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Fundamentals of Physical Geography, © 2015, 2011 Cengage Learning
Second Edition
WCN: 02-200-203
James F. Petersen, Dorothy Sack, Robert E.
Gabler
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1 2 3 4 5 6 7 17 16 15 14 13
Preface
F undamentals of Physical Geography, now in its second

edition, was written to provide students from any aca
demic major with a basic knowledge of Earth’s natural features
Features
Comprehensive View
and the processes that affect them. The book also considers
human impacts on the environment and how environmental
of the Earth System
processes affect people. The essential content of introductory Fundamentals of Physical Geography, Second Edition, introduces
physical geography is presented in a clear, condensed style and all major aspects of the Earth system, identifying physical phe
is an excellent format for courses that follow either the semes nomena and natural processes and stressing their characteris
ter or quarter system. tics, relationships, interactions, and distributions. The text cov
Earth is a complex system driven by interactions among ers a wide range of topics, including weather, climate, the
many factors that include climate, weather and the atmo atmosphere, water, the solid Earth, landforms, and our planet’s
sphere, organisms and their communities, water, landforms, living environments. With only 17 chapters, this textbook pro
and soils. Physical geography concerns understanding Earth vides beginning geography students with a thorough introduc
as an integrated system, how it functions, and how it varies tion to the essential content of physical geography.
over space and time. This knowledge is crucial for making
informed decisions about the use and preservation of Earth’s
natural environments and resources. Our interactions with
Engaging Graphics
the environment can benefit or endanger our own living Because studying geography is enhanced with visual aids, the
conditions as well those of future generations. The more we text includes a wide array of illustrations and photographs that
know about the Earth system and how it operates, the more help the concepts come alive. Locator maps accompany
effective we can be in working toward preservation, steward selected photographs to provide a spatial context and help stu
ship, and sustainability. At the college level, physical geogra dents identify the feature’s location on Earth. Clear and simple
phy is an ideal science course for students who would like to diagrams illuminate important concepts, and environmental
make informed decisions that consider environmental limits system illustrations provide a broad view of the features,
and possibilities as well as people’s wants and needs. inputs, and outputs of certain environmental systems, such as
Recognition of geography’s importance to society as a storms, glaciers, rivers, the flow of underground water, or the
major field of inquiry has grown along with environmental moving of continents by plate tectonics.
awareness. Geographic knowledge, skills, and techniques are
increasingly valued in the workplace. Physical geographers use Clear Explanations
the latest technological advances to observe, study, map, and
measure features and processes and their interactions as parts The text uses a clear narrative style to explain the processes,
of the Earth system. They work on modeling environmental physical features, and events that occur within, on, or above
responses and interactions. Physical geographers analyze digi Earth’s surface. The writing style, examples, and illustrations
tal images from satellites and aircraft and employ mapmaking facilitate rapid comprehension, making the study of physical
techniques (cartography), geographic information science geography meaningful and enjoyable.
(GIS), global positioning systems (GPS), and other tools for
environmental analysis and problem solving. Introduction to the
Fundamentals of Physical Geography’s focus on relevance
is supported by explanations of geographic tools and meth
Geographer’s Tools
ods. Practical applications that use geographic data, maps, Digital technologies have revolutionized our abilities to study
and satellite images, and numerous landscape photographs Earth’s natural processes and environments. A full chapter is
that illustrate important themes and examples are provided devoted to maps, digital imagery, and other data used by geo
in the textbook. Related activities along with the text mate graphers. Illustrations throughout include maps and images
rial encourage spatial thinking and give students opportu with descriptions and assessments of the environmental attri
nities to really apply the geographic knowledge they are butes shown in the scenes. There are also introductory discus
acquiring. sions of many techniques that geographers use for displaying
vii
viii Preface
and analyzing environmental features and processes, including ways of communicating those findings are continually being
remote sensing, geographic information systems, cartography, developed, and we work to incorporate those that are appro
and global positioning systems. priate for an introductory text.
Focus on Student Interaction New and Revised Text

The text encourages students to think, conceptualize, hypoth As authors, we seek to include coverage of physical geographic
esize, and interact with the subject matter of physical geogra topics that will spark student interest. This involves relating recent
phy. Activities at the end of each chapter can be completed environmental concerns, findings, and natural disasters, examin
either individually or as a group and were designed to engage ing the conditions that led to those events, and explaining their
students and promote active learning. Review questions rein relation to physical geography. Some examples of recent natural
force concepts and prepare students for exams; practical appli disasters include deadly outbreaks of tornadoes; terrible wildfires
cation assignments require active solutions, such as sketching a in Colorado, California, and Texas; and serious drought or flood
diagram, performing calculations, or exploring geographic fea ing in many areas. The devastating earthquake-generated tsuna
tures using Google Earth. Questions following many figure mis in Japan and South Asia, as well as hurricane and storm dam
captions prompt students to either think beyond or use the age in the United States, continue to be discussed in terms of
map, graph, diagram, or image and give further consideration human impacts and how to avoid, or at least minimize, such
to the aspect presented. Detailed learning objectives at the tragic events in the future. Throughout the text, we cover the haz
beginning of the chapters provide a means for assessing com ards as well as the beauty of Earth’s natural processes.
prehension of the material. We continue to take an Earth systems approach, which is
reinforced throughout the text with examples and illustrations
at a variety of spatial and temporal scales. The concept of scale
Three Unique Perspectives in atmospheric processes has been given a stronger emphasis
Feature boxes appear in the chapters to illustrate three major than in the first edition. More attention is given to unusual
scientific perspectives of physical geography. Through a spa- weather conditions, and sections on the greenhouse effect and
tial perspective, physical geography focuses on understanding global climate change have been expanded. We have enhanced
and explaining the locations and distributions of natural phe discussions of the potential and predicted impacts of global
nomena. Our discipline also uses a physical science perspec- warming on multiple aspects of the Earth system, including
tive, which applies the knowledge and methods of the natural glaciers and sea level.
and physical sciences using the scientific method and systems Many other sections contain new or expanded material.
analysis. Through an environmental perspective, physical These include examples of human interactions with the envi
geographers consider impacts, influences, and interactions ronment (Chapter 1); a new topographic map interpretation
between human and natural components of the environment, exercise and an example of mapping with lasers, called lidar
that is, how the environment influences human life and how (Chapter 2); using solar energy (Chapter 3); the urban heat
humans affect the environment. island (Chapter 4); upper air circulation (Chapter 5); tornado
chasers (Chapter 6); introduced exotic species, such as Bur
mese pythons (Chapter 9); measurement of seismic waves
Map Interpretation Series (Chapter 10); a new topographic map interpretation exercise
Developing map interpretation skills is a priority in physical on volcanic landforms (Chapter 11); sensitive soils and the
geography, and this text includes activities based on full-color interplay of people and slope processes (Chapter 12); the
maps, generally printed at their original scale. These activities nature of springs (Chapter 13); flood hazards (Chapter 14);
help students develop valuable map-reading skills and rein differences between humid- and arid-region streams (Chapter
force the topical material presented. The map interpretation 15); recent dramatic changes in glaciers (Chapter 16); and tsu
features can be incorporated into lab activities and they can namis and changes in global sea level (Chapter 17).
help link lectures to the textbook and to practical applications.
These include end of chapter topographic map and image
examples and the weather map interpretation.
Enhanced Illustration Program
Topics that were revised or expanded required including many
new figures and updating others, including photographs, satel
New in This Edition lite images, and maps, often with detailed invitations for inter
Revising Fundamentals of Physical Geography for a second edi pretation by students. This edition has many new or improved
tion involved thoughtful consideration of the input from graphs, maps, and diagrams, and about 150 new photographs.
many reviewers and adopters. Not only is our planet ever- Three new activities in the Map Interpretation series deal
changing, but so are the many ways that we observe, measure, with reading topographic maps (Chapter 2), a comparative
and analyze Earth’s characteristics and environments and the analysis of weather maps and corresponding satellite images
processes that affect them. New scientific findings and new (Chapter 4), and volcanic terrain (Chapter 11).
Preface ix
New Features To Integrate the Illustrations

with the Written Text
Understanding Map Content
The photographs, maps, aerial and satellite images, scientific
Thematic maps have the ability to present a great deal of visualizations, block diagrams, graphs, and line drawings
geographic data in graphic form. The goal of the Under- clearly illustrate important concepts in physical geography.
standing Map Content is to help students understand the Text discussions are strongly linked to the illustrations,
information, geographic/spatial representations, and data encouraging students to examine them in graphic form and
presented in thematic maps. Students are encouraged to visualize physical processes and phenomena. Some examples of
answer questions based on map content. This opportunity topics that are clearly explained by integrating visuals and text
for practice will increase students’ appreciation for the include map and image interpretation (Chapter 2), the seasons
amount of useful information contained in a thematic map and Earth’s energy budget (Chapter 3), wind systems (Chapter
and enhance their ability to analyze and comprehend the 4), storms (Chapter 6), soils (Chapter 9), plate tectonics
geographic data and spatial relationships presented within (Chapter 10), river systems (Chapter 14), glaciers (Chapter 16),
thematic maps. These activities encourage true map under and coastal processes (Chapter 17).
standing and illustrate the usefulness of map interpretation
skills not only for studying geography but also throughout
our daily lives. To Communicate the Nature
of Geography
Thinking Geographically The nature of physical geography and its three major scientific
Most chapters dealing with Earth surface processes and land perspectives (spatial, physical, and environmental) are dis
forms include map activities in the Map Interpretation series. cussed in Chapter 1. In subsequent chapters, all three perspec
These continue in this edition with full-size topographic map tives are stressed. For example, location is a dominant topic in
excerpts presented at the end of the chapters on volcanoes, Chapter 2 and remains an important theme throughout the
solutional topography (karst), rivers, desert landforms, gla text. Spatial distributions are emphasized as the elements of
ciers, and coasts. These chapters also include new landscape weather and climate are discussed in Chapters 4 through 6.
image interpretation activities in the Thinking Geographi- The changing Earth system is a central focus in the text and
cally series. Students are asked to interpret a landscape image, featured in Chapters 1, 8, 16, and 17. Characteristics of climate
which features a scene related to the chapter content. These regions and their associated environments are presented in
offer practice in looking closely at and visually evaluating a Chapters 7 and 8. Spatial interactions are demonstrated in dis
landscape to recognize the geographic features present, inter cussions of weather systems (Chapter 6), soils (Chapter 9),
pret their significance, assess how they may be related, and and volcanic and tectonic activity (Chapter 11). Karst (Chapter
think about how the landforms and landscapes developed. 13), arid (Chapter 15), glacial (Chapter 16), and coastal (Chap
ter 17) landforms covary with specific environmental variables,
such as soluble rock (karst), past or present climates (karst,
arid, glacial), or the interface of land, sea, and air (coastal).
Fundamentals of Feature boxes in every chapter present interesting and impor
Physical Geography— tant examples of each perspective.
Four Major Objectives To Fulfill the Major Requirements

To Meet the Academic Needs of Introductory Physical Science
of the Student Courses
In content and style, Fundamentals of Physical Geography, Sec Fundamentals of Physical Geography, Second Edition, offers a full
ond Edition, was written specifically to meet the needs of stu chapter on the scientific tools and methodologies of physical
dents, the end users of this textbook. Students can use the geography. Earth as a system and the natural processes affecting
knowledge and understanding obtained through the text and physical phenomena beneath, at, and above Earth’s surface are
its activities to help them make informed decisions involving examined in detail. Use of the scientific method and scientific
the environment at the local, regional, and global scale. The explanations are stressed. End-of-chapter questions include
book also considers the needs of beginning students or those interpreting graphs of environmental data (or graphing data for
with little or no background in the study of physical geogra study), quantitative analysis, classification, calculating environ
phy or other Earth sciences. Examples from throughout the mental variables, and hands-on map interpretation. Models
world illustrate important concepts and help students bridge and systems are frequently cited in discussions of important
the gap between theory and practical application. concepts, and scientific classification is presented in several
x Preface
chapters. Some of these topics include air masses, tornadoes, What Will You Find?
and hurricanes (Chapter 6); climates (Chapters 7 and 8); bioge ■■ Simplicity at every step. A desktop-inspired interface features
ography and soils (Chapter 9); water resources (Chapter 13); riv drop-down menus and familiar, intuitive tools that take you
ers (Chapter 14); and coasts (Chapter 17). through content creation and management with ease.
Physical geography plays a central role in understanding ■■ Full-featured test generator. Create ideal assessments with
environmental aspects and issues, human–environment interac your choice of 15 question types (including true/false, mul
tions, and approaches to environmental problem solving. The tiple choice, opinion scale/likert, and essay). Multi-language
students in this course include the professional geographers of support, an equation editor and unlimited metadata help
tomorrow. Spreading the message about the importance, rele ensure your tests are complete and compliant.
vance, and career potential of geography in today’s world is ■■ Cross-compatible capability. Import and export content
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Student Resources
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Global Geoscience Watch Updated several times a times a day, this resource gives you access to the latest in
day, the Global Geoscience Watch is an ideal one-stop site for formation from trusted academic sources, news outlets, and
classroom discussion and research projects for all things geosci magazines. You will also receive access to statistics, primary
ence. Broken into the four key course areas (Geography, Geol sources, case studies, podcasts, and much more. The Global
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Instructors and their students will have access to the latest
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magazines. You will also receive access to statistics, primary time by accessing everything you need to succeed in one place.
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Preface xi
Sarkisian, Content Developer; Stefanie Beeck, Media Interstate Park–New Jersey Section; Justin Wilkinson, Earth
Developer; and Victor Luu, Product Assistant. Sciences, NASA Johnson Space Center; Hajo Eicken, Alfred
Photos courtesy of: Rainer Duttmann, University of Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research; U.S. Fish
Kiel; Richard Earl, Texas State University; Dan Satterfield, and Wildlife Service; Loxahatchee National Wildlife Refuge;
WOBC, Salisbury, MD; Erin Himmel/National Park Service; Philippe Rekacewicz, UNEP/GRID-Arendal World Atlas of
Delphine Farmer, Colorado State University; Lynn Betts/ Desertification. Greg Nadon, Ohio University, L. Michael Tra
NRCS; Melissa Gabrielson, Chuck Young, and Fred Broer passo, Western Kentucky University.
man, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service; Bob DeGross. Everglades Colleagues who reviewed this text and related Physical
National Park; J. Good, National Park Service; Michael Geography editions include Peter Blanken, University of Colo
McCollum/McCollum Associates; Jason Neely, Polar Field rado; J. Michael Daniels, University of Wyoming; James
Services; Christoph W. Borst and Gary L. Kinsland, University Doerner, University of Northern Colorado; Richard Earl,
of Louisiana at Lafayette; VORTEX II/Sean Waugh, NOAA/ Texas State University; Ryan Fogt, Ohio University; Greg Gas
NSSL; Michael Studinger, NASA; John Shea. FEMA; USGS ton, University of North Alabama; Chris Houser, University
Alaska Volcano Observatory, D. Josefczyk; National Scenic of West Florida; Paul Hudson, University of Texas; Debra
Byways/Digital Library; Sasan Saatchi NASA/JPL-Caltech; Morimoto, Merced College; Alan Paul Price, University of
Wind Cave National Park; Emily Petersen; Parv Sethi; Martha Wisconsin; Peter Siska, Austin Peay State University; and
Moran, White River National Forest; Mark Muir, Fishlake Richard W. Smith, Harford Community College.
National Forest; National Park Service, Cape Cod National The comments and suggestions of all of the previously
Seashore; Mark Reid, USGS; Dawn Endico; Gary P. Fleming, mentioned individuals have been instrumental in developing
Virginia Natural Heritage Program; Tessy Shirakawa, Mesa this text. Countless others, both known and unknown, deserve
Verde National Park; Bill Case, Chris Wilkerson, and Michael heartfelt thanks for their interest and support over the years.
Vanden Berg, Utah Geological Survey; Center for Cave and Despite the painstaking efforts of the reviewers, there will
Karst Studies, Western Kentucky University; Hari Eswaran, always be questions of content, approach, and opinion associ
USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service; Richard ated with the text. The authors wish to make it clear that they
Hackney, Western Kentucky University; David Hansen, Uni accept full responsibility for all that is included in Fundamen-
versity of Minnesota; Susan Jones, Nashville, Tennessee; Bob tals of Physical Geography, Second Edition.
Jorstad, Eastern Illinois University; National Agricultural
Imagery Program/Texas Natural Resources Information Sys James F. Petersen
tem; Parris Lyew-Ayee, Oxford University, UK; L. Elliot Jones, Dorothy Sack
U.S. Geological Survey; Anthony G. Taranto Jr., Palisades Robert E. Gabler
Brief Contents
1 Physical Geography: Earth Environments and Systems 1
2 Representations of Earth 21
3 Solar Energy and Atmospheric Heating 47
4 Atmospheric Pressure, Winds, and Circulation 75
5 Humidity, Condensation, and Precipitation 101
6 Air Masses and Weather Systems 127
7 Climate Classification: Tropical, Arid, and Mesothermal

Climate Regions 153
8 Microthermal, Polar, and Highland Climate Regions: Climate

Change 191
9 Biogeography and Soils 223
10 Earth Materials and Plate Tectonics 255
11 Tectonic and Volcanic Processes and Landforms 283
12 Weathering and Mass Wasting 313
13 Water Resources and Karst Landforms 341
14 Fluvial Processes and Landforms 363
15 Arid Region Landforms and Eolian Processes 393
16 Glacial Systems and Landforms 421
17 Coastal Processes and Landforms 449
xii
Contents
1 Physical Geography: Properties of Map Projections 32
Earth Environments and Map Basics 33

Thematic Maps 35
Systems 1 Topographic Maps 36
The Study of Geography 2 Modern Mapmaking 37
Physical Geography 3 Geographic Information Systems 37
:: Geography’s Spatial Perspective: Using Vertical
Technology, Tools, and Methods 3
Exaggeration to Portray Topography 39
Major Perspectives in Physical Geography 5
Remote Sensing of the Environment 40
The Spatial Perspective 5
Digital Imaging and Photography 40
:: Geography’s Spatial Perspective: Natural Regions 7
Specialized Remote Sensing 41
The Physical Science Perspective 8
Multispectral Remote Sensing 42
The Environmental Perspective 9
Map Interpretation: Topographic Maps 44
:: Geography’s Environmental Perspective:
Human–Environment Interactions 10
Models and Systems 13 3 Solar Energy and
Systems Analysis 14
How Systems Work 14
Atmospheric Heating 47
Equilibrium in Earth Systems 15 The Earth–Sun System 48
The Earth in Space 16 Insolation, Sun Angle, and Duration 49
Earth’s Movements 16 The Seasons 50
Physical Geography and You 18 Latitude Lines Delimiting Solar Energy 53
Passive Solar Energy, an Ancient Concept 54
2 Representations Variations of Insolation with Latitude 55
of Earth 21 Characteristics of the Atmosphere 56
Composition of the Atmosphere 56
Maps and Location on Earth 22
Vertical Layers of the Atmosphere 59
Earth’s Shape and Size 22
Energy Interactions 60
Globes and Great Circles 24
Energy Transfer Processes 60
Latitude and Longitude 24
Water, Energy, and Heat 61
The Geographic Grid 25
Earth’s Energy Budget 62
Parallels and Meridians 26
Heating the Atmosphere 62
Longitude and Time 26
Earth’s Energy Balance 63
The International Date Line 26
Air Temperature 64
The U.S. Public Lands Survey System 27
Temperature and Heat 64
The Global Positioning System 29
Short-Term Variations in Temperature 64
Maps and Map Projections 30
Vertical Temperature Distributions 66
Advantages of Maps 30
Controls of Surface Temperature 68
Limitations of Maps 31
Surface Temperature Distributions 70
Examples of Map Projections 31
Annual Temperature Changes 73
xiii
xiv contents
4 Atmospheric Pressure, Water in the Atmosphere 105
Winds, and Circulation 75 Saturation and the Dew Point 106

Humidity 106
Atmospheric Pressure 76 Atmospheric Moisture Sources 107
Air Pressure, Altitude, and Elevation 77 Evaporation Rates 107
Cells of High and Low Pressure 77 Potential Evapotranspiration 108
Horizontal Pressure Variations 78 Condensation, Fog, and Clouds 109
Mapping Pressure Distribution 78 Condensation Nuclei 109
Wind 79 Fog 109
Pressure Gradients and Wind 79 Clouds 111
Wind Terminology 79 Adiabatic Heating and Cooling 113
:: Geography’s Environmental Perspective: Instability and Stability 113
Harnessing the Wind’s Energy 80
Precipitation Processes 114
The Coriolis Effect and Wind 81
Forms of Precipitation 115
Cyclones, Anticyclones, and Wind Direction 82
Factors Necessary for Precipitation 116
Global Pressure and Wind Systems 83 :: Geography’s Physical Science Perspective:
A Model of Global Pressure 83 The Lifting Condensation Level 118
A Model of Atmospheric Circulation 84 Precipitation Distributions 122
Conditions within Latitudinal Zones 85 Distribution over Time 122
Trade Winds 85 Latitudinal Distribution 122
Subtropical Highs 85 Precipitation Variability 124
Westerlies 85
Polar Winds 86
Seasonal Variations in Pressure and Wind 86 6 Air Masses and Weather
Latitudinal Migration with the Seasons 88 Systems 127
Longitudinal Variations in Pressure and Wind 89
Air Masses 128
Upper Air Winds and Jet Streams 89
Air Mass Modification and Stability 128
Regional and Local Wind Systems 90
North American Air Masses 129
Monsoon Winds 90
Fronts 131
Local Winds 92
Cold Fronts 131
Thinking Geographically 94
Warm Fronts 131
Ocean–Atmosphere Interactions 94
Stationary and Occluded Fronts 132
Ocean Currents 94
Atmospheric Disturbances 133
El Niño 97
Anticyclones and Cyclones 133
El Niño and the Southern Oscillation 97
Middle-Latitude Cyclones 134
North Atlantic Oscillation 98
Hurricanes 138
Snowstorms and Blizzards 143
5 Humidity, Condensation, Thunderstorms 143
and Precipitation 101 :: Geography’s Physical Science Perspective:

Tornado Chasers and Tornado Spotters 144
The Hydrologic Cycle 103 Tornadoes 146
The Water Budget 104 Weather Forecasting 149
Map Interpretation: Weather Maps 150
contents xv
5 years later
7 Climate Classification: Climate Change 207
Tropical, Arid, and Past Climates 207

The Recent Ice Age: The Pleistocene 208
Mesothermal Climate Methods for Revealing Past Climates 208
Regions 153 Causes of Climate Change 210
:: Geography’s Spatial Perspective: Climate Change
Classifying Climates 154 and Its Impact on Coastlines 214
The Thornthwaite System 155 Global Warming 216
The Köppen System 156 Future Climates 218
Climate Regions 160 Recommendations for the Future 219
Climographs 161
Climate and Vegetation 161
Humid Tropical Climate Regions 164 9 Biogeography and
Tropical Rainforest and Tropical Monsoon Soils 223
Climates 164
Ecosystems 224
Tropical Savanna Climate 169
Ecosystem Components 224
Arid Climate Regions 171
Trophic Structure 225
Desert Climates 172
Energy Flow and Biomass 226
Desertification 176 Productivity 226
:: Geography’s Environmental Perspective: Invasive
Steppe Climates 176
Exotic Species: Burmese Pythons 228
Mesothermal Climate Regions 178
Ecological Niche 229
Mediterranean Climate 179
Succession and Climax Communities 231
Humid Subtropical Climate 183
Succession 231
Marine West Coast Climate 185
The Climax Community 232
Environmental Controls 233
8 Microthermal, Polar, and Climatic Factors 234
Highland Climate :: Geography’s Spatial Perspective: The Theory of Island

Biogeography 236
Regions: Climate Soil and Topography 238
Change 191 Natural Catastrophes 238
Biotic Factors 238
Microthermal Climate Regions 192
Human Impact on Ecosystems 239
Humid Microthermal Generalizations 192
Soils and Soil Development 240
Humid Continental Climates 192
Major Soil Components 240
Subarctic Climate 197
Soil Characteristics 242
Polar Climate Regions 200
Development of Soil Horizons 245
Tundra Climate 200
Factors Affecting Soil Formation 246
Ice-Sheet Climate 202
Parent Material 247
Human Activity in Polar Regions 203
Organic Activity 247
Highland Climate Regions 204
Climate 247
The Nature of Mountain Climates 205
Land Surface 249
Adaptation to Highland Climates 206
Time 249
xvi contents
Soil-Forming Regimes and Classification 250 Compressional Tectonic Forces 287

Laterization 250 Tensional Tectonic Forces 289
Podzolization 250 Shearing Tectonic Forces 290
Calcification 251 Relationships between Rock Structure and
Regimes of Local Importance 252 Topography 291
Soil Classification 252 Thinking Geographically 292
Ecosystems and Soils: Critical Natural Earthquakes 292
Resources 252 Measuring Earthquake Size 292
Earthquake Hazards 294
10 Earth Materials and Plate :: Geography’s Environmental Perspective: Mapping

the Distribution of Earthquake Intensity 296
Tectonics 255 Igneous Processes and Landforms 298
Volcanic Eruptions 298
Earth’s Planetary Structure 256
Volcanic Landforms 299
Core 257
Plutonism and Intrusions 306
Mantle 258
Distribution of Tectonic and Volcanic
Crust 258
Activity 306
Lithosphere and Asthenosphere 259
Map Interpretation: Volcanic Landforms 310
Minerals 260
Rocks 261
Igneous Rocks 261 12 Weathering and Mass
Sedimentary Rocks 263
Metamorphic Rocks 267
Wasting 313
The Rock Cycle 268 Nature of Exogenic Processes 314
Thinking Geographically 269 Weathering 316
Plate Tectonics 269 Physical Weathering 316
Seafloor Spreading and Convection Currents 270 Chemical Weathering 320
Tectonic Plate Movement 272 Variability in Weathering 321
:: Geography’s Spatial Perspective: Paleomagnetism: Climate Factors 322
Evidence of Earth’s Ancient Geography 276 Rock Type 323
Hot Spots in the Mantle 276 :: Geography’s Physical Science Perspective:
Growth of Continents 277 Expanding and Contracting Soils 324
Geologic Time and Paleogeography 278 Structural Weaknesses 324

Differential Weathering and Erosion 326
Mass Wasting 328
11 Tectonic and Volcanic Materials and Motion 329
Processes and Slow Mass Wasting 330
Landforms 283 Fast Mass Wasting 331

Landforms and Geomorphology 284 Weathering, Mass Wasting, and the
Tectonic Forces, Rock Structure, and Landscape 338
Landforms 286
contents xvii
13 Water Resources and Thinking Geographically 384
Karst Landforms 341 Rivers, Lakes, and People 385

Stream Hazards 385
Nature of Underground Water 342 Importance of Rivers and Lakes 387
Subsurface Water Zones and the Water Table 343 Quantitative Fluvial Geomorphology 389
Groundwater Storage and Movement 344 Map Interpretation: Fluvial Landforms 390
Springs 346
Using Groundwater Resources 347
Wells 347 15 Arid Region Landforms
Reducing Reserves 348 and Eolian Processes 393
Groundwater Quality 349
Surface Runoff in the Desert 394
:: Geography’s Physical Science Perspective:
Acid Mine Drainage 350
Water as a Geomorphic Agent in Arid
Lands 396
Geothermal Water 350
Arid Region Landforms of Fluvial Erosion 397
Landform Development by Subsurface Water
Arid Region Landforms of Fluvial Deposition 400
and Solution 352
Wind as a Geomorphic Agent 404
Karst Landforms 353
Wind Erosion and Transportation 405
Limestone Caverns and Cave Features 356
Wind Deposition 407
Sand Dunes 407
Map Interpretation: Karst Topography 360
Types of Sand Dunes 409
14 Fluvial Processes and Dune Protection 411
Landforms 363 :: Geography’s Environmental Perspective: Off-Road
Vehicle Impacts On Desert Landscapes 412
Surface Runoff 364 Loess Deposits 412
The Stream System 366 Landscape Development in Deserts 414
Drainage Basins 366 Map Interpretation: Desert Basin Landforms 418
:: Geography’s Spatial Perspective: Drainage Basins
as Critical Natural Regions 368
Drainage Density and Drainage Patterns 370 16 Glacial Systems and
Flow Properties 371 Landforms 421
Stream Discharge 371
Stream Energy 373 Glacier Formation and the Hydrologic
Fluvial Processes 375 Cycle 422
:: Geography’s Physical Science Perspective:
Stream Erosion 375
Glacial Ice Is Blue! 424
Stream Transportation 375
Types of Glaciers 424
Stream Deposition 376
Moving Ice as a Geomorphic Agent 426
Channel Patterns 379
How Glaciers Flow 426
Fluvial Landscapes 380
Glacial Erosion and Sediment 427
Features of the Upper Course 380
Alpine Glaciers 427
Features of the Middle Course 381
Equilibrium and the Glacial Budget 428
Features of the Lower Course 381
Erosional Landforms of Alpine Glaciation 430
Deltas 383
Depositional Landforms of Alpine Glaciation 432
Base-Level Changes and Tectonism 384
xviii contents
Continental Glaciers 434 Coastal Erosion 459

Existing Continental Glaciers 436 Coastal Erosional Landforms 459
Pleistocene Glaciation 437 Coastal Deposition 460
Erosional Landforms of Continental Glaciation 438 Coastal Depositional Landforms 462
Thinking Geographically 439 Types of Coasts 465
Depositional Landforms of Continental Islands and Coral Reefs 468
Glaciation 439 Thinking Geographically 469
Glacial Lakes 443 Change over Time 471
Periglacial Landscapes 444 Map Interpretation: Passive-Margin Coastlines 472
Map Interpretation: Alpine Glaciation 446
Appendix A SI Units 475
17 Coastal Processes Appendix B Topographic Maps 477

Appendix C The Köppen Climate Classification
and Landforms 449 System 479
The Coastal Zone 450 Appendix D The 12 Soil Orders of the Natural
Origin and Nature of Waves 451 Resource Conservation Service
Tides 451 (NRCS) 482
Tsunamis 453 Appendix E Understanding and Recognizing Some
Wind Waves 454 Common Rocks 485
Waves in Shallow Water 455 Glossary 491
Wave Breaking 455 Index 505
:: Geography’s Physical Science Perspective: Tsunami
Forecasts and Warnings 456
Wave Refraction and Littoral Drifting 458
Author Biographies
James F. Petersen James F. Petersen is professor of geography at Texas

State University–San Marcos, Texas. He is a broadly trained physical geographer
with strong interests in geomorphology and earth science education. He enjoys
writing about topics relating to physical geography for the public, particularly en
vironmental interpretation, and has written a landform guidebook for Enchanted
Rock State Natural Area in central Texas and a number of field guides. He is a
strong supporter of geographic education, having served as president of the Na
tional Council for Geographic Education (NCGE) in 2000 after more than
15 years of service to that organization. He has also written and served as a senior
consultant for nationally published educational materials at levels from middle school through university
and has led many workshops for geography teachers. In 2011, he was awarded the George J. Miller
Distinguished Service Award for distinguished service to geographic education, the highest honor given
by the NCGE.
Dorothy Sack Dorothy Sack, professor of geography at Ohio University in

Athens, Ohio, is a physical geographer who specializes in geomorphology. Her re
search emphasizes arid region landforms, including geomorphic evidence of pa
leolakes, which contributes to paleoclimate reconstruction. She has published
research results in a variety of professional journals, academic volumes, and Utah
Geological Survey maps and reports. She also has research interests and publica
tions on the history of geomorphology and the impact of off-road vehicles. Her
work has been funded by the National Geographic Society, NSF, Association of
American Geographers (AAG), American Chemical Society, and other sources.
She is active in professional organizations, having served as chair of the AAG Geomorphology Specialty
Group, chair of the AAG History of Geography Specialty Groups, and in several other offices for the
AAG, Geological Society of America, and History of Earth Sciences Society. She enjoys teaching and
research, and has received the Outstanding Teacher Award from Ohio University’s College of Arts and
Sciences.
Robert E. Gabler During his nearly five decades of professional experience,

Professor Gabler has taught geography at Hunter College, City of New York;
Columbia University; and Western Illinois University, in addition to 5 years in
public elementary and secondary schools. At times in his career at Western Illinois
he served as chair of the Geography and Geology Department, chair of the
Geography Department, and director of International Programs for the university.
He received three University Presidential Citations for teaching excellence and
university service, served two terms as chair of the Faculty Senate, edited the
Bulletin of the Illinois Geographical Society, and authored numerous articles in state
and national periodicals. He is a past president of the Illinois Geographical Society, former director of
coordinators and past president of the National Council for Geographic Education, and the recipient of
the NCGE George J. Miller Distinguished Service Award.
xix
Physical Geography: Earth
Environments and Systems 1
:: Outline
The Study of Geography
Major Perspectives in
Physical Geography
Models and Systems
The Earth in Space
Physical Geography
and You
“The Blue Marble,” lunar

astronauts’ view of Earth:
an oasis of life in the
vastness of space.
NASA
2 C H A P T E R 1 • P H Y S I C A L G E O G R A P H Y: E A R T H E N V I R O N M E N T S A N D S Y S T E M S
:: Objectives
When you complete this chapter you should be able to: ■■ Conceptualize Earth as a system of interacting parts that respond to
■■ Explain physical geography as a discipline and profession that con- both natural and human-induced processes.
siders both the natural world and the human interface with the natu- ■■ Discuss several interactions between humans and their environ-
ral world. ments, including examples that are advantageous and others that are
■■ Understand how geographic information and techniques are directly detrimental or risky.
applicable in many career fields. ■■ Recognize how knowledge of physical geography invites better un-
■■ Describe the three major perspectives of physical geography: the derstanding of our environment.
spatial perspective, the physical science perspective, and the envi-
ronmental perspective.
In 1972, as the last astronaut mission to the moon was on its spatial science (the science of locational space) because it
way, the three crew members looked back to photograph a spec- includes analyzing and explaining the locations, distributions,
tacular view of Earth. Seeing our planet surrounded by the patterns, variations, and similarities or differences among phe-
emptiness of space illustrated the fact that life on Earth depends nomena on Earth’s surface.
on self-contained environmental and natural resources that are Geographers study the processes that influenced Earth’s land-
not limitless. Today, it is said that more people have seen this scapes in the past, how they continue to affect them today, how
photograph than any other in history. This iconic Earth image landscapes and environments might change in the future, and the
continues to be an internationally known symbol for environ- significance or impact of these changes. Geography is distinctive
mental awareness, and it has increased our concern for conserv- among the sciences by virtue of its definition and central purpose,
ing our planet’s resources and environments. and it can involve studying any topic related to the scientific anal-
Viewed from far enough away to see an entire hemi- ysis of natural or human processes on Earth (■ Fig. 1.1).
sphere, Earth is beautiful and intriguing. From this perspective
we can begin to appreciate the big picture, a global view of our
planet’s physical geography. If we look carefully, we can recog- PHYSICAL SCIENCE
nize geographic patterns shaped by the processes that make
Geology
our world dynamic and ever changing. Characteristics of the
gy Bio
oceans, atmosphere, landmasses, and evidence of life, revealed olo log
or y
by vegetated regions, are apparent. e te Geomorphology
M
From a human perspective, Earth might seem immense

and almost limitless. In contrast, viewing the big picture reveals Climatology Biogeography
Earth’s fragile nature: a spherical island of life surrounded by the
Pe
y
no m
do
geogr
vast dark emptiness of space. Except for the external addition of ical ap
logy
ys h
Astro
Mathematical Soils
energy from the sun, our planet is a self-contained system that
Ph
Geography Geography
has all the requirements to sustain life. The nature of Earth and Environment
its environments provide the life-support systems for all living Geography
People
things. It is important to gain an understanding of the planet Social Political
nce
Socio
Geography Geography
that sustains us, and learn about the components and processes Hu
hy
Scie
ma p
that operate to change or regulate the Earth system. Learning n geogra
logy
© Cengage Learning
ical
the relevant questions to ask is an important step toward finding

lit
Economic Cultural
Po
answers and explanations. Understanding how Earth’s features Geography Geography

and processes interact to develop the environmental diversity on Historical
Ec g
our planet is the goal of a course in physical geography.
y
on Geography
om olo
op
i cs thr
An
Histor y
The Study of SOCIAL SCIENCE
Geography ■ FIGURE 1.1 Geography has many subdivisions that are

related to other disciplines and share some of their interests.
Geography refers to the examination, description, and expla- Geographers apply their own unique perspectives and
nation of Earth—its variability from place to place, how places approaches to these areas of study.
and features change over time, and the processes responsible What advantage might a geographer have when working with
for these variations and changes. Geography is often called the other physical scientists seeking a solution to a problem?
THE STUDY OF GEOGRAPHY 3
© Dr. Parvinder S. Sethi
■ FIGURE 1.2 Physical geographers study the elements and processes that affect natural environments.
These include rock structures, landforms, soils, vegetation, climate, weather, and human impacts. This is in
the White River National Forest, Colorado.
What physical geography characteristics can you observe in this scene?
Geographers are also interested in how to divide areas Earth’s surface landscapes. Biogeographers study plants, ani-
into meaningful regions, which are areas identified by dis- mals, and environments, examining the processes that
tinctive characteristics that distinguish them from surround- influence, limit, or facilitate their characteristics, distribu-
ing areas. Physical, human, or a combination of factors can tions, and changes over time. Many soil scientists are geogra-
define a region. Regional geography concentrates on the char- phers who map and analyze soil types, determine the
acteristics of a region or of multiple regions. suitability of soils for certain uses, and work to conserve
soil resources.
Geographers are also widely involved in the study of
Physical Geography water bodies and water resources, including their processes,
Physical geography encompasses the processes and features movements, impacts, quality, and other characteristics. They
that make up Earth, including human activities where they can serve as hydrologists, oceanographers, or glaciologists. Many
interface with the environment. Geographers generally take a geographers also function as water resource managers, working
holistic approach, meaning that they often consider both the to ensure that lakes, watersheds, springs, and groundwater
natural and human phenomena that are relevant to understand- sources are adequate in quantity and quality to meet human
ing aspects of our planet. Physical geographers are concerned and environmental needs.
with nearly all aspects of Earth and are trained to view a natural Like other scientists, physical geographers typically apply
environment in its entirety, as well as how it functions as a unit the scientific method as they seek to learn about aspects of
(■ Fig. 1.2). Most physical geographers focus their expertise on Earth. The scientific method involves seeking the answers to
one or two specialties. For example, many meteorologists and cli- questions and determining the validity of new ideas by objec-
matologists have studied geography. Meteorologists are interested tively testing all pertinent evidence and facts that affect the
in the processes that affect daily weather, and they forecast issue being studied (■ Fig. 1.3). Using the scientific method,
weather conditions. Climatologists are interested in regional cli- new ideas or proposed answers to questions are only accepted
mates, the averages and extremes of long-term weather data, as valid if they are clearly supported by the evidence.
understanding climate change, climate hazards, and the human
and environmental impacts of climate.
Geomorphology is the study of the nature and develop-
Technology, Tools, and Methods
ment of landforms and is a major subfield of physical geog- The technologies that are used for learning about the physical
raphy. Geomorphologists are interested in understanding geography of our planet are rapidly changing. The abilities of
variations in landforms and the processes that produce computer systems to capture, process, model, and display
spatial data—functions that can now be performed on a per-

sonal computer—were only a dream in the 1980s. Today, the
Internet provides access to information and images on virtually
Make observation any topic. Continuous satellite imaging of Earth has been
that requires
explanation
ongoing for more than 30 years, which has given us a better
perspective on environmental changes. Using various energy
sources to produce images from space, we are able to see, mea-
sure, monitor, and map processes and the effects of certain
processes, including many that are invisible to the naked eye.
Propose
Graphic displays of environmental data and information are
hypothesis to becoming more vivid and striking as a result of sophisticated
explain the methods of data processing and visual representation. Increased
observation
computer power allows the development and display of high-
resolution images, three-dimensional scenes, and animated
images of Earth’s features, changes, and processes (■ Fig. 1.4).
Determine a
Go to
Oceanografic Office’s Visualization Laboratory; and cloud layer from SSEC, University of
Image by R.B. Husar, Washington University; land layer from the SeaWiFS Project; fire
technique and
alternative
collect data to
maps from the European Space Agency; sea surface temperature from the Naval
hypothesis
test hypothesis
Use technique to
test hypothesis
Wisconsin
Test supports Test rejects
hypothesis hypothesis ■ FIGURE 1.4 This computer-generated, three-dimensional
model of Antarctica was made by combining a 50-year history of
temperature records from locations on the continent with modern
satellite images of the ice surface. The red area shows the region
that has experienced the largest temperature increase in response
to global warming.
© Cengage Learning
Accept hypothesis
What global warming impacts have caused concern in recent
(explanation for
observation) years?
■ FIGURE 1.3 The scientific method, widely applicable in physical geography, involves the steps shown
here.
1. Making an observation that requires an explanation. On a trip to the mountains, you notice that it
gets colder as you go up in elevation. Is that just a result of local conditions on the day you were there, or is
it a universal relationship?
2. Restating the observation as a hypothesis. Here is an example: As we go higher in elevation, the
temperature gets cooler. (The answer may seem obvious, but although it is generally true, there are
exceptions depending on environmental conditions, which are discussed in later chapters.)
3. Determining a technique for testing the hypothesis and collecting necessary data. The next step
is finding a technique for evaluating data and facts that relate to the hypothesis. In this case, you would
gather temperature and elevation data (taken at about the same time for all data points) in the study area.
4. Applying the technique or strategy to test the validity of the hypothesis. Here we discover if the
hypothesis is supported by adequate evidence. The technique will recommend either accepting or rejecting
the hypothesis. If the hypothesis is rejected, we can test an alternative hypothesis, or we might just discover
that our hypothesized relationship is not valid.
MAJOR PERSPECTIVES IN PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 5
The Spatial Perspective

A central theme in geography is illustrated by its definition as
the spatial science. Physical geographers have many divergent
interests, but they share the common goals of understanding
and explaining spatial variations on Earth’s surface. The fol-
lowing examples illustrate spatial factors that geographers typi-
cally consider and the problems they address.
Location Geographic studies often begin with locational

information. Features are located using one of two methods:
absolute location, which is expressed by a coordinate system
(or address), or relative location, which identifies where a
feature exists in relation to something else, usually a fairly
well known location. For example, Pikes Peak, in the Rocky
Mountains of Colorado, with an elevation of 4302 meters
(14,115 ft), has a location of latitude 38°51 north and longi-
© Ashley Cooper/Corbis
tude 105°03 west. This is an example of an absolute location.

However, it could also be stated that Pikes Peak is 36 kilome-
ters (22 mi) west of Colorado Springs (■ Fig. 1.6). This is an
example of a relative location.
■ FIGURE 1.5 A geographer uses computer technology to
analyze maps and imagery. Characteristics of Places Physical geographers
In what ways are computer-generated maps and landscape are interested in the environmental features and processes
images helpful in studying physical geography? that make a place unique, as well as in the shared or similar
characteristics between places. For example, what physical
geographic features make the Rocky Mountains appear as they
Satellite technology (GPS, the Global Positioning System) is do? Further, how are the Appalachian Mountains different
used to determine the precise location of a receiver on Earth’s from the Rockies, and what characteristics are common to
surface, a capability that has many useful applications for geog- these two mountain ranges? Another aspect of the character-
raphy and mapping. Today, most mapmaking (cartography) and istics of places is the analysis of the environmental advantages
many aspects of map analysis are computer-assisted operations, and challenges that exist in a place.
although the ability to visually interpret a map, a landscape, or
an environmental image remains an important geographic skill. Spatial Distribution and Pattern Spatial distri-
Physical geographers should be able to make observations bution is a locational characteristic that refers to the extent of
and gather data in the field, but they must also keep up with an area or areas where a feature exists. For example, where on
new technologies that support and facilitate traditional field- Earth do we find tropical rainforests? What is the distribution
work. Technology can provide maps, images, and data, but a of rainfall in the United States on a particular day? Where do
person who is knowledgeable about the geographical aspects of major earthquakes occur? Spatial pattern refers to how fea-
the subject being studied is essential to the processes of analy- tures are arranged in space: Are they regular or random, clus-
sis and problem solving. Many geographers are gainfully tered together or widely spaced? Population distributions can
employed in positions that apply technology to the problems be dense or sparse (■ Fig. 1.7). The spatial pattern of earth-
of understanding our planet and its environments, and their quakes may be aligned on a map because earthquake faults
numbers are certain to increase in the future (■ Fig. 1.5). display similar linear patterns.
Spatial Interaction Few processes on Earth operate in

isolation, because areas on our planet are interconnected. A
Major Perspectives in condition, an occurrence, or a process in one place generally
Physical Geography has an impact on other places. Unfortunately, the exact nature
of a spatial interaction—whether one event actually causes
Your textbook demonstrates three major perspectives that another—is often difficult to establish with certainty.
physical geography emphasizes: spatial science, physical sci- Examples of observed spatial interactions include the
ence, and environmental science. Although the focus on each occurrence of abnormally warm ocean waters off South Amer-
of these perspectives varies from chapter to chapter, take note ica’s west coast, a condition called El Niño, and its link to
of how each perspective relates to the unique nature of geogra- unusual weather in other parts of the world. Clearing the trop-
phy as a discipline. ical rainforest might also have an impact on world climates.
Pikes Peak Colorado Springs

NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center/Earth Observatory
WYOMING NEBRASKA
COLORADO
Colorado
Springs
KANSAS
UTAH
Pikes
Peak
NEW MEXICO
■ FIGURE 1.6 A three-dimensional digital model shows the relative location of Pikes Peak to Colorado
Springs, Colorado. Because this is a perspective view, the 36 km (22 mi) distance appears to be shorter
than its actual ground distance.
What physical geographic characteristics of this place can you extract from the image?
NASA Robert Simon/Chris Elvidge, NOAA, NGDC
■ FIGURE 1.7 A nighttime satellite image provides good illustrations of distribution and pattern. Spatial
distribution means where features are located (or, perhaps, absent). Spatial pattern refers to their arrangement.
Geographers seek to explain these spatial relationships.
Can you locate and propose possible explanations for two patterns and two distributions in this scene?
Geographers work to understand spatial relationships, interac- namis, or changes in sea level. Areas that were once forested
tions, and impacts at local, regional, and global scales. have been clear-cut, changing the nature of the environment
there. Desert-like conditions seem to be expanding in many
The Changing Earth Earth’s features and landscapes arid regions of the world. Volcanic islands have been created in
are continuously changing in a spatial context. Weather maps historic times.
show where and how weather elements change from day to World climates have changed throughout Earth’s history,
day, over the seasons, and from year to year. Storms, earth- with attendant shifts in the distributions of plant and animal
quakes, landslides, and stream processes modify the landscape. life. Recent global warming is affecting virtually all areas of the
Coastlines can change position because of storm waves, tsu- world, but the impact varies by geographic region and loca-
G e o g r a p h y ’ S s pat i a L P e r s p e c t i v e
:: NATURAL REGIONS
T
he term region has a precise areas covered by deserts and other ing. Natural regions are conceptual
meaning and special significance natural regions. models that help us comprehend
to geographers. Simply stated, a • Boundaries separating different and organize spatial relationships
region is an area that is defined by a natural or environmental regions and geographic distributions. Learn-
certain shared characteristic (or a set of tend to be indistinct or transi- ing geography is an invitation to think
characteristics) existing within its tional, rather than sharp. For ex- spatially, and regions provide an es-
boundaries. The concept of a region is ample, on a climate map, lines sential and extremely useful concep-
a tool for thinking about and analyzing separating desert from nondesert tual framework in that process.
logical divisions of areas based on their regions do not imply that extremely
geographic characteristics. Geogra- arid conditions instantly appear Understanding regions, through an
phers not only study and explain re- when the line is crossed. When we awareness of how areas can be di-
gions, including their locations and travel to a desert, the region is likely vided into geographically logical units
characteristics, but also strive to delimit to get progressively more arid as we and why it is useful to do so, is essen-
them: to outline their boundaries on a approach our destination. tial in geography. Regions help us to
map. An unlimited number of regions • Regions are spatial models de- understand, reason about, and make
can be derived for each of the four ma- vised by humans for geographic sense of the spatial aspects of our
jor Earth subsystems. analysis, study, and understand- world.
Regions help us understand the
arrangement and nature of areas on
our planet. Regions can also be di-
vided into subregions. For example,
North America is a region, but it can
be subdivided into many subregions.
Examples of subregions based on
natural characteristics include the At-
lantic Coastal Plain (similarity of land-
forms, geology, and locality), the
Prairies (ecological type), the Sonoran
Desert (climate type, ecological type,
and locality), the Pacific Northwest
(general locality), and Tornado Alley
(region of high potential for these
storms).
There are three important points to
remember about natural regions. Each
of these points has endless applica-
tions and adds considerably to the
questions that the process of defining
USDA Forest Service
regions based on spatial characteristics

seeks to answer.
• Natural regions can change in

size and shape over time in The Great Basin of the Western United States is a landform region that is clearly
response to environmental defined based on an important physical geographic characteristic. No rivers flow
changes. An example is desertifi- to the ocean from this arid and semiarid region of mountains and topographic ba-
sins. The rivers and streams that exist flow into enclosed basins where the water
cation, the expansion of desert re-
evaporates away from temporary lakes, or they flow into lakes like the Great Salt
gions that has occurred in recent Lake, which has no outlet to the sea. Topographic features called drainage di-
years. Using images from space, we vides (mountain ridges) form the outer edges of the Great Basin, defining and en-
can see and monitor changes in the closing this natural region.
1913 2005
Blasé Reardon (USGS), Courtesy of Glacier National Parks Archives

Aiden (USGS), Courtesy of Glacier National Parks Archives
■ FIGURE 1.8 Photographs taken 92 years apart in Montana’s Glacier National Park show that Shepard
Glacier, like other glaciers in the park, has dramatically receded during that time. This retreat is in response
to climate warming and droughts.
What other kinds of environmental change might require long-term observation and recording of evidence?
tion. Today, changes in Earth’s climates and environments circulatory system, and digestive system). Examining the Earth
are complicated by the impact of human activities. Most of system as a set of interdependent subsystems facilitates the
Earth’s glaciers are shrinking in response to global warming study of physical geography.
(■ Fig. 1.8). Earth and its environments are always changing,
although at different time scales, so the impacts and direction Earth’s Four Major Subsystems The Earth sys-
of certain changes can be difficult to determine. tem has four major subsystems (■ Fig. 1.9). The atmosphere
is the gaseous blanket of air that envelops, shields, and insu-
lates Earth. The lithosphere makes up the solid Earth—
The Physical Science Perspective landforms, rocks, soils, and minerals. The hydrosphere in-
Physical geographers observe phenomena, compile data, and cludes the waters of Earth—oceans, lakes, rivers, and glaciers.
seek answers to questions that are also of interest to researchers The biosphere is composed of all living things: people, other
in other physical sciences. However, physical geographers bring animals, and plants.
distinctive points of view to scientific studies: a holistic perspec- The characteristics of these subsystems interact to create and
tive and a spatial perspective. By examining the factors, features, nurture the conditions necessary for life on Earth, but the impact
and processes that influence an environment and how these ele- and intensity of those interactions are not equal everywhere. This
ments work together, we can better understand our planet’s inequality leads to our planet’s environmental diversity and pro-
dynamic physical geography. We can also appreciate the impor- duces the wide variety of geographic patterns on Earth.
tance of viewing Earth as a constantly functioning system.
Earth Impacts The Earth system is dynamic, respond-
The Earth System A system is any entity that consists ing to continuous changes, and we can directly observe some
of a set of interrelated and interacting parts or components. of these changes: the seasons, the ocean tides, earthquakes,
Our planetary environment, the Earth system, operates on in- floods, volcanic eruptions. Certain interactions that change
teractions among a vast combination of factors. The individual our planet function in cycles and processes that operate at
components of a system, termed variables, change through in- widely varying rates. Many aspects of our planet can take
teractions with one another as parts of a functioning unit. For years, or even more than a lifetime, to accumulate enough
example, in a mountainous environment, elevation changes change so that humans can recognize their impact. Long-term
influence the rainfall distribution and the temperature regime, changes in our planet are often difficult to understand or fore-
which in turn affect the density, type, and variety of vegeta- cast with certainty. The evidence must be carefully and scien-
tion. Plants, moisture, and the underlying rock affect the soil tifically studied to determine what is occurring and what the
that forms in an area. Vegetation and soils influence the im- potential consequences might be. Changes of this type include
pact of erosion on the land surface. A change in one environ- climate change, drought cycles, the spread of deserts, erosion
mental factor nearly always has an impact on other parts of an of coastlines, and major changes in river systems. Volcanic
environmental system. islands have been created in historic times (■ Fig. 1.10), and
Systems can be divided into subsystems, which are func- a new Hawaiian island is now forming beneath the waters of
tioning units of a system that demonstrate strong internal con- the Pacific Ocean. Change may be naturally caused or human
nections. For example, the human body is a system that is induced, or it can result from a combination of these factors.
composed of many subsystems (such as the respiratory system, Today, much of the concern about environmental changes,
Atmosphere Biosphere
All, © Dr. Parvinder S. Sethi; center inset, NASA
Hydrosphere Lithosphere
■ FIGURE 1.9 Earth’s four major subsystems. Studying Earth as a system is central to
understanding changes in our planet’s environments and adjusting to or dealing with these
changes. Earth consists of many interconnected subsystems.
How do these systems overlap? For example, how does the atmosphere overlap with
the hydrosphere, or with the biosphere?
such as global warming, centers on the increasing

impact that human activities are exerting on Earth’s
natural systems.
The Environmental
Perspective
In the broadest sense, our environment can be
defined as our surroundings, consisting of all physi-
cal, social, and cultural aspects of our world that
affect our growth, our health, and our way of living.
Physical environments are systems composed of a
wide variety of features, characteristics, and pro-
cesses that involve interconnections among weather,
NASA
climate, soils, rocks, terrain, plants, animals, water,

■ FIGURE 1.10 This new volcanic island formed in the Red Sea beginning on and humans. Physical geography’s holistic approach
December 23, 2011 when volcanic eruptions from the seafloor began to reach is well suited to understanding environments,
the surface. The island at this time was about 500 meters long, but growing. because important environmental factors and pro-
Once this volcanic island cools, what other environmental changes could cesses are considered both individually and as parts
slowly begin to take place? of a functioning system.
G e o g r a p h y ’ S E N VIRO N M E N TA L P e r s p e c t i v e
:: HUMAN–ENVIRONMENT INTERACTIONS
E
arth’s environmental characteristics Environmental Hazards become torrential rains that occur for
support all life on our planet. Yet The environment becomes a hazard to days or weeks and cause flooding.
the effects of natural processes on humans and other life forms when, oc- Some tropical storms gain strength
humans, as well as human impacts on casionally and often unpredictably, a and reach coastlines with great inten-
the environment, have become topics of natural process operates in an unusu- sity, such as hurricane Sandy in 2012.
increasing concern. Certain environmen- ally intense or violent fashion. Molten The extremely powerful earthquake in
tal processes can be hazardous to hu- rock and gases move upward toward Japan in 2011 and the tsunami wave it
man life and property, and certain hu- the surface and suddenly trigger mas- generated devastated coastal areas
man activities threaten to cause major, sive eruptions that can blow apart vol- and provided another example of the
and possibly irrevocable, damage to canic mountains. Rain showers can potential for occasional occurrences of
Earth environments. natural processes to far exceed our
expectable norm.
In September 2008, after Hurricane
Ike became a powerful storm in the At-
lantic Ocean, it passed over several is-
lands in the Caribbean Sea, causing
great damage, and continued into the
Gulf of Mexico. Moving northwest, Ike
made landfall near Galveston, Texas, a
coastal city that had been rebuilt after
being almost completely destroyed by
a hurricane in 1900. Ike brought violent
winds, high waves, and a massive
4.5- to 6.5-meter high (15–22 ft) surge
of seawater that swept low-lying coastal
areas for several kilometers inland.
A natural process that operates in
an extraordinary fashion is a noteworthy
environmental event, but it is not con-
sidered a natural hazard unless people
or their properties are affected. Many
natural hazards exist because people
live where potentially catastrophic envi-
ronmental events can occur. Nearly ev-
ery populated area of the world is
associated with a natural hazard or per-
Jocelyn Augustino, FEMA News Service
haps several hazards. Forested regions

are subject to fire; earthquakes, land-
slides, and volcanic activities plague
mountain regions; violent storms
threaten interior plains; and many
coastal regions experience periodic
hurricanes or severe winter storms.
Natural Hazards: Hurricane Ike caused great damage in 2008 and devas-
tated this coastal area near Galveston, Texas. This house is the only one left
standing in a beach community on the Texas coast of the Gulf of Mexico af-
ter Hurricane Ike made landfall.
Can you cite some examples of natural processes that can affect the
area where you live?
Environmental and developing nations struggle to in- As will become apparent in this study
Degradation dustrialize, human activities are exact- of geography, physical environments
Just as the environment can pose a ing an increasing toll on the air, water, are changing constantly, and all too of-
danger to humans, human activities soils, and forests. Environmental dete- ten human activities result in negative
can constitute a serious threat to the rioration is a worldwide concern, and environmental consequences. In addi-
environment. Issues such as global any effective solutions must involve in- tion, throughout Earth, humans live in
warming, acid precipitation, deforesta- ternational cooperation. As citizens of constant threat from various and spa-
tion and the extinction of species, the world’s wealthiest nation, Ameri- tially distributed environmental hazards
damage to the ozone layer, and de- cans must seriously consider what such as earthquake, fire, flood, and
sertification have risen to the top of steps can be taken to counter environ- storm. The natural processes involved
agendas at international conferences mental threats related to human activi- are related to the physical environ-
and when world leaders meet. Envi- ties. What are the causes of these ment, but causes and solutions are
ronmental concerns are recurring sub- threats? What can I do to help solve imbedded in human–environmental
jects of magazine and newspaper environmental problems? With limited interactions that include the economic,
articles, in books, on television, and on resources on Earth, what will we leave political, and social characteristics of
the Internet. for future generations? the cultures involved. The recognition
Much environmental damage has Examining environmental issues that geography is a holistic discipline—
resulted from atmospheric pollution from the physical geographer’s per- that it includes the study of all phe-
associated with industrialization, par- spective requires that characteristics of nomena on Earth—requires that
ticularly in wealthy, developed nations. the environment and the humans in- physical geographers play a major role
But as population pressures mount volved be given strong consideration. in the environmental sciences.
60° E
RUSSIA
UKRAINE KAZAKHSTAN
Aral Sea 45° N
UNEP/GRID-Sioux Falls
Black Sea Caspian UZBEKISTAN

Sea
TURKEY TURKMENISTAN
NASA
Mediterranean IRAN
Sea
IRAQ
Environmental Degradation: The Shrinking Aral Sea. Located in the central Asian desert between Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan, the Aral
Sea is an inland lake that does not have an outlet stream. The water that flows in is eventually lost by evaporation. Before the 1960s,
rivers flowing from mountain regions supplied enough water to maintain what was the world’s fourth largest body of inland water.
Since then, agricultural diversion of river water has caused the Aral Sea to shrink. The image on the right shows what was left of the
Aral Sea in 2011. The environmental result has been the disappearance of many species that relied on the lake for survival, frequent
dust storms, and an economic disaster for the local population. Without the waters of the lake to moderate temperatures, winters
have become colder and the summers hotter. Today, efforts are under way to restore at least part of the lake and its environments.
What are some examples of how humans have affected the environment where you live?
ment in some way, but if we understand the factors and pro-

cesses involved, we can work to minimize negative impacts.
U.S. Navy photo by Mass Communication Specialist 3rd Class Alexander Tidd/Released
Human–Environment Interactions Physical

geography includes considering environmental relationships
that involve humans and their activities. Human–environment
interactions are two-way relationships, because the environ-
ment influences human behavior and humans affect the en-
vironment. People all over the world live in locations that are
subject to potentially hazardous acts of nature. Certain natural
processes can also have a detrimental impact on people and
their built environment. The term natural hazards refers to
natural processes, typically of unusual intensity, that put envi-
ronments and life or property at risk of damage or destruction.
News reports depict stories and images of disasters as people
are exposed to violent natural processes such as earthquakes,
floods, tornadoes, wildfires, and intense storms. In 2011, we
(a) witnessed the consequences of a major earthquake in Japan,
which generated a devastating tsunami wave (■ Fig. 1.11a).
In 2012, Hurricane Sandy caused considerable destruction in
the Caribbean and in the northeastern United States, leaving
thousands with damaged or destroyed homes (■ Fig. 1.11b).
Many communities went without electricity or running water
because of damage from winds, waves, and a surge of ocean
water that swept coastal areas. Unfortunately, these events were
also responsible for the loss of human life.
In addition to the impacts of natural processes on people,
we are also concerned about environmental degradation: dam-
age caused by human activities. One example is pollution, an
FEMA/Patsy Lynch
undesirable or unhealthy contamination in an environment.

Critical resources such as air, water, and land areas can become
so polluted that they become unusable or even lethal to some
(b) life forms. Air pollution is a serious problem for urban areas
around the world. It is important to realize, however, that pol-
■ FIGURE 1.11 Environmental hazards: (a) The devastated port
town of Wakuya, Japan, after being battered by powerful tsunami
lutants are often transported by winds and waterways hundreds
waves generated by a massive earthquake in 2011. (b) What was or even thousands of kilometers from their source. Lead from
left of a home on the New Jersey shore after Hurricane Sandy’s automobile exhaust has been found in the ice of Antarctica, as
storm surge swept the coast in 2012. has the insecticide DDT. Pollution is a global problem that does
not stop at political, or even continental, boundaries.
A Life-Support System The most critical and

The study of relationships between organisms and their unique attribute of Earth is that it is a life-support system,
environments is the science of ecology. The word ecosystem a set of interrelated components that are necessary for the
(a contraction of ecological system) refers to a community of existence of living organisms. On Earth, natural processes
organisms and the relationships of those organisms to one produce an adequate supply of oxygen; the sun interacts
another and to their environment. Ecosystems are dynamic in with the atmosphere, oceans, and land to maintain tolerable
that their various parts are always changing. For instance, temperatures; and photosynthesis or other processes provide
plants grow, rain falls, animals eat, and soils develop, all food supplies for living things. Other than the input of en-
changing the environment of a particular ecosystem. Because ergy from the sun, the Earth system provides the necessary
each member of an ecosystem interacts with other parts of that environmental constituents and conditions that allow life to
system, a change in one often affects the environment for the exist (■ Fig. 1.12). Despite the wealth of resources available
others. The ecosystem concept can be applied on almost any on Earth, however, we realize that natural resources, criti-
scale from local to regional or global, in virtually any geo- cal parts of our planet’s life-support system, can be abused,
graphic location. Your backyard, a farm pond, a grass-covered wasted, or exhausted. A concern is that humans are rapidly
field, a marsh, a forest, or a portion of a desert can be viewed depleting nonrenewable natural resources, such as coal and
as an ecosystem. Many human activities affect the environ- oil, which, once exhausted, will not be replaced.
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DANCE ON STILTS AT THE GIRLS’ UNYAGO, NIUCHI
Newala, too, suffers from the distance of its water-supply—at least

the Newala of to-day does; there was once another Newala in a lovely
valley at the foot of the plateau. I visited it and found scarcely a trace
of houses, only a Christian cemetery, with the graves of several
missionaries and their converts, remaining as a monument of its
former glories. But the surroundings are wonderfully beautiful. A
thick grove of splendid mango-trees closes in the weather-worn
crosses and headstones; behind them, combining the useful and the
agreeable, is a whole plantation of lemon-trees covered with ripe
fruit; not the small African kind, but a much larger and also juicier
imported variety, which drops into the hands of the passing traveller,
without calling for any exertion on his part. Old Newala is now under
the jurisdiction of the native pastor, Daudi, at Chingulungulu, who,
as I am on very friendly terms with him, allows me, as a matter of
course, the use of this lemon-grove during my stay at Newala.
FEET MUTILATED BY THE RAVAGES OF THE “JIGGER”
(Sarcopsylla penetrans)
The water-supply of New Newala is in the bottom of the valley,

some 1,600 feet lower down. The way is not only long and fatiguing,
but the water, when we get it, is thoroughly bad. We are suffering not
only from this, but from the fact that the arrangements at Newala are
nothing short of luxurious. We have a separate kitchen—a hut built
against the boma palisade on the right of the baraza, the interior of
which is not visible from our usual position. Our two cooks were not
long in finding this out, and they consequently do—or rather neglect
to do—what they please. In any case they do not seem to be very
particular about the boiling of our drinking-water—at least I can
attribute to no other cause certain attacks of a dysenteric nature,
from which both Knudsen and I have suffered for some time. If a
man like Omari has to be left unwatched for a moment, he is capable
of anything. Besides this complaint, we are inconvenienced by the
state of our nails, which have become as hard as glass, and crack on
the slightest provocation, and I have the additional infliction of
pimples all over me. As if all this were not enough, we have also, for
the last week been waging war against the jigger, who has found his
Eldorado in the hot sand of the Makonde plateau. Our men are seen
all day long—whenever their chronic colds and the dysentery likewise
raging among them permit—occupied in removing this scourge of
Africa from their feet and trying to prevent the disastrous
consequences of its presence. It is quite common to see natives of
this place with one or two toes missing; many have lost all their toes,
or even the whole front part of the foot, so that a well-formed leg
ends in a shapeless stump. These ravages are caused by the female of
Sarcopsylla penetrans, which bores its way under the skin and there
develops an egg-sac the size of a pea. In all books on the subject, it is
stated that one’s attention is called to the presence of this parasite by
an intolerable itching. This agrees very well with my experience, so
far as the softer parts of the sole, the spaces between and under the
toes, and the side of the foot are concerned, but if the creature
penetrates through the harder parts of the heel or ball of the foot, it
may escape even the most careful search till it has reached maturity.
Then there is no time to be lost, if the horrible ulceration, of which
we see cases by the dozen every day, is to be prevented. It is much
easier, by the way, to discover the insect on the white skin of a
European than on that of a native, on which the dark speck scarcely
shows. The four or five jiggers which, in spite of the fact that I
constantly wore high laced boots, chose my feet to settle in, were
taken out for me by the all-accomplished Knudsen, after which I
thought it advisable to wash out the cavities with corrosive
sublimate. The natives have a different sort of disinfectant—they fill
the hole with scraped roots. In a tiny Makua village on the slope of
the plateau south of Newala, we saw an old woman who had filled all
the spaces under her toe-nails with powdered roots by way of
prophylactic treatment. What will be the result, if any, who can say?
The rest of the many trifling ills which trouble our existence are
really more comic than serious. In the absence of anything else to
smoke, Knudsen and I at last opened a box of cigars procured from
the Indian store-keeper at Lindi, and tried them, with the most
distressing results. Whether they contain opium or some other
narcotic, neither of us can say, but after the tenth puff we were both
“off,” three-quarters stupefied and unspeakably wretched. Slowly we
recovered—and what happened next? Half-an-hour later we were
once more smoking these poisonous concoctions—so insatiable is the
craving for tobacco in the tropics.
Even my present attacks of fever scarcely deserve to be taken
seriously. I have had no less than three here at Newala, all of which
have run their course in an incredibly short time. In the early
afternoon, I am busy with my old natives, asking questions and
making notes. The strong midday coffee has stimulated my spirits to
an extraordinary degree, the brain is active and vigorous, and work
progresses rapidly, while a pleasant warmth pervades the whole
body. Suddenly this gives place to a violent chill, forcing me to put on
my overcoat, though it is only half-past three and the afternoon sun
is at its hottest. Now the brain no longer works with such acuteness
and logical precision; more especially does it fail me in trying to
establish the syntax of the difficult Makua language on which I have
ventured, as if I had not enough to do without it. Under the
circumstances it seems advisable to take my temperature, and I do
so, to save trouble, without leaving my seat, and while going on with
my work. On examination, I find it to be 101·48°. My tutors are
abruptly dismissed and my bed set up in the baraza; a few minutes
later I am in it and treating myself internally with hot water and
lemon-juice.
Three hours later, the thermometer marks nearly 104°, and I make
them carry me back into the tent, bed and all, as I am now perspiring
heavily, and exposure to the cold wind just beginning to blow might
mean a fatal chill. I lie still for a little while, and then find, to my
great relief, that the temperature is not rising, but rather falling. This
is about 7.30 p.m. At 8 p.m. I find, to my unbounded astonishment,
that it has fallen below 98·6°, and I feel perfectly well. I read for an
hour or two, and could very well enjoy a smoke, if I had the
wherewithal—Indian cigars being out of the question.
Having no medical training, I am at a loss to account for this state
of things. It is impossible that these transitory attacks of high fever
should be malarial; it seems more probable that they are due to a
kind of sunstroke. On consulting my note-book, I become more and
more inclined to think this is the case, for these attacks regularly
follow extreme fatigue and long exposure to strong sunshine. They at
least have the advantage of being only short interruptions to my
work, as on the following morning I am always quite fresh and fit.
My treasure of a cook is suffering from an enormous hydrocele which
makes it difficult for him to get up, and Moritz is obliged to keep in
the dark on account of his inflamed eyes. Knudsen’s cook, a raw boy
from somewhere in the bush, knows still less of cooking than Omari;
consequently Nils Knudsen himself has been promoted to the vacant
post. Finding that we had come to the end of our supplies, he began
by sending to Chingulungulu for the four sucking-pigs which we had
bought from Matola and temporarily left in his charge; and when
they came up, neatly packed in a large crate, he callously slaughtered
the biggest of them. The first joint we were thoughtless enough to
entrust for roasting to Knudsen’s mshenzi cook, and it was
consequently uneatable; but we made the rest of the animal into a
jelly which we ate with great relish after weeks of underfeeding,
consuming incredible helpings of it at both midday and evening
meals. The only drawback is a certain want of variety in the tinned
vegetables. Dr. Jäger, to whom the Geographical Commission
entrusted the provisioning of the expeditions—mine as well as his
own—because he had more time on his hands than the rest of us,
seems to have laid in a huge stock of Teltow turnips,[46] an article of
food which is all very well for occasional use, but which quickly palls
when set before one every day; and we seem to have no other tins
left. There is no help for it—we must put up with the turnips; but I
am certain that, once I am home again, I shall not touch them for ten
years to come.
Amid all these minor evils, which, after all, go to make up the
genuine flavour of Africa, there is at least one cheering touch:
Knudsen has, with the dexterity of a skilled mechanic, repaired my 9
× 12 cm. camera, at least so far that I can use it with a little care.
How, in the absence of finger-nails, he was able to accomplish such a
ticklish piece of work, having no tool but a clumsy screw-driver for
taking to pieces and putting together again the complicated
mechanism of the instantaneous shutter, is still a mystery to me; but
he did it successfully. The loss of his finger-nails shows him in a light
contrasting curiously enough with the intelligence evinced by the
above operation; though, after all, it is scarcely surprising after his
ten years’ residence in the bush. One day, at Lindi, he had occasion
to wash a dog, which must have been in need of very thorough
cleansing, for the bottle handed to our friend for the purpose had an
extremely strong smell. Having performed his task in the most
conscientious manner, he perceived with some surprise that the dog
did not appear much the better for it, and was further surprised by
finding his own nails ulcerating away in the course of the next few
days. “How was I to know that carbolic acid has to be diluted?” he
mutters indignantly, from time to time, with a troubled gaze at his
mutilated finger-tips.
Since we came to Newala we have been making excursions in all
directions through the surrounding country, in accordance with old
habit, and also because the akida Sefu did not get together the tribal
elders from whom I wanted information so speedily as he had
promised. There is, however, no harm done, as, even if seen only
from the outside, the country and people are interesting enough.
The Makonde plateau is like a large rectangular table rounded off
at the corners. Measured from the Indian Ocean to Newala, it is
about seventy-five miles long, and between the Rovuma and the
Lukuledi it averages fifty miles in breadth, so that its superficial area
is about two-thirds of that of the kingdom of Saxony. The surface,
however, is not level, but uniformly inclined from its south-western
edge to the ocean. From the upper edge, on which Newala lies, the
eye ranges for many miles east and north-east, without encountering
any obstacle, over the Makonde bush. It is a green sea, from which
here and there thick clouds of smoke rise, to show that it, too, is
inhabited by men who carry on their tillage like so many other
primitive peoples, by cutting down and burning the bush, and
manuring with the ashes. Even in the radiant light of a tropical day
such a fire is a grand sight.
Much less effective is the impression produced just now by the
great western plain as seen from the edge of the plateau. As often as
time permits, I stroll along this edge, sometimes in one direction,
sometimes in another, in the hope of finding the air clear enough to
let me enjoy the view; but I have always been disappointed.
Wherever one looks, clouds of smoke rise from the burning bush,
and the air is full of smoke and vapour. It is a pity, for under more
favourable circumstances the panorama of the whole country up to
the distant Majeje hills must be truly magnificent. It is of little use
taking photographs now, and an outline sketch gives a very poor idea
of the scenery. In one of these excursions I went out of my way to
make a personal attempt on the Makonde bush. The present edge of
the plateau is the result of a far-reaching process of destruction
through erosion and denudation. The Makonde strata are
everywhere cut into by ravines, which, though short, are hundreds of
yards in depth. In consequence of the loose stratification of these
beds, not only are the walls of these ravines nearly vertical, but their
upper end is closed by an equally steep escarpment, so that the
western edge of the Makonde plateau is hemmed in by a series of
deep, basin-like valleys. In order to get from one side of such a ravine
to the other, I cut my way through the bush with a dozen of my men.
It was a very open part, with more grass than scrub, but even so the
short stretch of less than two hundred yards was very hard work; at
the end of it the men’s calicoes were in rags and they themselves
bleeding from hundreds of scratches, while even our strong khaki
suits had not escaped scatheless.
NATIVE PATH THROUGH THE MAKONDE BUSH, NEAR

MAHUTA
I see increasing reason to believe that the view formed some time
back as to the origin of the Makonde bush is the correct one. I have
no doubt that it is not a natural product, but the result of human
occupation. Those parts of the high country where man—as a very
slight amount of practice enables the eye to perceive at once—has not
yet penetrated with axe and hoe, are still occupied by a splendid
timber forest quite able to sustain a comparison with our mixed
forests in Germany. But wherever man has once built his hut or tilled
his field, this horrible bush springs up. Every phase of this process
may be seen in the course of a couple of hours’ walk along the main
road. From the bush to right or left, one hears the sound of the axe—
not from one spot only, but from several directions at once. A few
steps further on, we can see what is taking place. The brush has been
cut down and piled up in heaps to the height of a yard or more,
between which the trunks of the large trees stand up like the last
pillars of a magnificent ruined building. These, too, present a
melancholy spectacle: the destructive Makonde have ringed them—
cut a broad strip of bark all round to ensure their dying off—and also
piled up pyramids of brush round them. Father and son, mother and
son-in-law, are chopping away perseveringly in the background—too
busy, almost, to look round at the white stranger, who usually excites
so much interest. If you pass by the same place a week later, the piles
of brushwood have disappeared and a thick layer of ashes has taken
the place of the green forest. The large trees stretch their
smouldering trunks and branches in dumb accusation to heaven—if
they have not already fallen and been more or less reduced to ashes,
perhaps only showing as a white stripe on the dark ground.
This work of destruction is carried out by the Makonde alike on the
virgin forest and on the bush which has sprung up on sites already
cultivated and deserted. In the second case they are saved the trouble
of burning the large trees, these being entirely absent in the
secondary bush.
After burning this piece of forest ground and loosening it with the
hoe, the native sows his corn and plants his vegetables. All over the
country, he goes in for bed-culture, which requires, and, in fact,
receives, the most careful attention. Weeds are nowhere tolerated in
the south of German East Africa. The crops may fail on the plains,
where droughts are frequent, but never on the plateau with its
abundant rains and heavy dews. Its fortunate inhabitants even have
the satisfaction of seeing the proud Wayao and Wamakua working
for them as labourers, driven by hunger to serve where they were
accustomed to rule.
But the light, sandy soil is soon exhausted, and would yield no
harvest the second year if cultivated twice running. This fact has
been familiar to the native for ages; consequently he provides in
time, and, while his crop is growing, prepares the next plot with axe
and firebrand. Next year he plants this with his various crops and
lets the first piece lie fallow. For a short time it remains waste and
desolate; then nature steps in to repair the destruction wrought by
man; a thousand new growths spring out of the exhausted soil, and
even the old stumps put forth fresh shoots. Next year the new growth
is up to one’s knees, and in a few years more it is that terrible,
impenetrable bush, which maintains its position till the black
occupier of the land has made the round of all the available sites and
come back to his starting point.
The Makonde are, body and soul, so to speak, one with this bush.
According to my Yao informants, indeed, their name means nothing
else but “bush people.” Their own tradition says that they have been
settled up here for a very long time, but to my surprise they laid great
stress on an original immigration. Their old homes were in the
south-east, near Mikindani and the mouth of the Rovuma, whence
their peaceful forefathers were driven by the continual raids of the
Sakalavas from Madagascar and the warlike Shirazis[47] of the coast,
to take refuge on the almost inaccessible plateau. I have studied
African ethnology for twenty years, but the fact that changes of
population in this apparently quiet and peaceable corner of the earth
could have been occasioned by outside enterprises taking place on
the high seas, was completely new to me. It is, no doubt, however,
correct.
The charming tribal legend of the Makonde—besides informing us
of other interesting matters—explains why they have to live in the
thickest of the bush and a long way from the edge of the plateau,
instead of making their permanent homes beside the purling brooks
and springs of the low country.
“The place where the tribe originated is Mahuta, on the southern
side of the plateau towards the Rovuma, where of old time there was
nothing but thick bush. Out of this bush came a man who never
washed himself or shaved his head, and who ate and drank but little.
He went out and made a human figure from the wood of a tree
growing in the open country, which he took home to his abode in the
bush and there set it upright. In the night this image came to life and
was a woman. The man and woman went down together to the
Rovuma to wash themselves. Here the woman gave birth to a still-
born child. They left that place and passed over the high land into the
valley of the Mbemkuru, where the woman had another child, which
was also born dead. Then they returned to the high bush country of
Mahuta, where the third child was born, which lived and grew up. In
course of time, the couple had many more children, and called
themselves Wamatanda. These were the ancestral stock of the
Makonde, also called Wamakonde,[48] i.e., aborigines. Their
forefather, the man from the bush, gave his children the command to
bury their dead upright, in memory of the mother of their race who
was cut out of wood and awoke to life when standing upright. He also
warned them against settling in the valleys and near large streams,
for sickness and death dwelt there. They were to make it a rule to
have their huts at least an hour’s walk from the nearest watering-
place; then their children would thrive and escape illness.”
The explanation of the name Makonde given by my informants is
somewhat different from that contained in the above legend, which I
extract from a little book (small, but packed with information), by
Pater Adams, entitled Lindi und sein Hinterland. Otherwise, my
results agree exactly with the statements of the legend. Washing?
Hapana—there is no such thing. Why should they do so? As it is, the
supply of water scarcely suffices for cooking and drinking; other
people do not wash, so why should the Makonde distinguish himself
by such needless eccentricity? As for shaving the head, the short,
woolly crop scarcely needs it,[49] so the second ancestral precept is
likewise easy enough to follow. Beyond this, however, there is
nothing ridiculous in the ancestor’s advice. I have obtained from
various local artists a fairly large number of figures carved in wood,
ranging from fifteen to twenty-three inches in height, and
representing women belonging to the great group of the Mavia,
Makonde, and Matambwe tribes. The carving is remarkably well
done and renders the female type with great accuracy, especially the
keloid ornamentation, to be described later on. As to the object and
meaning of their works the sculptors either could or (more probably)
would tell me nothing, and I was forced to content myself with the
scanty information vouchsafed by one man, who said that the figures
were merely intended to represent the nembo—the artificial
deformations of pelele, ear-discs, and keloids. The legend recorded
by Pater Adams places these figures in a new light. They must surely
be more than mere dolls; and we may even venture to assume that
they are—though the majority of present-day Makonde are probably
unaware of the fact—representations of the tribal ancestress.
The references in the legend to the descent from Mahuta to the
Rovuma, and to a journey across the highlands into the Mbekuru
valley, undoubtedly indicate the previous history of the tribe, the
travels of the ancestral pair typifying the migrations of their
descendants. The descent to the neighbouring Rovuma valley, with
its extraordinary fertility and great abundance of game, is intelligible
at a glance—but the crossing of the Lukuledi depression, the ascent
to the Rondo Plateau and the descent to the Mbemkuru, also lie
within the bounds of probability, for all these districts have exactly
the same character as the extreme south. Now, however, comes a
point of especial interest for our bacteriological age. The primitive
Makonde did not enjoy their lives in the marshy river-valleys.
Disease raged among them, and many died. It was only after they
had returned to their original home near Mahuta, that the health
conditions of these people improved. We are very apt to think of the
African as a stupid person whose ignorance of nature is only equalled
by his fear of it, and who looks on all mishaps as caused by evil
spirits and malignant natural powers. It is much more correct to
assume in this case that the people very early learnt to distinguish
districts infested with malaria from those where it is absent.
This knowledge is crystallized in the
ancestral warning against settling in the
valleys and near the great waters, the
dwelling-places of disease and death. At the
same time, for security against the hostile
Mavia south of the Rovuma, it was enacted
that every settlement must be not less than a
certain distance from the southern edge of the
plateau. Such in fact is their mode of life at the
present day. It is not such a bad one, and
certainly they are both safer and more
comfortable than the Makua, the recent
intruders from the south, who have made USUAL METHOD OF
good their footing on the western edge of the CLOSING HUT-DOOR
plateau, extending over a fairly wide belt of
country. Neither Makua nor Makonde show in their dwellings
anything of the size and comeliness of the Yao houses in the plain,
especially at Masasi, Chingulungulu and Zuza’s. Jumbe Chauro, a
Makonde hamlet not far from Newala, on the road to Mahuta, is the
most important settlement of the tribe I have yet seen, and has fairly
spacious huts. But how slovenly is their construction compared with
the palatial residences of the elephant-hunters living in the plain.
The roofs are still more untidy than in the general run of huts during
the dry season, the walls show here and there the scanty beginnings
or the lamentable remains of the mud plastering, and the interior is a
veritable dog-kennel; dirt, dust and disorder everywhere. A few huts
only show any attempt at division into rooms, and this consists
merely of very roughly-made bamboo partitions. In one point alone
have I noticed any indication of progress—in the method of fastening
the door. Houses all over the south are secured in a simple but
ingenious manner. The door consists of a set of stout pieces of wood
or bamboo, tied with bark-string to two cross-pieces, and moving in
two grooves round one of the door-posts, so as to open inwards. If
the owner wishes to leave home, he takes two logs as thick as a man’s
upper arm and about a yard long. One of these is placed obliquely
against the middle of the door from the inside, so as to form an angle
of from 60° to 75° with the ground. He then places the second piece
horizontally across the first, pressing it downward with all his might.
It is kept in place by two strong posts planted in the ground a few
inches inside the door. This fastening is absolutely safe, but of course
cannot be applied to both doors at once, otherwise how could the
owner leave or enter his house? I have not yet succeeded in finding
out how the back door is fastened.
MAKONDE LOCK AND KEY AT JUMBE CHAURO

This is the general way of closing a house. The Makonde at Jumbe
Chauro, however, have a much more complicated, solid and original
one. Here, too, the door is as already described, except that there is
only one post on the inside, standing by itself about six inches from
one side of the doorway. Opposite this post is a hole in the wall just
large enough to admit a man’s arm. The door is closed inside by a
large wooden bolt passing through a hole in this post and pressing
with its free end against the door. The other end has three holes into
which fit three pegs running in vertical grooves inside the post. The
door is opened with a wooden key about a foot long, somewhat
curved and sloped off at the butt; the other end has three pegs
corresponding to the holes, in the bolt, so that, when it is thrust
through the hole in the wall and inserted into the rectangular
opening in the post, the pegs can be lifted and the bolt drawn out.[50]
MODE OF INSERTING THE KEY
With no small pride first one householder and then a second

showed me on the spot the action of this greatest invention of the
Makonde Highlands. To both with an admiring exclamation of
“Vizuri sana!” (“Very fine!”). I expressed the wish to take back these
marvels with me to Ulaya, to show the Wazungu what clever fellows
the Makonde are. Scarcely five minutes after my return to camp at
Newala, the two men came up sweating under the weight of two
heavy logs which they laid down at my feet, handing over at the same
time the keys of the fallen fortress. Arguing, logically enough, that if
the key was wanted, the lock would be wanted with it, they had taken
their axes and chopped down the posts—as it never occurred to them
to dig them out of the ground and so bring them intact. Thus I have
two badly damaged specimens, and the owners, instead of praise,
come in for a blowing-up.
The Makua huts in the environs of Newala are especially
miserable; their more than slovenly construction reminds one of the
temporary erections of the Makua at Hatia’s, though the people here
have not been concerned in a war. It must therefore be due to
congenital idleness, or else to the absence of a powerful chief. Even
the baraza at Mlipa’s, a short hour’s walk south-east of Newala,
shares in this general neglect. While public buildings in this country
are usually looked after more or less carefully, this is in evident
danger of being blown over by the first strong easterly gale. The only
attractive object in this whole district is the grave of the late chief
Mlipa. I visited it in the morning, while the sun was still trying with
partial success to break through the rolling mists, and the circular
grove of tall euphorbias, which, with a broken pot, is all that marks
the old king’s resting-place, impressed one with a touch of pathos.
Even my very materially-minded carriers seemed to feel something
of the sort, for instead of their usual ribald songs, they chanted
solemnly, as we marched on through the dense green of the Makonde
bush:—
“We shall arrive with the great master; we stand in a row and have
no fear about getting our food and our money from the Serkali (the
Government). We are not afraid; we are going along with the great
master, the lion; we are going down to the coast and back.”
With regard to the characteristic features of the various tribes here
on the western edge of the plateau, I can arrive at no other
conclusion than the one already come to in the plain, viz., that it is
impossible for anyone but a trained anthropologist to assign any
given individual at once to his proper tribe. In fact, I think that even
an anthropological specialist, after the most careful examination,
might find it a difficult task to decide. The whole congeries of peoples
collected in the region bounded on the west by the great Central
African rift, Tanganyika and Nyasa, and on the east by the Indian
Ocean, are closely related to each other—some of their languages are
only distinguished from one another as dialects of the same speech,
and no doubt all the tribes present the same shape of skull and
structure of skeleton. Thus, surely, there can be no very striking
differences in outward appearance.
Even did such exist, I should have no time
to concern myself with them, for day after day,
I have to see or hear, as the case may be—in
any case to grasp and record—an
extraordinary number of ethnographic
phenomena. I am almost disposed to think it
fortunate that some departments of inquiry, at
least, are barred by external circumstances.
Chief among these is the subject of iron-
working. We are apt to think of Africa as a
country where iron ore is everywhere, so to
speak, to be picked up by the roadside, and
where it would be quite surprising if the
inhabitants had not learnt to smelt the
material ready to their hand. In fact, the
knowledge of this art ranges all over the
continent, from the Kabyles in the north to the
Kafirs in the south. Here between the Rovuma
and the Lukuledi the conditions are not so
favourable. According to the statements of the
Makonde, neither ironstone nor any other
form of iron ore is known to them. They have
not therefore advanced to the art of smelting
the metal, but have hitherto bought all their
THE ANCESTRESS OF
THE MAKONDE
iron implements from neighbouring tribes.
Even in the plain the inhabitants are not much
better off. Only one man now living is said to
understand the art of smelting iron. This old fundi lives close to
Huwe, that isolated, steep-sided block of granite which rises out of
the green solitude between Masasi and Chingulungulu, and whose
jagged and splintered top meets the traveller’s eye everywhere. While
still at Masasi I wished to see this man at work, but was told that,
frightened by the rising, he had retired across the Rovuma, though
he would soon return. All subsequent inquiries as to whether the
fundi had come back met with the genuine African answer, “Bado”
(“Not yet”).
BRAZIER
Some consolation was afforded me by a brassfounder, whom I

came across in the bush near Akundonde’s. This man is the favourite
of women, and therefore no doubt of the gods; he welds the glittering
brass rods purchased at the coast into those massive, heavy rings
which, on the wrists and ankles of the local fair ones, continually give
me fresh food for admiration. Like every decent master-craftsman he
had all his tools with him, consisting of a pair of bellows, three
crucibles and a hammer—nothing more, apparently. He was quite
willing to show his skill, and in a twinkling had fixed his bellows on
the ground. They are simply two goat-skins, taken off whole, the four
legs being closed by knots, while the upper opening, intended to
admit the air, is kept stretched by two pieces of wood. At the lower
end of the skin a smaller opening is left into which a wooden tube is
stuck. The fundi has quickly borrowed a heap of wood-embers from
the nearest hut; he then fixes the free ends of the two tubes into an
earthen pipe, and clamps them to the ground by means of a bent
piece of wood. Now he fills one of his small clay crucibles, the dross
on which shows that they have been long in use, with the yellow
material, places it in the midst of the embers, which, at present are
only faintly glimmering, and begins his work. In quick alternation
the smith’s two hands move up and down with the open ends of the
bellows; as he raises his hand he holds the slit wide open, so as to let
the air enter the skin bag unhindered. In pressing it down he closes
the bag, and the air puffs through the bamboo tube and clay pipe into
the fire, which quickly burns up. The smith, however, does not keep
on with this work, but beckons to another man, who relieves him at
the bellows, while he takes some more tools out of a large skin pouch
carried on his back. I look on in wonder as, with a smooth round
stick about the thickness of a finger, he bores a few vertical holes into
the clean sand of the soil. This should not be difficult, yet the man
seems to be taking great pains over it. Then he fastens down to the
ground, with a couple of wooden clamps, a neat little trough made by
splitting a joint of bamboo in half, so that the ends are closed by the
two knots. At last the yellow metal has attained the right consistency,
and the fundi lifts the crucible from the fire by means of two sticks
split at the end to serve as tongs. A short swift turn to the left—a
tilting of the crucible—and the molten brass, hissing and giving forth
clouds of smoke, flows first into the bamboo mould and then into the
holes in the ground.
The technique of this backwoods craftsman may not be very far
advanced, but it cannot be denied that he knows how to obtain an
adequate result by the simplest means. The ladies of highest rank in
this country—that is to say, those who can afford it, wear two kinds
of these massive brass rings, one cylindrical, the other semicircular
in section. The latter are cast in the most ingenious way in the
bamboo mould, the former in the circular hole in the sand. It is quite
a simple matter for the fundi to fit these bars to the limbs of his fair
customers; with a few light strokes of his hammer he bends the
pliable brass round arm or ankle without further inconvenience to
the wearer.
SHAPING THE POT
SMOOTHING WITH MAIZE-COB
CUTTING THE EDGE

FINISHING THE BOTTOM
LAST SMOOTHING BEFORE

BURNING
FIRING THE BRUSH-PILE

LIGHTING THE FARTHER SIDE OF
THE PILE
TURNING THE RED-HOT VESSEL
NYASA WOMAN MAKING POTS AT MASASI

Pottery is an art which must always and everywhere excite the
interest of the student, just because it is so intimately connected with
the development of human culture, and because its relics are one of
the principal factors in the reconstruction of our own condition in
prehistoric times. I shall always remember with pleasure the two or
three afternoons at Masasi when Salim Matola’s mother, a slightly-
built, graceful, pleasant-looking woman, explained to me with
touching patience, by means of concrete illustrations, the ceramic art
of her people. The only implements for this primitive process were a
lump of clay in her left hand, and in the right a calabash containing
the following valuables: the fragment of a maize-cob stripped of all
its grains, a smooth, oval pebble, about the size of a pigeon’s egg, a
few chips of gourd-shell, a bamboo splinter about the length of one’s
hand, a small shell, and a bunch of some herb resembling spinach.
Nothing more. The woman scraped with the
shell a round, shallow hole in the soft, fine
sand of the soil, and, when an active young
girl had filled the calabash with water for her,
she began to knead the clay. As if by magic it
gradually assumed the shape of a rough but
already well-shaped vessel, which only wanted
a little touching up with the instruments
before mentioned. I looked out with the
MAKUA WOMAN closest attention for any indication of the use
MAKING A POT. of the potter’s wheel, in however rudimentary
SHOWS THE a form, but no—hapana (there is none). The
BEGINNINGS OF THE embryo pot stood firmly in its little
POTTER’S WHEEL
depression, and the woman walked round it in
a stooping posture, whether she was removing
small stones or similar foreign bodies with the maize-cob, smoothing
the inner or outer surface with the splinter of bamboo, or later, after
letting it dry for a day, pricking in the ornamentation with a pointed
bit of gourd-shell, or working out the bottom, or cutting the edge
with a sharp bamboo knife, or giving the last touches to the finished
vessel. This occupation of the women is infinitely toilsome, but it is
without doubt an accurate reproduction of the process in use among
our ancestors of the Neolithic and Bronze ages.
There is no doubt that the invention of pottery, an item in human
progress whose importance cannot be over-estimated, is due to
women. Rough, coarse and unfeeling, the men of the horde range
over the countryside. When the united cunning of the hunters has
succeeded in killing the game; not one of them thinks of carrying
home the spoil. A bright fire, kindled by a vigorous wielding of the
drill, is crackling beside them; the animal has been cleaned and cut
up secundum artem, and, after a slight singeing, will soon disappear
under their sharp teeth; no one all this time giving a single thought
to wife or child.
To what shifts, on the other hand, the primitive wife, and still more
the primitive mother, was put! Not even prehistoric stomachs could
endure an unvarying diet of raw food. Something or other suggested
the beneficial effect of hot water on the majority of approved but
indigestible dishes. Perhaps a neighbour had tried holding the hard
roots or tubers over the fire in a calabash filled with water—or maybe
an ostrich-egg-shell, or a hastily improvised vessel of bark. They
became much softer and more palatable than they had previously
been; but, unfortunately, the vessel could not stand the fire and got
charred on the outside. That can be remedied, thought our
ancestress, and plastered a layer of wet clay round a similar vessel.
This is an improvement; the cooking utensil remains uninjured, but
the heat of the fire has shrunk it, so that it is loose in its shell. The
next step is to detach it, so, with a firm grip and a jerk, shell and
kernel are separated, and pottery is invented. Perhaps, however, the
discovery which led to an intelligent use of the burnt-clay shell, was
made in a slightly different way. Ostrich-eggs and calabashes are not
to be found in every part of the world, but everywhere mankind has
arrived at the art of making baskets out of pliant materials, such as
bark, bast, strips of palm-leaf, supple twigs, etc. Our inventor has no
water-tight vessel provided by nature. “Never mind, let us line the
basket with clay.” This answers the purpose, but alas! the basket gets
burnt over the blazing fire, the woman watches the process of
cooking with increasing uneasiness, fearing a leak, but no leak
appears. The food, done to a turn, is eaten with peculiar relish; and
the cooking-vessel is examined, half in curiosity, half in satisfaction
at the result. The plastic clay is now hard as stone, and at the same
time looks exceedingly well, for the neat plaiting of the burnt basket
is traced all over it in a pretty pattern. Thus, simultaneously with
pottery, its ornamentation was invented.
Primitive woman has another claim to respect. It was the man,
roving abroad, who invented the art of producing fire at will, but the
woman, unable to imitate him in this, has been a Vestal from the
earliest times. Nothing gives so much trouble as the keeping alight of
the smouldering brand, and, above all, when all the men are absent
from the camp. Heavy rain-clouds gather, already the first large
drops are falling, the first gusts of the storm rage over the plain. The
little flame, a greater anxiety to the woman than her own children,
flickers unsteadily in the blast. What is to be done? A sudden thought
occurs to her, and in an instant she has constructed a primitive hut
out of strips of bark, to protect the flame against rain and wind.
This, or something very like it, was the way in which the principle
of the house was discovered; and even the most hardened misogynist
cannot fairly refuse a woman the credit of it. The protection of the
hearth-fire from the weather is the germ from which the human
dwelling was evolved. Men had little, if any share, in this forward
step, and that only at a late stage. Even at the present day, the
plastering of the housewall with clay and the manufacture of pottery
are exclusively the women’s business. These are two very significant
survivals. Our European kitchen-garden, too, is originally a woman’s
invention, and the hoe, the primitive instrument of agriculture, is,
characteristically enough, still used in this department. But the
noblest achievement which we owe to the other sex is unquestionably
the art of cookery. Roasting alone—the oldest process—is one for
which men took the hint (a very obvious one) from nature. It must
have been suggested by the scorched carcase of some animal
overtaken by the destructive forest-fires. But boiling—the process of
improving organic substances by the help of water heated to boiling-
point—is a much later discovery. It is so recent that it has not even
yet penetrated to all parts of the world. The Polynesians understand
how to steam food, that is, to cook it, neatly wrapped in leaves, in a
hole in the earth between hot stones, the air being excluded, and
(sometimes) a few drops of water sprinkled on the stones; but they
do not understand boiling.
To come back from this digression, we find that the slender Nyasa
woman has, after once more carefully examining the finished pot,
put it aside in the shade to dry. On the following day she sends me
word by her son, Salim Matola, who is always on hand, that she is
going to do the burning, and, on coming out of my house, I find her
already hard at work. She has spread on the ground a layer of very
dry sticks, about as thick as one’s thumb, has laid the pot (now of a
yellowish-grey colour) on them, and is piling brushwood round it.
My faithful Pesa mbili, the mnyampara, who has been standing by,
most obligingly, with a lighted stick, now hands it to her. Both of
them, blowing steadily, light the pile on the lee side, and, when the
flame begins to catch, on the weather side also. Soon the whole is in a
blaze, but the dry fuel is quickly consumed and the fire dies down, so
that we see the red-hot vessel rising from the ashes. The woman
turns it continually with a long stick, sometimes one way and
sometimes another, so that it may be evenly heated all over. In
twenty minutes she rolls it out of the ash-heap, takes up the bundle
of spinach, which has been lying for two days in a jar of water, and
sprinkles the red-hot clay with it. The places where the drops fall are
marked by black spots on the uniform reddish-brown surface. With a
sigh of relief, and with visible satisfaction, the woman rises to an
erect position; she is standing just in a line between me and the fire,
from which a cloud of smoke is just rising: I press the ball of my
camera, the shutter clicks—the apotheosis is achieved! Like a
priestess, representative of her inventive sex, the graceful woman
stands: at her feet the hearth-fire she has given us beside her the
invention she has devised for us, in the background the home she has
built for us.
At Newala, also, I have had the manufacture of pottery carried on
in my presence. Technically the process is better than that already
described, for here we find the beginnings of the potter’s wheel,
which does not seem to exist in the plains; at least I have seen
nothing of the sort. The artist, a frightfully stupid Makua woman, did
not make a depression in the ground to receive the pot she was about
to shape, but used instead a large potsherd. Otherwise, she went to
work in much the same way as Salim’s mother, except that she saved
herself the trouble of walking round and round her work by squatting
at her ease and letting the pot and potsherd rotate round her; this is
surely the first step towards a machine. But it does not follow that
the pot was improved by the process. It is true that it was beautifully
rounded and presented a very creditable appearance when finished,
but the numerous large and small vessels which I have seen, and, in
part, collected, in the “less advanced” districts, are no less so. We
moderns imagine that instruments of precision are necessary to
produce excellent results. Go to the prehistoric collections of our
museums and look at the pots, urns and bowls of our ancestors in the
dim ages of the past, and you will at once perceive your error.
MAKING LONGITUDINAL CUT IN
BARK
DRAWING THE BARK OFF THE LOG
REMOVING THE OUTER BARK

BEATING THE BARK
WORKING THE BARK-CLOTH AFTER BEATING, TO MAKE IT

SOFT
MANUFACTURE OF BARK-CLOTH AT NEWALA

To-day, nearly the whole population of German East Africa is
clothed in imported calico. This was not always the case; even now in
some parts of the north dressed skins are still the prevailing wear,
and in the north-western districts—east and north of Lake
Tanganyika—lies a zone where bark-cloth has not yet been
superseded. Probably not many generations have passed since such
bark fabrics and kilts of skins were the only clothing even in the
south. Even to-day, large quantities of this bright-red or drab
material are still to be found; but if we wish to see it, we must look in
the granaries and on the drying stages inside the native huts, where
it serves less ambitious uses as wrappings for those seeds and fruits
which require to be packed with special care. The salt produced at
Masasi, too, is packed for transport to a distance in large sheets of
bark-cloth. Wherever I found it in any degree possible, I studied the
process of making this cloth. The native requisitioned for the
purpose arrived, carrying a log between two and three yards long and
as thick as his thigh, and nothing else except a curiously-shaped
mallet and the usual long, sharp and pointed knife which all men and
boys wear in a belt at their backs without a sheath—horribile dictu!
[51]
Silently he squats down before me, and with two rapid cuts has
drawn a couple of circles round the log some two yards apart, and
slits the bark lengthwise between them with the point of his knife.
With evident care, he then scrapes off the outer rind all round the
log, so that in a quarter of an hour the inner red layer of the bark
shows up brightly-coloured between the two untouched ends. With
some trouble and much caution, he now loosens the bark at one end,
and opens the cylinder. He then stands up, takes hold of the free
edge with both hands, and turning it inside out, slowly but steadily
pulls it off in one piece. Now comes the troublesome work of
scraping all superfluous particles of outer bark from the outside of
the long, narrow piece of material, while the inner side is carefully
scrutinised for defective spots. At last it is ready for beating. Having
signalled to a friend, who immediately places a bowl of water beside
him, the artificer damps his sheet of bark all over, seizes his mallet,
lays one end of the stuff on the smoothest spot of the log, and
hammers away slowly but continuously. “Very simple!” I think to
myself. “Why, I could do that, too!”—but I am forced to change my
opinions a little later on; for the beating is quite an art, if the fabric is
not to be beaten to pieces. To prevent the breaking of the fibres, the
stuff is several times folded across, so as to interpose several
thicknesses between the mallet and the block. At last the required
state is reached, and the fundi seizes the sheet, still folded, by both
ends, and wrings it out, or calls an assistant to take one end while he
holds the other. The cloth produced in this way is not nearly so fine
and uniform in texture as the famous Uganda bark-cloth, but it is
quite soft, and, above all, cheap.
Now, too, I examine the mallet. My craftsman has been using the
simpler but better form of this implement, a conical block of some
hard wood, its base—the striking surface—being scored across and
across with more or less deeply-cut grooves, and the handle stuck
into a hole in the middle. The other and earlier form of mallet is
shaped in the same way, but the head is fastened by an ingenious
network of bark strips into the split bamboo serving as a handle. The
observation so often made, that ancient customs persist longest in
connection with religious ceremonies and in the life of children, here
finds confirmation. As we shall soon see, bark-cloth is still worn
during the unyago,[52] having been prepared with special solemn
ceremonies; and many a mother, if she has no other garment handy,
will still put her little one into a kilt of bark-cloth, which, after all,
looks better, besides being more in keeping with its African
surroundings, than the ridiculous bit of print from Ulaya.
MAKUA WOMEN

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Fundamentals of Physical Geography

2nd Edition, (Ebook PDF)

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F undamentals of Physical Geography, now in its second

Focus on Student Interaction New and Revised Text

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Physical Geography— tant examples of each perspective.

Four Major Objectives To Fulfill the Major Requirements

3 Solar Energy and Atmospheric Heating 47

4 Atmospheric Pressure, Winds, and Circulation 75

5 Humidity, Condensation, and Precipitation 101

6 Air Masses and Weather Systems 127

7 Climate Classification: Tropical, Arid, and Mesothermal

8 Microthermal, Polar, and Highland Climate Regions: Climate

9 Biogeography and Soils 223

10 Earth Materials and Plate Tectonics 255

11 Tectonic and Volcanic Processes and Landforms 283

12 Weathering and Mass Wasting 313

13 Water Resources and Karst Landforms 341

14 Fluvial Processes and Landforms 363

15 Arid Region Landforms and Eolian Processes 393

16 Glacial Systems and Landforms 421

17 Coastal Processes and Landforms 449

1 Physical Geography: Properties of Map Projections 32

Earth Environments and Map Basics 33

4 Atmospheric Pressure, Water in the Atmosphere 105

Winds, and Circulation 75 Saturation and the Dew Point 106

and Precipitation 101 :: Geography’s Physical Science Perspective:

7 Climate Classification: Climate Change 207

Tropical, Arid, and Past Climates 207

Highland Climate :: Geography’s Spatial Perspective: The Theory of Island

Soil-Forming Regimes and Classification 250 Compressional Tectonic Forces 287

10 Earth Materials and Plate :: Geography’s Environmental Perspective: Mapping

Geologic Time and Paleogeography 278 Structural Weaknesses 324

Landforms 283 Fast Mass Wasting 331

13 Water Resources and Thinking Geographically 384

Karst Landforms 341 Rivers, Lakes, and People 385

Continental Glaciers 434 Coastal Erosion 459

17 Coastal Processes Appendix B Topographic Maps 477

James F. Petersen James F. Petersen is professor of geography at Texas

Dorothy Sack Dorothy Sack, professor of geography at Ohio University in

Robert E. Gabler During his nearly five decades of professional experience,

Models and Systems

The Earth in Space

“The Blue Marble,” lunar

From a human perspective, Earth might seem immense

Earth’s fragile nature: a spherical island of life surrounded by the

the relevant questions to ask is an important step toward finding

answers and explanations. Understanding how Earth’s features Geography Geography

The Study of SOCIAL SCIENCE

Geography ■ FIGURE 1.1 Geography has many subdivisions that are

© Dr. Parvinder S. Sethi

spatial data—functions that can now be performed on a per-

The Spatial Perspective

Location ​Geographic studies often begin with locational

tude 105°03 west. This is an example of an absolute location.

7 Climate Classification: Tropical, Arid, and Mesothermal

8 Microthermal, Polar, and Highland Climate Regions: Climate

Location Geographic studies often begin with locational

Spatial Interaction Few processes on Earth operate in

Human–Environment Interactions Physical

A Life-Support System The most critical and