
washed himself or shaved his head, and who ate and drank but little.
He went out and made a human figure from the wood of a tree
growing in the open country, which he took home to his abode in the
bush and there set it upright. In the night this image came to life and
was a woman. The man and woman went down together to the
Rovuma to wash themselves. Here the woman gave birth to a still-
born child. They left that place and passed over the high land into the
valley of the Mbemkuru, where the woman had another child, which
was also born dead. Then they returned to the high bush country of
Mahuta, where the third child was born, which lived and grew up. In
course of time, the couple had many more children, and called
themselves Wamatanda. These were the ancestral stock of the
Makonde, also called Wamakonde,[48] i.e., aborigines. Their
forefather, the man from the bush, gave his children the command to
bury their dead upright, in memory of the mother of their race who
was cut out of wood and awoke to life when standing upright. He also
warned them against settling in the valleys and near large streams,
for sickness and death dwelt there. They were to make it a rule to
have their huts at least an hour’s walk from the nearest watering-
place; then their children would thrive and escape illness.”
The explanation of the name Makonde given by my informants is
somewhat different from that contained in the above legend, which I
extract from a little book (small, but packed with information), by
Pater Adams, entitled Lindi und sein Hinterland. Otherwise, my
results agree exactly with the statements of the legend. Washing?
Hapana—there is no such thing. Why should they do so? As it is, the
supply of water scarcely suffices for cooking and drinking; other
people do not wash, so why should the Makonde distinguish himself
by such needless eccentricity? As for shaving the head, the short,
woolly crop scarcely needs it,[49] so the second ancestral precept is
likewise easy enough to follow. Beyond this, however, there is
nothing ridiculous in the ancestor’s advice. I have obtained from
various local artists a fairly large number of figures carved in wood,
ranging from fifteen to twenty-three inches in height, and
representing women belonging to the great group of the Mavia,
Makonde, and Matambwe tribes. The carving is remarkably well
done and renders the female type with great accuracy, especially the
keloid ornamentation, to be described later on. As to the object and
meaning of their works the sculptors either could or (more probably)
would tell me nothing, and I was forced to content myself with the
scanty information vouchsafed by one man, who said that the figures
were merely intended to represent the nembo—the artificial
deformations of pelele, ear-discs, and keloids. The legend recorded
by Pater Adams places these figures in a new light. They must surely
be more than mere dolls; and we may even venture to assume that
they are—though the majority of present-day Makonde are probably
unaware of the fact—representations of the tribal ancestress.
The references in the legend to the descent from Mahuta to the
Rovuma, and to a journey across the highlands into the Mbekuru
valley, undoubtedly indicate the previous history of the tribe, the
travels of the ancestral pair typifying the migrations of their
descendants. The descent to the neighbouring Rovuma valley, with
its extraordinary fertility and great abundance of game, is intelligible
at a glance—but the crossing of the Lukuledi depression, the ascent
to the Rondo Plateau and the descent to the Mbemkuru, also lie
within the bounds of probability, for all these districts have exactly
the same character as the extreme south. Now, however, comes a
point of especial interest for our bacteriological age. The primitive
Makonde did not enjoy their lives in the marshy river-valleys.
Disease raged among them, and many died. It was only after they
had returned to their original home near Mahuta, that the health
conditions of these people improved. We are very apt to think of the
African as a stupid person whose ignorance of nature is only equalled
by his fear of it, and who looks on all mishaps as caused by evil
spirits and malignant natural powers. It is much more correct to
assume in this case that the people very early learnt to distinguish
districts infested with malaria from those where it is absent.
This knowledge is crystallized in the
ancestral warning against settling in the
valleys and near the great waters, the
dwelling-places of disease and death. At the
same time, for security against the hostile
Mavia south of the Rovuma, it was enacted
that every settlement must be not less than a
certain distance from the southern edge of the
plateau. Such in fact is their mode of life at the
present day. It is not such a bad one, and
certainly they are both safer and more
comfortable than the Makua, the recent
intruders from the south, who have made USUAL METHOD OF
good their footing on the western edge of the CLOSING HUT-DOOR
plateau, extending over a fairly wide belt of
country. Neither Makua nor Makonde show in their dwellings
anything of the size and comeliness of the Yao houses in the plain,
especially at Masasi, Chingulungulu and Zuza’s. Jumbe Chauro, a
Makonde hamlet not far from Newala, on the road to Mahuta, is the
most important settlement of the tribe I have yet seen, and has fairly
spacious huts. But how slovenly is their construction compared with
the palatial residences of the elephant-hunters living in the plain.
The roofs are still more untidy than in the general run of huts during
the dry season, the walls show here and there the scanty beginnings
or the lamentable remains of the mud plastering, and the interior is a
veritable dog-kennel; dirt, dust and disorder everywhere. A few huts
only show any attempt at division into rooms, and this consists
merely of very roughly-made bamboo partitions. In one point alone
have I noticed any indication of progress—in the method of fastening
the door. Houses all over the south are secured in a simple but
ingenious manner. The door consists of a set of stout pieces of wood
or bamboo, tied with bark-string to two cross-pieces, and moving in
two grooves round one of the door-posts, so as to open inwards. If
the owner wishes to leave home, he takes two logs as thick as a man’s
upper arm and about a yard long. One of these is placed obliquely
against the middle of the door from the inside, so as to form an angle
of from 60° to 75° with the ground. He then places the second piece
horizontally across the first, pressing it downward with all his might.
It is kept in place by two strong posts planted in the ground a few
inches inside the door. This fastening is absolutely safe, but of course
cannot be applied to both doors at once, otherwise how could the
owner leave or enter his house? I have not yet succeeded in finding
out how the back door is fastened.
MAKONDE LOCK AND KEY AT JUMBE CHAURO

This is the general way of closing a house. The Makonde at Jumbe
Chauro, however, have a much more complicated, solid and original
one. Here, too, the door is as already described, except that there is
only one post on the inside, standing by itself about six inches from
one side of the doorway. Opposite this post is a hole in the wall just
large enough to admit a man’s arm. The door is closed inside by a
large wooden bolt passing through a hole in this post and pressing
with its free end against the door. The other end has three holes into
which fit three pegs running in vertical grooves inside the post. The
door is opened with a wooden key about a foot long, somewhat
curved and sloped off at the butt; the other end has three pegs
corresponding to the holes, in the bolt, so that, when it is thrust
through the hole in the wall and inserted into the rectangular
opening in the post, the pegs can be lifted and the bolt drawn out.[50]
MODE OF INSERTING THE KEY
With no small pride first one householder and then a second

showed me on the spot the action of this greatest invention of the
Makonde Highlands. To both with an admiring exclamation of
“Vizuri sana!” (“Very fine!”). I expressed the wish to take back these
marvels with me to Ulaya, to show the Wazungu what clever fellows
the Makonde are. Scarcely five minutes after my return to camp at
Newala, the two men came up sweating under the weight of two
heavy logs which they laid down at my feet, handing over at the same
time the keys of the fallen fortress. Arguing, logically enough, that if
the key was wanted, the lock would be wanted with it, they had taken
their axes and chopped down the posts—as it never occurred to them
to dig them out of the ground and so bring them intact. Thus I have
two badly damaged specimens, and the owners, instead of praise,
come in for a blowing-up.
The Makua huts in the environs of Newala are especially
miserable; their more than slovenly construction reminds one of the
temporary erections of the Makua at Hatia’s, though the people here
have not been concerned in a war. It must therefore be due to
congenital idleness, or else to the absence of a powerful chief. Even
the baraza at Mlipa’s, a short hour’s walk south-east of Newala,
shares in this general neglect. While public buildings in this country
are usually looked after more or less carefully, this is in evident
danger of being blown over by the first strong easterly gale. The only
attractive object in this whole district is the grave of the late chief
Mlipa. I visited it in the morning, while the sun was still trying with
partial success to break through the rolling mists, and the circular
grove of tall euphorbias, which, with a broken pot, is all that marks
the old king’s resting-place, impressed one with a touch of pathos.
Even my very materially-minded carriers seemed to feel something
of the sort, for instead of their usual ribald songs, they chanted
solemnly, as we marched on through the dense green of the Makonde
bush:—
“We shall arrive with the great master; we stand in a row and have
no fear about getting our food and our money from the Serkali (the
Government). We are not afraid; we are going along with the great
master, the lion; we are going down to the coast and back.”
With regard to the characteristic features of the various tribes here
on the western edge of the plateau, I can arrive at no other
conclusion than the one already come to in the plain, viz., that it is
impossible for anyone but a trained anthropologist to assign any
given individual at once to his proper tribe. In fact, I think that even
an anthropological specialist, after the most careful examination,
might find it a difficult task to decide. The whole congeries of peoples
collected in the region bounded on the west by the great Central
African rift, Tanganyika and Nyasa, and on the east by the Indian
Ocean, are closely related to each other—some of their languages are
only distinguished from one another as dialects of the same speech,
and no doubt all the tribes present the same shape of skull and
structure of skeleton. Thus, surely, there can be no very striking
differences in outward appearance.
Even did such exist, I should have no time
to concern myself with them, for day after day,
I have to see or hear, as the case may be—in
any case to grasp and record—an
extraordinary number of ethnographic
phenomena. I am almost disposed to think it
fortunate that some departments of inquiry, at
least, are barred by external circumstances.
Chief among these is the subject of iron-
working. We are apt to think of Africa as a
country where iron ore is everywhere, so to
speak, to be picked up by the roadside, and
where it would be quite surprising if the
inhabitants had not learnt to smelt the
material ready to their hand. In fact, the
knowledge of this art ranges all over the
continent, from the Kabyles in the north to the
Kafirs in the south. Here between the Rovuma
and the Lukuledi the conditions are not so
favourable. According to the statements of the
Makonde, neither ironstone nor any other
form of iron ore is known to them. They have
not therefore advanced to the art of smelting
the metal, but have hitherto bought all their
THE ANCESTRESS OF
THE MAKONDE
iron implements from neighbouring tribes.
Even in the plain the inhabitants are not much
better off. Only one man now living is said to
understand the art of smelting iron. This old fundi lives close to
Huwe, that isolated, steep-sided block of granite which rises out of
the green solitude between Masasi and Chingulungulu, and whose
jagged and splintered top meets the traveller’s eye everywhere. While
still at Masasi I wished to see this man at work, but was told that,
frightened by the rising, he had retired across the Rovuma, though
he would soon return. All subsequent inquiries as to whether the
fundi had come back met with the genuine African answer, “Bado”
(“Not yet”).
BRAZIER
Some consolation was afforded me by a brassfounder, whom I

came across in the bush near Akundonde’s. This man is the favourite
of women, and therefore no doubt of the gods; he welds the glittering
brass rods purchased at the coast into those massive, heavy rings
which, on the wrists and ankles of the local fair ones, continually give
me fresh food for admiration. Like every decent master-craftsman he
had all his tools with him, consisting of a pair of bellows, three
crucibles and a hammer—nothing more, apparently. He was quite
willing to show his skill, and in a twinkling had fixed his bellows on
the ground. They are simply two goat-skins, taken off whole, the four
legs being closed by knots, while the upper opening, intended to
admit the air, is kept stretched by two pieces of wood. At the lower
end of the skin a smaller opening is left into which a wooden tube is
stuck. The fundi has quickly borrowed a heap of wood-embers from
the nearest hut; he then fixes the free ends of the two tubes into an
earthen pipe, and clamps them to the ground by means of a bent
piece of wood. Now he fills one of his small clay crucibles, the dross
on which shows that they have been long in use, with the yellow
material, places it in the midst of the embers, which, at present are
only faintly glimmering, and begins his work. In quick alternation
the smith’s two hands move up and down with the open ends of the
bellows; as he raises his hand he holds the slit wide open, so as to let
the air enter the skin bag unhindered. In pressing it down he closes
the bag, and the air puffs through the bamboo tube and clay pipe into
the fire, which quickly burns up. The smith, however, does not keep
on with this work, but beckons to another man, who relieves him at
the bellows, while he takes some more tools out of a large skin pouch
carried on his back. I look on in wonder as, with a smooth round
stick about the thickness of a finger, he bores a few vertical holes into
the clean sand of the soil. This should not be difficult, yet the man
seems to be taking great pains over it. Then he fastens down to the
ground, with a couple of wooden clamps, a neat little trough made by
splitting a joint of bamboo in half, so that the ends are closed by the
two knots. At last the yellow metal has attained the right consistency,
and the fundi lifts the crucible from the fire by means of two sticks
split at the end to serve as tongs. A short swift turn to the left—a
tilting of the crucible—and the molten brass, hissing and giving forth
clouds of smoke, flows first into the bamboo mould and then into the
holes in the ground.
The technique of this backwoods craftsman may not be very far
advanced, but it cannot be denied that he knows how to obtain an
adequate result by the simplest means. The ladies of highest rank in
this country—that is to say, those who can afford it, wear two kinds
of these massive brass rings, one cylindrical, the other semicircular
in section. The latter are cast in the most ingenious way in the
bamboo mould, the former in the circular hole in the sand. It is quite
a simple matter for the fundi to fit these bars to the limbs of his fair
customers; with a few light strokes of his hammer he bends the
pliable brass round arm or ankle without further inconvenience to
the wearer.
SHAPING THE POT
SMOOTHING WITH MAIZE-COB
CUTTING THE EDGE

FINISHING THE BOTTOM
LAST SMOOTHING BEFORE

BURNING
FIRING THE BRUSH-PILE

LIGHTING THE FARTHER SIDE OF
THE PILE
TURNING THE RED-HOT VESSEL
NYASA WOMAN MAKING POTS AT MASASI

Pottery is an art which must always and everywhere excite the
interest of the student, just because it is so intimately connected with
the development of human culture, and because its relics are one of
the principal factors in the reconstruction of our own condition in
prehistoric times. I shall always remember with pleasure the two or
three afternoons at Masasi when Salim Matola’s mother, a slightly-
built, graceful, pleasant-looking woman, explained to me with
touching patience, by means of concrete illustrations, the ceramic art
of her people. The only implements for this primitive process were a
lump of clay in her left hand, and in the right a calabash containing
the following valuables: the fragment of a maize-cob stripped of all
its grains, a smooth, oval pebble, about the size of a pigeon’s egg, a
few chips of gourd-shell, a bamboo splinter about the length of one’s
hand, a small shell, and a bunch of some herb resembling spinach.
Nothing more. The woman scraped with the
shell a round, shallow hole in the soft, fine
sand of the soil, and, when an active young
girl had filled the calabash with water for her,
she began to knead the clay. As if by magic it
gradually assumed the shape of a rough but
already well-shaped vessel, which only wanted
a little touching up with the instruments
before mentioned. I looked out with the
MAKUA WOMAN closest attention for any indication of the use
MAKING A POT. of the potter’s wheel, in however rudimentary
SHOWS THE a form, but no—hapana (there is none). The
BEGINNINGS OF THE embryo pot stood firmly in its little
POTTER’S WHEEL
depression, and the woman walked round it in
a stooping posture, whether she was removing
small stones or similar foreign bodies with the maize-cob, smoothing
the inner or outer surface with the splinter of bamboo, or later, after
letting it dry for a day, pricking in the ornamentation with a pointed
bit of gourd-shell, or working out the bottom, or cutting the edge
with a sharp bamboo knife, or giving the last touches to the finished
vessel. This occupation of the women is infinitely toilsome, but it is
without doubt an accurate reproduction of the process in use among
our ancestors of the Neolithic and Bronze ages.
There is no doubt that the invention of pottery, an item in human
progress whose importance cannot be over-estimated, is due to
women. Rough, coarse and unfeeling, the men of the horde range
over the countryside. When the united cunning of the hunters has
succeeded in killing the game; not one of them thinks of carrying
home the spoil. A bright fire, kindled by a vigorous wielding of the
drill, is crackling beside them; the animal has been cleaned and cut
up secundum artem, and, after a slight singeing, will soon disappear
under their sharp teeth; no one all this time giving a single thought
to wife or child.
To what shifts, on the other hand, the primitive wife, and still more
the primitive mother, was put! Not even prehistoric stomachs could
endure an unvarying diet of raw food. Something or other suggested
the beneficial effect of hot water on the majority of approved but
indigestible dishes. Perhaps a neighbour had tried holding the hard
roots or tubers over the fire in a calabash filled with water—or maybe
an ostrich-egg-shell, or a hastily improvised vessel of bark. They
became much softer and more palatable than they had previously
been; but, unfortunately, the vessel could not stand the fire and got
charred on the outside. That can be remedied, thought our
ancestress, and plastered a layer of wet clay round a similar vessel.
This is an improvement; the cooking utensil remains uninjured, but
the heat of the fire has shrunk it, so that it is loose in its shell. The
next step is to detach it, so, with a firm grip and a jerk, shell and
kernel are separated, and pottery is invented. Perhaps, however, the
discovery which led to an intelligent use of the burnt-clay shell, was
made in a slightly different way. Ostrich-eggs and calabashes are not
to be found in every part of the world, but everywhere mankind has
arrived at the art of making baskets out of pliant materials, such as
bark, bast, strips of palm-leaf, supple twigs, etc. Our inventor has no
water-tight vessel provided by nature. “Never mind, let us line the
basket with clay.” This answers the purpose, but alas! the basket gets
burnt over the blazing fire, the woman watches the process of
cooking with increasing uneasiness, fearing a leak, but no leak
appears. The food, done to a turn, is eaten with peculiar relish; and
the cooking-vessel is examined, half in curiosity, half in satisfaction
at the result. The plastic clay is now hard as stone, and at the same
time looks exceedingly well, for the neat plaiting of the burnt basket
is traced all over it in a pretty pattern. Thus, simultaneously with
pottery, its ornamentation was invented.
Primitive woman has another claim to respect. It was the man,
roving abroad, who invented the art of producing fire at will, but the
woman, unable to imitate him in this, has been a Vestal from the
earliest times. Nothing gives so much trouble as the keeping alight of
the smouldering brand, and, above all, when all the men are absent
from the camp. Heavy rain-clouds gather, already the first large
drops are falling, the first gusts of the storm rage over the plain. The
little flame, a greater anxiety to the woman than her own children,
flickers unsteadily in the blast. What is to be done? A sudden thought
occurs to her, and in an instant she has constructed a primitive hut
out of strips of bark, to protect the flame against rain and wind.
This, or something very like it, was the way in which the principle
of the house was discovered; and even the most hardened misogynist
cannot fairly refuse a woman the credit of it. The protection of the
hearth-fire from the weather is the germ from which the human
dwelling was evolved. Men had little, if any share, in this forward
step, and that only at a late stage. Even at the present day, the
plastering of the housewall with clay and the manufacture of pottery
are exclusively the women’s business. These are two very significant
survivals. Our European kitchen-garden, too, is originally a woman’s
invention, and the hoe, the primitive instrument of agriculture, is,
characteristically enough, still used in this department. But the
noblest achievement which we owe to the other sex is unquestionably
the art of cookery. Roasting alone—the oldest process—is one for
which men took the hint (a very obvious one) from nature. It must
have been suggested by the scorched carcase of some animal
overtaken by the destructive forest-fires. But boiling—the process of
improving organic substances by the help of water heated to boiling-
point—is a much later discovery. It is so recent that it has not even
yet penetrated to all parts of the world. The Polynesians understand
how to steam food, that is, to cook it, neatly wrapped in leaves, in a
hole in the earth between hot stones, the air being excluded, and
(sometimes) a few drops of water sprinkled on the stones; but they
do not understand boiling.
To come back from this digression, we find that the slender Nyasa
woman has, after once more carefully examining the finished pot,
put it aside in the shade to dry. On the following day she sends me
word by her son, Salim Matola, who is always on hand, that she is
going to do the burning, and, on coming out of my house, I find her
already hard at work. She has spread on the ground a layer of very
dry sticks, about as thick as one’s thumb, has laid the pot (now of a
yellowish-grey colour) on them, and is piling brushwood round it.
My faithful Pesa mbili, the mnyampara, who has been standing by,
most obligingly, with a lighted stick, now hands it to her. Both of
them, blowing steadily, light the pile on the lee side, and, when the
flame begins to catch, on the weather side also. Soon the whole is in a
blaze, but the dry fuel is quickly consumed and the fire dies down, so
that we see the red-hot vessel rising from the ashes. The woman
turns it continually with a long stick, sometimes one way and
sometimes another, so that it may be evenly heated all over. In
twenty minutes she rolls it out of the ash-heap, takes up the bundle
of spinach, which has been lying for two days in a jar of water, and
sprinkles the red-hot clay with it. The places where the drops fall are
marked by black spots on the uniform reddish-brown surface. With a
sigh of relief, and with visible satisfaction, the woman rises to an
erect position; she is standing just in a line between me and the fire,
from which a cloud of smoke is just rising: I press the ball of my
camera, the shutter clicks—the apotheosis is achieved! Like a
priestess, representative of her inventive sex, the graceful woman
stands: at her feet the hearth-fire she has given us beside her the
invention she has devised for us, in the background the home she has
built for us.
At Newala, also, I have had the manufacture of pottery carried on
in my presence. Technically the process is better than that already
described, for here we find the beginnings of the potter’s wheel,
which does not seem to exist in the plains; at least I have seen
nothing of the sort. The artist, a frightfully stupid Makua woman, did
not make a depression in the ground to receive the pot she was about
to shape, but used instead a large potsherd. Otherwise, she went to
work in much the same way as Salim’s mother, except that she saved
herself the trouble of walking round and round her work by squatting
at her ease and letting the pot and potsherd rotate round her; this is
surely the first step towards a machine. But it does not follow that
the pot was improved by the process. It is true that it was beautifully
rounded and presented a very creditable appearance when finished,
but the numerous large and small vessels which I have seen, and, in
part, collected, in the “less advanced” districts, are no less so. We
moderns imagine that instruments of precision are necessary to
produce excellent results. Go to the prehistoric collections of our
museums and look at the pots, urns and bowls of our ancestors in the
dim ages of the past, and you will at once perceive your error.
MAKING LONGITUDINAL CUT IN
BARK
DRAWING THE BARK OFF THE LOG
REMOVING THE OUTER BARK

BEATING THE BARK
WORKING THE BARK-CLOTH AFTER BEATING, TO MAKE IT

SOFT
MANUFACTURE OF BARK-CLOTH AT NEWALA

To-day, nearly the whole population of German East Africa is
clothed in imported calico. This was not always the case; even now in
some parts of the north dressed skins are still the prevailing wear,
and in the north-western districts—east and north of Lake
Tanganyika—lies a zone where bark-cloth has not yet been
superseded. Probably not many generations have passed since such
bark fabrics and kilts of skins were the only clothing even in the
south. Even to-day, large quantities of this bright-red or drab
material are still to be found; but if we wish to see it, we must look in
the granaries and on the drying stages inside the native huts, where
it serves less ambitious uses as wrappings for those seeds and fruits
which require to be packed with special care. The salt produced at
Masasi, too, is packed for transport to a distance in large sheets of
bark-cloth. Wherever I found it in any degree possible, I studied the
process of making this cloth. The native requisitioned for the
purpose arrived, carrying a log between two and three yards long and
as thick as his thigh, and nothing else except a curiously-shaped
mallet and the usual long, sharp and pointed knife which all men and
boys wear in a belt at their backs without a sheath—horribile dictu!
[51]
Silently he squats down before me, and with two rapid cuts has
drawn a couple of circles round the log some two yards apart, and
slits the bark lengthwise between them with the point of his knife.
With evident care, he then scrapes off the outer rind all round the
log, so that in a quarter of an hour the inner red layer of the bark
shows up brightly-coloured between the two untouched ends. With
some trouble and much caution, he now loosens the bark at one end,
and opens the cylinder. He then stands up, takes hold of the free
edge with both hands, and turning it inside out, slowly but steadily
pulls it off in one piece. Now comes the troublesome work of
scraping all superfluous particles of outer bark from the outside of
the long, narrow piece of material, while the inner side is carefully
scrutinised for defective spots. At last it is ready for beating. Having
signalled to a friend, who immediately places a bowl of water beside
him, the artificer damps his sheet of bark all over, seizes his mallet,
lays one end of the stuff on the smoothest spot of the log, and
hammers away slowly but continuously. “Very simple!” I think to
myself. “Why, I could do that, too!”—but I am forced to change my
opinions a little later on; for the beating is quite an art, if the fabric is
not to be beaten to pieces. To prevent the breaking of the fibres, the
stuff is several times folded across, so as to interpose several
thicknesses between the mallet and the block. At last the required
state is reached, and the fundi seizes the sheet, still folded, by both
ends, and wrings it out, or calls an assistant to take one end while he
holds the other. The cloth produced in this way is not nearly so fine
and uniform in texture as the famous Uganda bark-cloth, but it is
quite soft, and, above all, cheap.
Now, too, I examine the mallet. My craftsman has been using the
simpler but better form of this implement, a conical block of some
hard wood, its base—the striking surface—being scored across and
across with more or less deeply-cut grooves, and the handle stuck
into a hole in the middle. The other and earlier form of mallet is
shaped in the same way, but the head is fastened by an ingenious
network of bark strips into the split bamboo serving as a handle. The
observation so often made, that ancient customs persist longest in
connection with religious ceremonies and in the life of children, here
finds confirmation. As we shall soon see, bark-cloth is still worn
during the unyago,[52] having been prepared with special solemn
ceremonies; and many a mother, if she has no other garment handy,
will still put her little one into a kilt of bark-cloth, which, after all,
looks better, besides being more in keeping with its African
surroundings, than the ridiculous bit of print from Ulaya.
MAKUA WOMEN

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What It Is and How To Do It 11th Edition

PART I THE BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION APPROACH 1

CHAPTER 2 Areas of Application: An Overview 14

CHAPTER 3 Defining, Measuring, and Recording Target Behavior 24

CHAPTER 4 Doing Behavior Modification Research 43

PART II BASIC BEHAVIORAL PRINCIPLES AND PROCEDURES 55

CHAPTER 5 Respondent (Classical, Pavlovian) Conditioning of Reflexive Behavior 56

CHAPTER 6 Increasing a Behavior With Positive Reinforcement 66

Pitfalls of Positive Reinforcement 76

CHAPTER 7 Increasing Behavior With Conditioned Reinforcement 82

CHAPTER 8 Decreasing a Behavior With Operant Extinction 89

CHAPTER 9 Getting a New Behavior to Occur With Shaping 99

CHAPTER 10 Developing Behavioral Persistence With Schedules of Reinforcement 108

Concurrent Schedules of Reinforcement 116

CHAPTER 12 Changing the Stimulus Control of a Behavior With Fading 131

CHAPTER 14 Differential Reinforcement Procedures to Decrease

CHAPTER 15 Decreasing Behavior With Punishment 156

CHAPTER 16 Establishing Behavior by Escape and Avoidance

CHAPTER 17 Respondent and Operant Conditioning Together 177

Respondent and Operant Components of Emotions 180

PART III CAPITALIZING ON OPERANT ANTECEDENT CONTROL PROCEDURES 199

CHAPTER 19 Antecedent Control: Rules and Goals 200

CHAPTER 21 Antecedent Control: Motivation 222

Some Applications of Motivating Operations 226

PART IV PUTTING IT ALL TOGETHER TO DEVELOP EFFECTIVE BEHAVIORAL PROGRAMS 231

CHAPTER 22 Functional Assessment of Causes of Problem Behavior 232

CHAPTER 23 Planning, Applying, and Evaluating a Behavioral Program 245

CHAPTER 24 Token Economies 255

CHAPTER 25 Helping an Individual to Develop Self-Control 267

PART V BEHAVIOR THERAPY FOR PSYCHOLOGICAL

CHAPTER 26 Behavioral Approaches to Psychotherapy: Cognitive Restructuring, Self-Directed

CHAPTER 27 Psychological Disorders Treated by Behavioral and

PART VI A HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE AND ETHICAL ISSUES 309

CHAPTER 28 Giving It All Some Perspective: A Brief History 310

The Future of Behavior Modification 318

CHAPTER 29 Ethical Issues 322

About the 11th Edition of This Book

Changes in the 11th Edition

Instructor’s Resource Manual With Tests and Practica

Topics from the Fifth Edition Task List* Relevant Chapters

The Behavior Modification Approach

� Define behavior, behavior modification, and behavioral assessment.

Questions for Learning

Summary Labels for Behavior

Questions for Learning

What Is Behavior Modification?

What Is Behavioral Assessment?

Questions for Learning

Some Historical Highlights of Behavior Modification

Pavlovian Conditioning and Early “Behavior Therapy”

Operant Conditioning and Early “Behavior Modification”

Applied Behavior Analysis

Cognitive Behavior Therapy

Current Use of “Behavior Modification,” “Behavior Modifier,” and Related Terms

Questions for Learning

Some Misconceptions About Behavior Modification

Myth 1: Use of rewards by behavior modifiers to change behavior is bribery.

The Approach of This Book

Examples of behavioral deficits

Examples of behavioral excesses

Some Ethical Issues

Qualifications of the Applied Behavior Analyst or Behavior Therapist