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BRIEF CONTENTS
Preface, xviii
PART ONE Introduction, 1

1 The Role of Business Research, 2
2 Information Systems and Knowledge Management, 17
3 Theory Building, 37
4 The Business Research Process: An Overview, 48
5 The Human Side of Business Research: Organizational and Ethical Issues, 73
PART TWO Beginning Stages of the Research Process, 105

6 Problem Definition: The Foundation of Business Research, 106
7 Qualitative Research Tools, 131
8 Secondary Data Research in a Digital Age, 159
PART THREE Research Methods for Collecting Primary Data, 183

9 Survey Research: An Overview, 184
10 Survey Research: Communicating with Respondents, 205
11 Observation Methods, 235
12 Experimental Research, 253
PART FOUR Measurement Concepts, 287

13 Measurement and Scaling Concepts, 288
14 Attitude Measurement, 310
15 Questionnaire Design, 333
PART FIVE Sampling and Fieldwork, 383

16 Sampling Designs and Sampling Procedures, 384
17 Determination of Sample Size: A Review of Statistical Theory, 409
18 Fieldwork, 441
PART SIX Data Analysis and Presentation, 457

19 Editing and Coding: Transforming Raw Data into Information, 458
20 Basic Data Analysis: Descriptive Statistics, 483
21 Univariate Statistical Analysis, 506
22 Bivariate Statistical Analysis: Differences Between Two Variables, 528
23 Bivariate Statistical Analysis: Measures of Association, 560
24 Multivariate Statistical Analysis, 582
25 Communicating Research Results: Report Generation, Oral Presentation,
and Follow-Up, 610
PART SEVEN Comprehensive Cases with Computerized

Databases, 635
Glossary of Frequently Used Symbols, 645
Glossary, 646
Endnotes, 659
Index, 666
vi
Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
CONTENTS
Preface, xviii
PART ONE Questions for Review and Critical Thinking, 16

Research Activities, 16
Introduction
CHAPTER 2
CHAPTER 1 Information Systems and
The Role of Business Research, 2 Knowledge Management, 17
Introduction, 3 Introduction, 18
Survey This!, 4 Information, Data, and Intelligence, 18
The Nature of Business Research, 4 The Characteristics of Valuable Information, 19
Business Research Defined, 5 Relevance, 19
Applied and Basic Business Research, 5
Survey This!, 20
The Scientific Method, 6
Quality, 20
Managerial Value of Business Research, 7 Timeliness, 20
Identifying Problems or Opportunities, 8 Completeness, 20
Diagnosing and Assessing Problems or Opportunities, 8
Research Snapshot RFID Technology Gets
Selecting and Implementing a Course of Action, 8
Cheaper—Business Knowledge Grows, 21
Evaluating the Course of Action, 9
Knowledge Management, 21
Research Snapshot Harley-Davidson Goes Abroad, 10
Research Snapshot Are Businesses Clairvoyant?, 22
When Is Business Research Needed?, 10
Time Constraints, 10 Global Information Systems, 22
Availability of Data, 10 Decision Support Systems, 23
Research Snapshot Business Class Success?, 11 Databases and Data Warehousing, 24
Nature of the Decision, 11 Input Management, 24
Benefits versus Costs, 11 Research Snapshot Staying Home at Home Depot, 26
Business Research in the Twenty-First Century, 12 Computerized Data Archives, 27
Communication Technologies, 12 Networks and Electronic Data Interchange, 29
Research Snapshot “Jacques” Daniels, 13 The Internet and Research, 29
Global Business Research, 13 What Exactly Is the Internet?, 29
How Is the Internet Useful in Research?, 30
Overview, 14
Navigating the Internet, 31
Summary, 15 Interactive Media and Environmental Scanning, 31
Key Terms and Concepts, 16 Information Technology, 32
vii
viiiContents
Intranets, 33 Research Snapshot Rolling Rock, 66

Internet2, 33 Sampling, 66
Gathering Data, 67
Summary, 34
Processing and Analyzing Data, 68
Key Terms and Concepts, 35
Drawing Conclusions and Preparing a Report, 68
Questions for Review and Critical Thinking, 35
Research Activities, 35 The Research Program Strategy, 68
CASE 2.1 Harvard Cooperative Society, 36 Summary, 69
CHAPTER 3 Research Activities, 71
Theory Building, 37 CASE 4.1 A New “Joe” on the Block, 71
Introduction, 38
What Is a Theory?, 38
What Are the Goals of Theory?, 38
CHAPTER 5
Survey This!, 39
The Human Side of Business
Research: Organizational
Research Concepts, Constructs, Propositions,
Variables, and Hypotheses, 39
and Ethical Issues, 73
Research Concepts and Constructs, 39 Introduction, 74
Research Snapshot Social Network Theory, 40 Survey This!, 76
Research Propositions and Hypotheses, 41 Organizational Structure of Business Research, 76
Understanding Theory, 42 Business Research Jobs, 77
Verifying Theory, 43 The Director of Research as a Manager, 79
Theory Building, 43 Sources of Conflict between Senior Management
and Research, 79
The Scientific Method, 44
Research Snapshot The True Power of Research, 80
Practical Value of Theories, 46
Research Snapshot When Your Brain “Trips Up,” 81
Summary, 46 Reducing the Conflict between Management
Key Terms and Concepts, 47 and Researchers, 82
Questions for Review and Critical Thinking, 47 Cross-Functional Teams, 84
Research Suppliers and Contractors, 85
Syndicated Service, 85
CHAPTER 4 Standardized Research Services, 85
The Business Research Research Snapshot Finding Häagen-Dazs in China, 86
Process: An Overview, 48 Limited Research Service Companies and
Custom Research, 86
Introduction, 49 Largest Research Organizations, 86
Decision Making, 49 Ethical Issues in Business Research, 87
Certainty, 49 Ethical Questions Are Philosophical Questions, 88
Survey This!, 50 General Rights and Obligations of Concerned Parties, 88
Uncertainty, 50 Rights and Obligations of the Research Participant, 89
Ambiguity, 50 Research Snapshot Crazy Good! Have Fun, Play Games
Types of Business Research, 51 (and Buy Pop-Tarts)!, 92
Rights and Obligations of the Researcher, 93
Research Snapshot Cute, Funny, or Sexy? What Makes
a Mascot Tick?, 52 Research Snapshot Is It Right, or Is It Wrong?, 95
Exploratory Research, 52 Rights and Obligations of the Client Sponsor (User), 99
Descriptive Research, 53 Privacy, 100
Privacy on the Internet, 100
Research Snapshot Taking a Swing at Business A Final Note on Ethics, 100
Success, 54
Causal Research, 54 Summary, 101
Uncertainty Influences the Type of Research, 58 Key Terms and Concepts, 102
Stages in the Research Process, 59 Research Activities, 103
Alternatives in the Research Process, 60
Defining the Research Objectives, 60 CASE 5.1 Global Eating, 103
Planning the Research Design, 64 CASE 5.2 Big Brother Is Watching?, 104
Contentsix
PART TWO Qualitative “versus” Quantitative Research, 133

Beginning Stages of the Research Research Snapshot Discoveries at P&G!, 134
Contrasting Qualitative and Quantitative Methods, 134
Process Contrasting Exploratory and Confirmatory Research, 135
Orientations to Qualitative Research, 136
CHAPTER 6 Phenomenology, 136
Problem Definition: Research Snapshot “When Will I Ever Learn?,” 137
The Foundation of Business Ethnography, 138
Grounded Theory, 139
Research, 106 Case Studies, 139
Introduction, 107 Research Snapshot A Sensory Safari Provides Play Time
Importance of Starting with a Good Problem (and Good Research) for Time Warner Cable, 140
Definition, 107
Common Techniques Used in Qualitative
Survey This!, 108 Research, 140
Problem Complexity, 108 What Is a Focus Group Interview?, 141
Research Snapshot Good Answers, Bad Questions?, 109 Depth Interviews, 149
Conversations, 150
The Problem-Definition Process, 111 Free-Association/Sentence Completion Method, 151
Problems Mean Gaps, 111 Observation, 152
The Problem-Definition Process Steps, 111 Collages, 152
Research Snapshot Poor Questions Result in Poor Projective Research Techniques, 152
Research in Japan!, 112
Exploratory Research in Science and in Practice, 153
Understand the Business Decision, 112
Misuses of Exploratory and Qualitative Research, 153
Research Snapshot Opportunity Is a “Fleeting”
Summary, 155
Thing, 115
Identifying the Relevant Issues from the Symptoms, 116
Writing Managerial Decision Statements and
Corresponding Research Objectives, 116
Determine the Unit of Analysis, 118 CASE 7.1 Disaster and Consumer Value, 157
Determine Relevant Variables, 118 CASE 7.2 Edward Jones, 158
Write Research Objectives and Questions, 120
Research Snapshot Pricing Turbulence, 121
CHAPTER 8
Secondary Data Research
Clarity in Research Questions and Hypotheses, 121
in a Digital Age, 159
How Much Time Should Be Spent on Problem Introduction, 160
Definition?, 123 Advantages of Secondary Data, 160
The Research Proposal, 123 Disadvantages of Secondary Data, 160
The Proposal As a Planning Tool, 123 Survey This!, 161
The Proposal as a Contract, 125
Anticipating Outcomes, 126 Typical Objectives for Secondary Data Research
Designs, 162
Summary, 128 Fact-Finding, 162
Research Snapshot Does It Matter?, 165
Model Building, 165
Data Mining, 168
CASE 6.1 E-ZPass, 130 Research Snapshot Mining Data from Blogs, 169
CASE 6.2 Cane’s Goes International, 130 Database Marketing and Customer Relationship
CASE 6.3 Deland Trucking, 130 Management, 170
Sources of Secondary Data, 170
CHAPTER 7 Sources of Internal and Proprietary Data, 171
Qualitative Research Tools, 131 External Data: The Distribution System, 171
Information As a Product and Its Distribution Channels, 171
Introduction, 132
Research Snapshot What’s That Buzzing Sound?, 175
What Is Qualitative Research?, 132
Uses of Qualitative Research, 132 Single-Source Data-Integrated Information, 177
Survey This!, 133 Sources for Global Research, 177
xContents
Research Snapshot Around the World of Data, 178 Personal Interviews, 206
Summary, 180 Survey This!, 207
Key Terms and Concepts, 180 Advantages of Personal Interviews, 207
Questions for Review and Critical Thinking, 181 Research Snapshot The Challenge of Assessing Adult
Research Activities, 181 Literacy, 208
CASE 8.1 Demand for Gas Guzzlers, 182 Disadvantages of Personal Interviews, 209
Door-to-Door Interviews and Shopping Mall Intercepts, 210
Research Snapshot Being Good Neighbors Means
PART THREE Learning about Them First, 211
Global Considerations, 212
Research Methods for Collecting
Telephone Interviews, 212
Primary Data Mobile Phone Interviews, 213
Phone Interview Characteristics, 213
CHAPTER 9 Central Location Interviewing, 215
Survey Research: An Overview, 184 Research Snapshot Automated Phone Surveys
of Teens, 216
Introduction, 185 Computer-Assisted Telephone Interviewing, 216
Using Surveys, 185 Computerized Voice-Activated Telephone Interview, 216
Survey This!, 186 Global Considerations, 217
Advantages of Surveys, 186 Self-Administered Questionnaires, 217
Research Snapshot Intuit Gets Answers to Satisfy Mail Questionnaires, 217
Customers, 187 Response Rates, 219
Increasing Response Rates for Mail Surveys, 220
Errors in Survey Research, 187 Global Considerations, 223
Random Sampling Error, 188
Systematic Error, 188 Self-Administered Questionnaires Using Other
Forms of Distribution, 223
Research Snapshot Overestimating Patient
Fax Surveys, 223
Satisfaction, 189
E-Mail Surveys, 224
Respondent Error, 189
Internet Surveys, 225
Administrative Error, 193
Rule-of-Thumb Estimates for Systematic Error, 194 Research Snapshot Mixed Mode Data Collection:
What Can Be Done to Reduce Survey Error?, 194 The Case of Web and Telephone Surveys, 226
Kiosk Interactive Surveys, 228
Classifying Survey Research Methods, 194 Survey Research That Mixes Modes, 229
Structured/Unstructured and Disguised/Undisguised
Text-Message Surveys, 229
Questionnaires, 194
Research Snapshot The “Mere-Measurement” Effect, 195 Selecting the Appropriate Survey Research Design, 229
Temporal Classification, 195 Pretesting, 231
Total Quality Management and Customer Ethical Issues in Survey Research, 231
Satisfaction Surveys, 197
Summary, 231
What Is Quality?, 198
Internal and External Customers, 198
Implementing Total Quality Management, 198
Summary, 201
CASE 10.1 National Do Not Call Registry, 233
CASE 10.2 Royal Bee Electric Fishing Reel, 234
CHAPTER 11
CASE 9.1 SAT and ACT Writing Tests, 204
CASE 9.2 The Walker Information Group, 204 Observation Methods, 235
Introduction, 236
CHAPTER 10 Observation in Business Research, 236
Survey Research: Communicating What Can Be Observed?, 236
with Respondents, 205 Survey This!, 237
Introduction, 206 The Nature of Observation Studies, 237
Interviews as Interactive Communication, 206 Research Snapshot This Trend Brought to You by DDB
Noninteractive Media, 206 SignBank, 238
Contentsxi
Observation of Human Behavior, 238 Issues of Experimental Validity, 271

Complementary Evidence, 239 Internal Validity, 271
Direct Observation, 240 External Validity, 273
Combining Direct Observation and Interviewing, 241 Trade-offs between Internal and External
Ethical Issues in the Observation of Humans, 241 Validity, 274
Observation of Physical Objects, 242 Classification of Experimental Designs, 274
Symbolism for Diagramming Experimental
Content Analysis, 243
Designs, 274
Mechanical Observation, 244 Three Examples of Quasiexperimental Designs, 274
Television Monitoring, 244 Three Alternative Experimental Designs, 276
Research Snapshot ATTI, Inc. Shadows the Fleet, 245 Time Series Designs, 278
Monitoring Website Traffic, 246 Complex Experimental Designs, 278
Scanner-Based Research, 246 Summary, 282
Measuring Physiological Reactions, 247 Key Terms and Concepts , 283
Research Snapshot Neuroco Peers into the Consumer’s Questions for Review and Critical Thinking, 284
Brain, 248 Research Activities, 284
Summary, 249 CASE 12.1 Tooheys, 285

PART FOUR
CASE 11.1 Mazda and Syzygy, 251
CASE 11.2 Texas Instruments and E-Lab, 252
Measurement Concepts
CHAPTER 12 CHAPTER 13
Experimental Research, 253 Measurement and Scaling
Concepts, 288
Introduction, 254
Introduction, 289
Creating an Experiment, 254
An Illustration: Can a Self-Efficacy Intervention Enhance What Do I Measure?, 289
Job Attitude?, 254 Survey This!, 290
Survey This!, 255 Research Snapshot Peer Pressure and Investing
Behavior, 292
Designing an Experiment to Minimize Concepts, 292
Experimental Error, 257 Operational Definitions, 292
Manipulation of the Independent Variable, 257
Levels of Scale Measurement, 293
Research Snapshot Talking While Driving: Are Cell Nominal Scale, 293
Phone Conversations Different from Passenger Ordinal Scale, 295
Conversations?, 259 Interval Scale, 297
Selection and Measurement of the Dependent Variable, 260 Ratio Scale, 297
Selection and Assignment of Test Units, 260 Mathematical and Statistical Analysis
Demand Characteristics, 263 of Scales, 298
What Are Demand Characteristics?, 263 Index Measures, 299
Experimenter Bias and Demand Effects, 263 Indexes and Composites, 299
Hawthorne Effect, 264 Computing Scale Values, 300
Reducing Demand Characteristics, 265
Research Snapshot Recoding Made Easy, 301
Establishing Control, 266 Three Criteria for Good Measurement, 301
Problems Controlling Extraneous Variables, 266 Reliability, 301
Ethical Issues in Experimentation, 267 Validity, 303
Reliability versus Validity, 305
Practical Experimental Design Issues, 267 Sensitivity, 305
Basic versus Factorial Experimental Designs, 267
Laboratory Experiments, 267 Summary, 306
Field Experiments, 268 Key Terms and Concepts, 306
Research Snapshot The Hidden in Hidden Research Activities, 307
Valley Ranch, 269
Within-Subjects and Between-Subjects Designs, 270 CASE 13.1 FlyAway Airways, 308
xiiContents
CHAPTER 14 Survey This!, 335

Questionnaire Relevancy, 335
Attitude Measurement, 310 Questionnaire Accuracy, 335
Introduction, 311 Wording Questions, 336
Attitudes as Hypothetical Constructs, 311 Open-Ended Response versus Fixed-Alternative
Survey This!, 312 Questions, 336
Importance of Measuring Attitudes, 312 Research Snapshot Corporate Reputations: Consumers
Put Johnson & Johnson, Microsoft, and Google
Techniques for Measuring Attitudes, 312
on Top, 337
Research Snapshot Is It Positive Emotionality, or Is It Types of Fixed-Alternative Questions, 338
LOVE?, 313 Phrasing Questions for Self-Administered, Telephone, and
Attitude Rating Scales, 313 Personal Interview Surveys, 340
Simple Attitude Scales, 313 Guidelines for Constructing Questions, 341
Research Snapshot Students Ask—Are You Responsible?, 314 Avoid Complexity: Use Simple, Conversational
Category Scales, 314 Language, 341
Method of Summated Ratings: The Likert Scale, 315 Avoid Leading and Loaded Questions, 342
Semantic Differential, 317 Avoid Ambiguity: Be as Specific as Possible, 343
Avoid Double-Barreled Items, 344
Research Snapshot Measuring Website Usability, 319
Avoid Making Assumptions, 345
Numerical Scales, 319
Avoid Burdensome Questions That May Tax the
Stapel Scale, 319
Respondent’s Memory, 345
Constant-Sum Scale, 320
Make Certain Questions Generate Variance, 346
Graphic Rating Scales, 321
What Is the Best Question Sequence?, 347
Research Snapshot How Much Is a Healthy Home
Worth?, 322 Research Snapshot What Citizens Think about Climate
Thurstone Interval Scale, 322 Change, 348
Measuring Behavioral Intention, 323 What Is the Best Layout?, 350
Behavioral Differential, 324 Traditional Questionnaires, 350
Internet Questionnaires, 355
Ranking, 324
Paired Comparisons, 324 Research Snapshot Pretesting the CAHPS Hospital
Sorting, 325 Survey, 359
Other Methods of Attitude Measurement, 325 How Much Pretesting and Revising Are
Necessary?, 360
Selecting a Measurement Scale: Some Practical
Decisions, 326 Designing Questionnaires for Global
Ranking, Sorting, Rating, or Choice Technique?, 326 Markets, 361
Monadic or Comparative Scale?, 326
Summary, 362
What Type of Category Labels, If Any?, 327
How Many Scale Categories or Response Positions?, 327
Balanced or Unbalanced Rating Scale?, 327
Research Activity, 364
Even or Odd Number of Scale Points?, 328
Use a Scale That Forces a Choice among Predetermined CASE 15.1 Agency for Healthcare Research
Options?, 328 and Quality, 364
Single Measure or an Index Measure?, 329 CASE 15.2 Canterbury Travels, 369
CASE 15.3 McDonald’s Spanish Language
Summary, 329
Questionnaire, 371
CASE 15.4 Schönbrunn Palace in
Vienna, 372
CASE 14.1 Roeder-Johnson Corporation, 331 APPENDIX 15A
CASE 14.2 Attitudes toward Technology and Lifestyle, 331 Question Wording and
CHAPTER 15 Measurement Scales for Commonly
Questionnaire Design, 333 Researched Topics, 373
Questions about Advertising, 373
Introduction, 334
Awareness, 373
Questionnaire Quality and Design: Basic Unaided Recall/ Top of the Mind Recall, 374
Considerations, 334 Aided Recall, 374
What Should Be Asked?, 334 Recognition, 374
Contentsxiii
Message Communication/Playback (Sales Point Random Sampling and Nonsampling

Playback), 374 Errors, 390
Attitude toward the Advertisement, 375 Random Sampling Error, 391
Attitude toward Advertised Brand (Persuasion), 375 Systematic Sampling Error, 391
Readership/Viewership, 375 Less Than Perfectly Representative Samples, 391
Questions about Ownership and Product Probability versus Nonprobability
Usage, 376 Sampling, 392
Ownership, 376
Purchase Behavior, 376
Nonprobability Sampling, 392
Convenience Sampling, 393
Regular Usage, 376
Research Snapshot How Much Does Your Prescription
Questions about Goods and Services, 376
Cost? It Depends on Who You Buy It From, 393
Ease of Use, 376
Judgment Sampling, 393
Uniqueness, 377
Attribute Ratings/Importance of Characteristics, 377 Research Snapshot American Kennel Club Tries to Keep
Interest, 377 Pet Owners out of the Doghouse, 394
Like/Dislike, 378 Quota Sampling, 394
Preference, 378 Snowball Sampling, 395
Expectations, 378 Probability Sampling, 395
Satisfaction, 378 Simple Random Sampling, 396
Quality, 379 Systematic Sampling, 396
Problems, 379 Stratified Sampling, 397
Benefits, 379 Proportional versus Disproportional Sampling, 397
Improvements, 379 Cluster Sampling, 398
Buying Intentions for Existing Products, 379
Buying Intentions Based on Product Concept, 380 Research Snapshot Who’s at Home? Different Ways to
Reason for Buying Intention, 380 Select Respondents, 399
Multistage Area Sampling, 399
Questions about Demographics, 380
Age, 380 What Is the Appropriate Sample
Design?, 401
Education, 381 Degree of Accuracy, 402
Marital Status, 381 Resources, 402
Children, 381 Research Snapshot New on Campus: Student
Adjustment to College Life, 403
Income, 381 Time, 403
Occupation, 382 Advance Knowledge of the Population, 403
National versus Local Project, 403
PART FIVE Internet Sampling Is Unique, 404
Website Visitors, 404
Sampling and Fieldwork Panel Samples, 404
Recruited Ad Hoc Samples, 405
CHAPTER 16 Opt-in Lists, 405
Sampling Designs and Summary, 406
Sampling Procedures, 384 Key Terms and Concepts, 406
Introduction, 385 Research Activities, 407
Sampling Terminology, 385
CASE 16.1 Who’s Fishing?, 408
Why Sample?, 385 CASE 16.2 Scientific Telephone Samples, 408
Pragmatic Reasons, 385
Survey This!, 386 CHAPTER 17
Accurate and Reliable Results, 386
Destruction of Test Units, 386 Determination of Sample Size:
Research Snapshot Finding Out about Work Is a
A Review of Statistical Theory, 409
Lot of Work!, 387 Introduction, 410
Descriptive and Inferential Statistics, 410
Practical Sampling Concepts, 387
Sample Statistics and Population Parameters, 410
Defining the Target Population, 387
The Sampling Frame, 388 Making Data Usable, 411
Sampling Units, 390 Frequency Distributions, 411
xivContents
Survey This!, 412 Principles of Good Interviewing, 449

Proportions, 412 The Basics, 449
Research Snapshot The Well-Chosen Average, 413 Required Practices, 450
Measures of Central Tendency, 413 Fieldwork Management, 451
Measures of Dispersion, 415 Briefing Session for Experienced Interviewers, 451
The Normal Distribution, 418 Training to Avoid Procedural Errors in Sample
Selection, 451
Population Distribution, Sample Distribution, and
Research Snapshot Total Quality Management for
Sampling Distribution, 422
Interviewing, 452
Central-Limit Theorem, 424
Supervision of Fieldworkers, 452
Estimation of Parameters, 427 Sampling Verification, 453
Point Estimates, 427 Interviewer Cheating, 453
Confidence Intervals, 427 Verification by Reinterviewing, 454
Research Snapshot Sampling the World, 428 Summary, 454
Sample Size, 430 Key Terms and Concepts, 455
Random Error and Sample Size, 430 Questions for Review and Critical Thinking, 455
Research Snapshot Target and Walmart Shoppers Really
Are Different, 431 CASE 18.1 Thomas and Dorothy Leavey
Factors in Determining Sample Size for Questions Involving Library, 456
Means, 431 CASE 18.2 Margaret Murphy O’Hara, 456
Estimating Sample Size for Questions Involving Means, 432
The Influence of Population Size on Sample Size, 433
Factors in Determining Sample Size for Proportions, 433
Calculating Sample Size for Sample Proportions, 435 PART SIX
Determining Sample Size on the Basis of Judgment, 436
Determining Sample Size for Stratified and Other Data Analysis and Presentation
Probability Samples, 437
Determining Level of Precision after Data Collection, 437
CHAPTER 19
A Reminder about Statistics, 437
Editing and Coding: Transforming
Summary, 438 Raw Data into Information, 458
Questions for Review and Critical Thinking, 439 Introduction, 459
Research Activities, 440 Stages of Data Analysis, 459
CASE 17.1 Pointsec Mobile Technologies, 440 Survey This!, 460
Editing, 460
CHAPTER 18 Field Editing, 461
Fieldwork, 441 In-House Editing, 461
Introduction, 442 Research Snapshot Do You Have Integrity?, 462

Editing for Completeness, 463
The Nature of Fieldwork, 442 Editing Questions Answered Out of Order, 464
Who Conducts the Fieldwork?, 442 Facilitating the Coding Process, 464
Pitfalls of Editing, 465
Survey This!, 443
Pretesting Edit, 465
In-House Training for Inexperienced Coding, 465
Interviewers, 443 Coding Qualitative Responses, 465
Making Initial Contact and Securing the Interview, 443 The Data File, 468
Research Snapshot Interviewing for Horizon Research Research Snapshot Building a Multipetabyte Data
Services, 444 System, 469
Asking the Questions, 445 Code Construction, 469
Research Snapshot Why Is “Why” Important?, 446 Precoding Fixed-Alternative Questions, 470
Probing When No Response Is Given, 446 More on Coding Open-Ended Questions, 471
Recording the Responses, 447 Devising the Coding Scheme, 472
Research Snapshot Probing for Deeper Meaning at Code Book, 475
Olson Zaltman Associates, 448 Editing and Coding Combined, 475
Terminating the Interview, 449 Research Snapshot Coding Data “On-the-Go,” 476
Contentsxv
Computerized Survey Data Processing, 476 Survey This!, 508

Error Checking, 476 Research Snapshot The “Freshman 7.8,” 509
Summary, 477 An Example of Hypothesis Testing, 511
Key Terms and Concepts, 478 Type I and Type II Errors, 513
Questions for Review and Critical Thinking, 478 Research Snapshot The Law and Type I and Type II
Research Activities, 479 Errors, 514
CASE 19.1 U.S. Department of the Interior Heritage Choosing the Appropriate Statistical
Conservation and Recreation Service, 479 Technique, 515
CASE 19.2 Shampoo 9–10, 480 Type of Question to Be Answered, 515
Number of Variables, 515
Level of Scale of Measurement, 515
CHAPTER 20
Basic Data Analysis: Research Snapshot Living in a Statistical Web, 516
Parametric versus Nonparametric Hypothesis Tests, 516
Descriptive Statistics, 483
The t-Distribution, 517
Introduction, 484 Calculating a Confidence Interval Estimate Using the
The Nature of Descriptive Analysis, 484 t-Distribution, 519
Univariate Hypothesis Test Using the t-Distribution, 520
Survey This!, 485
The Chi-Square Test for Goodness of Fit, 521
Tabulation, 486
Research Snapshot Interested in Retirement? It Often
Cross-Tabulation, 486 Depends on Your Age, 523
Contingency Tables, 487
Percentage Cross-Tabulations, 488 Hypothesis Test of a Proportion, 524
Research Snapshot Our Four-Legged Family Members, 489 Additional Applications of Hypothesis
Elaboration and Refinement, 490 Testing, 525
How Many Cross-Tabulations?, 490
Quadrant Analysis, 491 Summary, 525
Data Transformation, 491 Questions for Review and Critical Thinking, 526
Simple Transformations, 491 Research Activities, 526
Problems with Data Transformations, 493
Index Numbers, 494 CASE 21.1 Premier Motorcars, 527
Calculating Rank Order, 494

CHAPTER 22
Research Snapshot Twitter and the ReTweetability
Index, 495
Bivariate Statistical Analysis:
Differences Between
Tabular and Graphic Methods of Displaying
Data, 496
Two Variables, 528
Introduction, 529
Computer Programs for Analysis, 497
Statistical Packages, 497 What Is the Appropriate Test of Difference?, 529
Computer Graphics and Computer Mapping, 498 Survey This!, 531
Interpretation, 500 Cross-Tabulation Tables: The x2 Test for
Summary, 500 Goodness-of-Fit, 531
Key Terms and Concepts, 501 Research Snapshot Accurate Information? How About a
Questions for Review and Critical Thinking, 501 Chi-Square Test?, 534
The t-Test for Comparing Two Means, 534
CASE 20.1 Body on Tap, 503 Independent Samples t-Test, 534
CASE 20.2 Downy-Q Quilt, 503
Research Snapshot Expert “T-eeze,” 538
Paired-Samples t-Test, 539
CHAPTER 21 The Z-Test for Comparing Two Proportions, 540
Univariate Statistical Analysis, 506 Analysis of Variance (ANOVA), 542
Introduction, 507 What Is ANOVA?, 542
Hypothesis Testing, 507 Simple Illustration of ANOVA, 542
The Hypothesis-Testing Procedure, 507 Research Snapshot More Than One-Way, 543
xviContents
Partitioning Variance in ANOVA, 544 CHAPTER 24

The F-Test, 546
Practically Speaking, 547
Multivariate Statistical
Analysis, 582
Summary, 547
Key Terms and Concepts, 548 Introduction, 583
Questions for Review and Critical Thinking, 548 What Is Multivariate Data Analysis?, 583
Research Activities, 551 The “Variate” in Multivariate, 583
Survey This!, 584
CASE 22.1 Old School versus New School
Sports Fans, 551 Classifying Multivariate Techniques, 584
Dependence Techniques, 584
APPENDIX 22A Interdependence Techniques, 584
Influence of Measurement Scales, 585
Manual Calculation of an
Analysis of Dependence, 586
F-Statistic, 553 Multiple Regression Analysis, 586
Research Snapshot Too Much of a Good Thing!, 589
APPENDIX 22B ANOVA (n-Way) and MANOVA, 591
ANOVA for Complex Discriminant Analysis, 592
Experimental Designs, 556 Research Snapshot How to Get MANOVA
Factorial Designs, 558 Results, 593
ANOVA for a Factorial Experiment, 558 Analysis of Interdependence, 595
Partitioning the Sum of Squares for a Two-Way ANOVA, 558 Factor Analysis, 595
Research Snapshot Getting Factor Results with
CHAPTER 23 SAS or SPSS, 597
Bivariate Statistical Analysis: Cluster Analysis, 599
Measures of Association, 560 Multidimensional Scaling, 601
Introduction, 561 Summary, 602

The Basics, 561 Questions for Review and Critical Thinking, 603
Simple Correlation Coefficient, 561 Research Activities, 604
Survey This!, 562 CASE 24.1 The Utah Jazz, 607
An Example, 563 CASE 24.2 How Do We Keep Them?, 609
Correlation, Covariance, and Causation, 564
Coefficient of Determination, 564
Correlation Matrix, 565 CHAPTER 25
Regression Analysis, 566 Communicating Research
Research Snapshot What Makes Attractiveness?, 567 Results: Report Generation,
The Regression Equation, 568 Oral Presentation, and
Parameter Estimate Choices, 568 Follow-Up, 610
Visual Estimation of a Simple Regression Model, 569
Ordinary Least-Squares (OLS) Method of Regression Introduction, 611
Analysis, 571 Insights from the Communications
Research Snapshot Size and Weight, 576 Model, 611
Summary, 577 Survey This!, 612
Key Terms and Concepts, 577 The Report in Context, 613
Report Format, 613
Tailoring the Format to the Project, 614
CASE 23.1 International Operations at CarCare Inc., 579 The Parts of the Report, 615
Research Snapshot Research ROI, 617
APPENDIX 23A Research Snapshot How Do We Stack Up?
Arithmetic Behind OLS, 580 The Value of Sba.gov, 618
Contentsxvii
Basic Business Research Report, 619 PART SEVEN

Effective Use of Graphic Aids, 620 Comprehensive Cases with
Tables, 620
Charts, 622 Computerized Databases
The Oral Presentation, 628 CASE 1: Running the Numbers: Does It Pay?, 636
CASE 2: Attiring Situation, 637
Research Snapshot The 10/20/30 Rule of CASE 3: Values and the Automobile Market, 638
PowerPoint, 629 CASE 4: TABH, INC., Automotive Consulting, 641
Reports on the Internet or Intranet, 629 CASE 5: The Atlanta Braves, 642
CASE 6: Knowing the Way, 642
The Research Follow-Up, 630
Summary, 630
Glossary of Frequently Used Symbols, 645
Questions for Review and Critical Thinking, 631 Glossary, 646
Research Activities, 631 Endnotes, 659
CASE 25.1 Annenberg Public Policy Center, 632 Index, 666
PREFACE
T
he business world has never been changing faster! Businesses can’t assume that con-
tinuing to operate their functional areas by the same old processes, with the same old
technology, managed in the same old way will continue to produce the same old good
result.The need for intelligence supported by a connection with customers, employees,
and other constituencies is more important than ever. Business researchers are challenged with
the job of producing just this type of intelligence. The ninth edition of Business Research Methods
addresses the dynamic nature of today’s business world while conveying the essential elements of
the business research process.
Most readers understand that managers want answers to business questions. What is not so
obvious is the complexity involved in specifying the correct research questions and determining
the appropriate process for collecting, analyzing, and presenting information. This is the role of
a business researcher, who must develop the skills to clarify the research objectives and possess
the ability to manage the search for information. With the technological capabilities we have
today, that means searching through terabyte after terabyte of existing information to pick out
those elements which best hold the possibility of turning into useful intelligence. This informa-
tion must be complemented by original data gathered by the researcher. All the intelligence
must then be communicated in a way that helps managers make decisions. When it works right,
business research is a win-win proposition. The process enables a company to identify its custom-
ers, understand its employees, and design processes, products, and services that maximize value
for all. In return, the company receives value as the customer spends their hard-earned money,
employee engagement increases, and more effective business practices are implemented. As a
result, everyone wins!
Trying to find just the right piece of business information via the Internet can be like searching
for a needle in a haystack. This information may well be hidden beneath piles and piles of irrelevant
stuff ! Or, how about trying to find a key piece of business information that may be hidden in the
mind of a consumer or employee? A customer may not even be consciously aware of all his or
her reasons for some preference or behavior and, consequently, can’t identify or talk about it. An
employee may not even realize that he or she possesses information vital to the organization. How
do you go about uncovering this information that could be so crucial to making a good business
decision?
That’s where this text comes in: Business Research Methods equips students with the knowledge
and skills needed in their search for business intelligence. The process we describe includes six
steps. Researchers must first work together with decision makers to decide what they are look-
ing for—that metaphorical needle in the haystack. The next two stages plot out the way to go
about finding the needle. Next are two stages that focus on the actual search for the needle. The
process concludes when the business researcher communicates the benefits of finding “pointed”
xviii
Prefacexix
information that can help mend problems or create something really new and special for the deci-
sion maker. Success in this process usually merits the researcher a reward that is a bit more valuable
than that needle!
Enhancements in Business Research Methods

To ensure that students are able to conduct business research with an understanding of all the latest
theories and techniques available to them, the ninth edition is revised and updated. In response to
reader feedback and changes in the research environment, two key enhancements have been made:
(1) the ninth edition provides greater examples, illustrations, and applications of the global nature of
business and (2) focuses more heavily on the role of technology in research. Without a doubt these
issues—globalization and technology—continue to revolutionize business research. The Internet
has affected all phases of research by altering information systems, ways of gathering secondary data,
survey processes, sampling, questionnaire design, primary data collection, qualitative analysis, and
communication, among other things. In the ninth edition, practically every chapter includes sig-
nificant coverage of technology-related topics, and most chapters also include review questions and
activities that get students involved with the Internet or other applications of technology in a relevant
way. The Survey This! feature gets students and instructors directly involved with one important way
that the Internet has changed research. This particular feature provides first-hand experience with
the process, and illustrates the advantages and disadvantages, of using online questionnaires.
Overall, here is a summary of some of the key improvements and features of the ninth edition
of Business Research Methods.
■■ Increased Coverage of International Business Issues—The text makes greater use of examples
from companies and countries around the globe. Readers of this book from outside North
America will appreciate more familiar examples that are relevant to their daily life. The inter-
national examples will also open up North American students to research issues beyond the
domestic market. For all readers the examples illustrate global dynamics. This is a particularly
important enhancement to the text since cultural and language barriers often present chal-
lenges for the business researcher.
■■ Survey This! Feature—First introduced in the eighth edition, Survey This! allows students
to respond to an online questionnaire hosted with Qualtrics software. The questionnaire
involves students’ opinions, activities, and interests regarding matters related to studying busi-
ness and careers in business fields. In the early chapters, this feature is useful for critiquing the
way questionnaires are constructed and how research hypotheses are addressed in a question-
naire. New to the ninth edition is a populated data set for instructors based on the Survey This!
questionnaire. This data can be used in later chapters as illustration of the statistical techniques
discussed in the text. Students also get access to Qualtrics to design their own questionnaires.
■■ Attention to Qualitative Research—Companies are increasingly realizing the benefits of qual-
itative research. In response to this important phenomenon, Chapter 7, Qualitative Research
Tools, provides a comprehensive overview of qualitative research techniques. The chapter
focuses on various approaches to qualitative research and the corresponding interpretative
techniques that turn qualitative data into business intelligence. Phenomenology, grounded
theory, ethnography, and case study approaches are all covered. Qualitative research is also
integrated into several other chapters. For example, the Internet is not just a way of collecting
quantitative data. Qualitative research is being dramatically changed by the Internet as con-
sumers leave more and more artifactual data behind on social networking websites, company
chat rooms, blogs, microblogs (such as tweets left on Twitter), and more. Thus, qualitative
research tools and approaches are highlighted throughout the text.
■■ Breadth of Business Coverage—The ninth edition further broadens the spectrum of business
activities and touches on practically all areas of business including marketing, management,
finance, business ethics, and accounting. The examples reflect the diversity of today’s business
world. Many of these examples are captured in the Research Snapshot features, which tie busi-
ness research together with current events, ethics, technology, and topics of particular interest
to the business research student.
xxPreface
■■ Chapter Vignettes—The chapter vignettes were carefully examined and updated. Several are
new to the ninth edition. Each vignette sets the stage for the chapter by introducing topics
taken from both well-known and lesser-known companies, topical areas of interest in the
current business literature, and slice-of-life business situations. The vignettes help frame the
material included in each chapter and put core course concepts into a real-life and current
context.
■■ Comprehensive Cases—The ninth edition includes online access to comprehensive cases that
allow the student to get real hands-on experience doing research. Selected cases also include
data that can be downloaded from the Instructor’s Resource CD or the companion website
for the text. The data are ready to be analyzed using Excel, SPSS, or SAS, or any other soft-
ware capable of reading data from a spreadsheet. Shorter and more-to-the-point cases are
included at the end of each chapter. Several of these cases involve simple data analyses and are
accompanied by data also available on the instructor resource disk or the book website.
■■ A Simplified Approach and Style—The Research Snapshots, chapter Learning Outcomes, and
end-of-chapter materials are presented in a form that allows greater focus on the truly impor-
tant information. The Learning Outcomes ensure an important coherence and structure to the
chapters that culminate with the end-of-chapter materials.
■■ Tagged End-of-Chapter Exercises—The end-of-chapter materials contain a number of ques-
tions that pertain to either ethical issues in business research or exercises requiring students to
get involved with research via the Internet. These items are each uniquely tagged with a visual
symbol, making these particular exercises stand out with a clear, identifying mark.
Organization of the Book

The organization of the ninth edition of Business Research Methods follows the logic of the business
research process itself. The book is organized into seven parts, with each part presenting the basic
research concepts for one of the stages in the research process. Each part also discusses how these
concepts relate to decisions about conducting specific business research projects.
Part One: Introduction emphasizes the interplay between research and business and how the
importance and scope of research varies with different business situations. Included in this discus-
sion is an overview of computerized data management and information systems, an outline of the
entire business research process, and an explanation of how all of this is changing due to technol-
ogy. Chapter 3 is devoted to theory development and explains why theory is important to effective
research, and how research is a way that theory is tested.
Without high ethical standards, no business is a “good business.” Thus, the introductory mate-
rials also include an emphasis on business ethics and the special ethical problems associated with
business research. Chapter 5 focuses exclusively on business ethics and the interplay between orga-
nizational dynamics and research.
Part Two: Beginning Stages of the Research Process covers the essentials involved in
starting to study business problems. This part emphasizes decision making, problem definition,
and the process of how the business problem must be translated into research questions and/or
research hypotheses. Research proposals are covered in some detail, and the reader is encouraged
to see these as the written agreement that helps put the decision maker and the researcher on the
same page.
Chapter 7 emphasizes qualitative research applications. One role played by qualitative research
is helping to separate problem symptoms from true issues that can be attacked with business
research. However, qualitative research extends far beyond problem definition; it allows greater
potential for discovery as well as deeper and potentially more meaningful explanations in business
research. Part Two concludes with Chapter 8, which provides detailed discussion of secondary data
and emphasizes its increasing importance in a data-rich world.
Part Three: Research Methods for Collecting Primary Data examines the topics involved
in collecting new data for the specific problem at hand. For example, the chapters describe issues
related to planning, conducting, and administering surveys, which remain a mainstay for collecting
consumer and employee opinions, attitudes, and behaviors.
Prefacexxi
Additionally, Chapter 12 focuses specifically on experimental research. Experiments allow the

researcher to establish causal inferences. They can, however, be intricate to design and implement,
and conducting experiments that provide valid results is no simple matter. When done correctly,
experiments can provide extremely important business intelligence.
Part Four: Measurement Concepts describes key concepts of measurement that are funda-
mental to conducting valid business research.This part of the text discusses the foundation of mea-
surement theory. Key topics include descriptions of the different levels of scale measurement and
how this affects analysis and the interpretation of results. Basic ways to measure human attitudes
and practical matters dealing with questionnaire design are also discussed. An increased emphasis
is placed on the use of new technologies for conducting interviews. For instance, how does asking
a question in an electronic format expand the options for respondents and the researcher? Topics
such as these are highlighted in Part Four.
Part Five: Sampling and Fieldwork explains the difference between a population and a
sample. The reasons why sampling is needed and how it can be used to confidently allow predic-
tions about larger numbers of people are covered.The fieldwork process is also discussed, including
the importance of supervision of fieldwork. This section shows how to avoid sloppy sampling and
poor field supervision, which can lead to error in the business research process.
Part Six: Data Analysis and Presentation covers important processes necessary in translat-
ing raw data into business intelligence. Included among these topics are the editing and coding of
the data. The coded data are then ready for analysis, and this section presents the most commonly
used methods for analyzing data.
Basic descriptive statistics are discussed as ways of portraying key results including central ten-
dency and dispersion. Inferential statistics are discussed, including often-used univariate and bivari-
ate approaches such as t-tests. Multivariate statistical approaches are also introduced so that the
reader has an awareness of techniques that can analyze many variables simultaneously. Hands-on
experience with basic multivariate procedures is also provided. The final chapter brings everything
together by including a discussion of how to effectively communicate research results via a report
and/or presentation.
Part Seven: Comprehensive Cases with Computerized Databases make up the last
section of the book. These cases provide materials that challenge students to apply and integrate
the concepts they have learned throughout the course. Instructors will find that these cases pro-
vide flexibility to either expand or simplify the assignment to suit the demands of varying course
assignments.
The cases provide greater variety than earlier editions, including some that involve analysis of
internal organizational problems as well as an opportunity to use qualitative research. When quan-
titative data are included, they can be easily analyzed with basic statistical tools like SPSS. Excel files
are also included with the same data.These files can be read directly by statistical programs like SAS
or other programs. A new comprehensive case has been added to the ninth edition.
Superior Pedagogy
More than other research textbooks, the ninth edition of Business Research Methods addresses stu-
dents’ need to comprehend all aspects of the business research process. The following features
facilitate learning throughout the book:
■■ Learning Outcomes. Each chapter begins with a concise list of learning outcomes that
emphasize the major areas of competency that students should achieve before proceeding to
the next chapter. The key is to avoid labeling everything a major learning outcome and to
provide instructors with flexibility for emphasizing additional material as they see fit.
■■ Headings Keyed to Learning Outcomes. First-level headings, with the exception of
those labeled “Introduction,” are keyed to learning outcomes. This should be an aid in
developing assessment rubrics and makes the book more user friendly in terms of identifying
key material.
■■ Research Snapshots. All of the box materials share a common title, Research Snapshots.
Each chapter contains multiple Research Snapshots. The boxes explore business research
xxiiPreface
processes in a variety of modern businesses situations, ranging from international consider-

ations to research ethics. Some boxes also illustrate research techniques and applications in a
step-by-step fashion. Every attempt is made to make the box material lively and relevant to
the subject matter of the chapters.
■■ Writing Style. An accessible, interesting writing style continues to be a hallmark of this book.
With a careful balance between theory and practice and a sprinkling of interesting examples
and anecdotes, the writing style clarifies and simplifies the business research process. In addi-
tion, the text offers a comprehensive treatment of important and current topics.
■■ Statistical Approach. A review of statistical theory provides students with an overview of
the basic aspects of statistics. However, since this text stresses managerial applications more
than statistical theory, students are given tools to perform the most common business research
data analysis. More sophisticated data analysis approaches are left for further reference. Thus,
the readers can learn how to test simple hypotheses involving differences between means or
relationships among variables. Cross-tabulation, t-tests, ANOVA, and regression are covered
in sufficient depth to allow students to use these techniques. In addition, easy-to-follow, click-
through sequences can walk students through most basic approaches to producing statistical
results.
■■ Key Terms. Learning the vocabulary of business research is essential to understanding the
topic, and Business Research Methods facilitates this with key terms. First, key concepts are
boldfaced and completely defined when they first appear in the textbook. Second, all key
terms and concepts are listed at the end of each chapter, and many terms are highlighted in a
marginal glossary. Third, a glossary summarizing all key terms and definitions appears at the
end of the book for handy reference. A glossary of frequently used symbols is also included.
■■ Ethics Questions. Identified by a special icon, ETHICS, ethics questions are included in most
chapters. Among the compelling issues students are asked to explore is redefining the right
to privacy in light of new technology. The ethical issues also provide a great opportunity for
building critical thinking skills.
■■ Internet Questions. Internet questions also are identified by a special icon, ’NET. Nearly all
chapters include multiple questions and research activities that illustrate advances in Internet
applications common to business research.
■■ Research Activities. The end-of-chapter materials include real-world research activities
intended to provide actual research experience for the student. Most provide an opportunity
for the student to gain experience in multiple content areas. Some involve ethical aspects of
research, and some involve Internet usage.
■■ Cases. Cases, often taken from real-life situations, illustrate business research concepts and
build knowledge and research skills. These cases offer students the opportunity to participate
actively in the decision-making process, one of the most effective forms of learning.
Comprehensive Instructor Resources

We believe it is important for any text to develop comprehensive supplemental materials to sup-
port instructors in their vital teaching function. Because of this pedagogical philosophy, there is an
extensive learning package provided with Business Research Methods.
■■ The Instructor’s Resource CD-ROM (ISBN: 9781133190967) contains valuable instruc-
tor resources on one easy-to-use CD-ROM: the test bank, ExamView testing software, the
instructor’s manual (includes comprehensive lecture outlines, solutions to all assignments, and
case solutions), PowerPoint presentation slides, video instructor’s manual, and data sets for
cases. The IRCD files were prepared by Laurie Babin of The University of Louisiana–Monroe.
■■ Data sets are provided that match several end-of-chapter exercises and different case analyses.
The data are provided both in Excel files, allowing great flexibility for use of the data with
many programs, and in SPSS files, which are ready to use with either the student or full ver-
sion of SPSS. Students may download the data sets at http://login.cengage.com by clicking on
the textbook and then on “Data Sets.” Data sets are also available on the Instructor’s Resource
CD-ROM.
Prefacexxiii
■■ Web resources at http://login.cengage.com provide the latest information about what’s

new and what’s cool in business research. The instructor’s manual, test bank, PowerPoint
slides, and video cases can also be found here. The site also features links to other research-
related sites.
■■ The Qualtrics Research Suite was built for researchers by researchers. Enclosed with each new
copy of Business Research Methods is an access code that provides access to an extremely elegant
tool that makes survey creation easy enough for an intern while at the same time sophisticated
enough for the most demanding academic or corporate researcher. Qualtrics allows students
to create and deploy surveys, and provides data for analysis. A survey included in the book can
be taken by students and they can access the data collected from adopters of Business Research
Methods from around the globe. Qualtrics is also a perfect solution for instructors who have
students conduct a survey project as part of a term project.
■■ Preloaded with content and available free via PIN code when packaged with new texts,
WebTutor ToolBox pairs all the content of the text’s rich companion website with all the
sophisticated course management functionality of a Blackboard or WebCT product. Instruc-
tors can assign materials (including online quizzes) and have the results flow automatically to
their gradebooks.
Resources for Students

To promote learning and competency, it is also important to provide students with well-crafted
resources. In addition to covering the latest information technology (described above), the ninth
edition includes the following student resources:
■■ The student companion site is located at www.cengagebrain.com. At the CengageBrain.com
home page, search for the ISBN of your textbook (from the back cover of your book) using
the search box at the top of the page. This will take you to the product page where you will
find chapter quizzes, flash cards of key terms, the very best online business research resources
available, and much more.
■■ The Qualtrics Research Suite is also available for students. Qualtrics allows students to create
and deploy surveys, and provides data for analysis.
Acknowledgments
Certainly, no list of acknowledgments will be complete. So many people have assisted in this
project. Chief among these would be the late Bill Zikmund, who carried the weight of this proj-
ect for the first seven editions of Business Research Methods. We are privileged to be able to carry
the project along into what we hope will be many more editions as the premier business research
text. Also, thanks go to members of our team—including graduate assistants Kevin James, David
Shows, Melanie Gardner, and Christina Chung—who have helped with research for this text and
helped share some of the workload on other endeavors, freeing up time to spend on this project.
We would be remiss not to mention the support and patience of our families. All have contributed
to the project and our kids are particularly helpful in judging relevance of vignettes and examples,
as well as contributing photographs. Also, thanks go to the great faculty who mentored us during
our days in the PhD program. Most notable among these are Joseph F. Hair, Jr. and the late Wil-
liam R. Darden.
Thanks also go to all the good people at Cengage Learning who helped make this project pos-
sible. A special thanks to our publisher Mike Roche, and to Emily Nesheim and Elizabeth Lowry.
Also thanks to Charles Emmanuel and Karthik Kannan at diacriTech. They provided tremendous
support and guidance through the writing and production process, including assistance with proof-
ing, permissions, photos, and exhibits.
xxivPreface
Many colleagues contributed ideas for this book. While they made suggestions that greatly
enhanced this book, any shortcomings are ours alone. For their insightful reviews of the manu-
script for the ninth or previous editions of Business Research Methods, we would like to thank the
following:
Joe Adamo Jim Grimm
Cazenovia College Illinois State University
David W. Ahrend Christopher Groening
St. Joseph’s College University of Pittsburgh
Gerald Albaum Al Gross
University of Oregon Robert Morris College
Jill Attaway Don Heinz
Illinois State University University of Wisconsin
Stephen Batory Nathan Heller
Bloomsburg University Tarleton State University
William Bearden Craig Hollingshead
University of South Carolina Texas A&M University–Kingsville
Joseph A. Bellizzi Victor Howe
Arizona State University–West University of Kentucky
Carol Bienstock Roy Howell
Radford University Texas Tech University
James A. Brunner Michael R. Hyman
University of Toledo New Mexico State University
F. Anthony Bushman Rhea Ingram
San Francisco State University Columbus State University–Georgia
Thomas Buzas Robert Jaross
Eastern Michigan University Florida International University
Roy F. Cabaniss P. K. Kannan
Huston-Tillotson College University of Maryland
Steven V. Cates Susan Kleine
Averett University Arizona State University
Kathy Chudoba David B. Klenosky
Utah State Purdue University
Dr. Edward D. Conrad C. S. Kohli
Henderson State University California State University–Fullerton
Michael d’Amico Jerome L. Langer
University of Akron Assumption College
Ron Eggers Bob Lauman
Barton College Webster University
H. Harry Friedman James H. Leigh
City University of New York–Brooklyn Texas A&M University
Ron Goldsmith Larry Lowe
Florida State University Bryant College
Larry Goldstein Karl Mann
Iona College Tennessee Technological University
Karen Goncalves Charles R. Martin
Nichols College Wichita State University
David Gourley Marlys Mason
Arizona State University Oklahoma State University
Prefacexxv
Tom K. Massey Harlan Spotts

University of Missouri–Kansas City Western New England College
Sanjay Mishra Wilbur W. Stanton
University of Kansas Old Dominion University
Mark Moore Bruce L. Stern
East Carolina University Portland State University
G. M. Naidu James L. Taylor
University of Wisconsin–Whitewater University of Alabama
Stephanie Noble Gail Tom
The University of Mississippi California State University–Sacramento
Mike Parent Deborah Utter
Utah State University Boston College
Terry Paul Haibo Wang
The Ohio State University Texas A&M International University
Charles Prohaska David Wheeler
Central Connecticut State University Suffolk University
Rick Saucier Richard Wilcox
St. John’s University Carthage College
Alan Sawyer Natalie Wood
University of Florida St. Joseph’s University
Robert Schaffer Margaret Wright
California State University–Pomona University of Colorado
Leon G. Schiffman Clifford E. Young
City University of New York–Baruch University of Colorado–Denver
David Shows Jim Zemanek
Louisiana Tech University East Carolina University
K. Sivakumar Xin Zhao
Lehigh University University of Utah
Mark Speece William Lee Ziegler
Central Washington University Bethune-Cookman College
Thanks to all of the students who have inspired us and reinforced the fact that we made a great
career decision about two decades ago. Thanks also to our close colleagues Rob Baer, Jim Boles,
Ed Bond, Tara’ Lopez, and Dave Ortinau for their continued support and insight.
Barry J. Babin
Louisiana Tech University
Mitch Griffin
Bradley University
Jon C. Carr
Texas Christian University
December 2011
Part ONE
Introduction
CHAPTER 1
The Role of Business Research
CHAPTER 2
Information Systems and
Knowledge Management
CHAPTER 3
Theory Building
CHAPTER 4
The Business Research Process: An Overview
CHAPTER 5
The Human Side of Business Research:
Organizational and Ethical Issues
© Songquan Deng/Shutterstock
The Role of Business
Research
LEARNING OUTCOMES
After studying this chapter, you should be able to
1
CHAPTER 1. Understand how research contributes to business success
2. Know how to define business research
3. Understand the difference between basic and applied business
research
4. Understand how research activities can be used to address business
decisions
5. Know when business research should and should not be conducted
6. Appreciate the way that technology and internationalization are
changing business research
Chapter Vignette:
ESPN Hits a Home Run by Leveraging the

Power of its Business Research
T
o many people, the abbreviation ESPN says it all The answer was a resounding “Yes!” ESPN partnered
when you are thinking about sports program- with Quaero, a business research company that specializes in
ming. The Entertainment and Sports Program- customer intelligence, to integrate their numerous databases
ming Network was launched in 1979, with its and begin to learn more about how fans use their media,
famous SportsCenter broadcast followed by a presentation of a and what specifically they were looking for. They learned that
slow pitch softball game. Over time, ESPN has become a media enhancing the fan’s experience, regardless of the media, had
juggernaut, expanding its sports content and programming bottom-line implications for their own revenue, and the revenue
globally, and is a media presence in every possible outlet, includ- of their advertisers. ESPN realized that based upon their cus-
ing television, video, and the Internet. In fact, ESPN.com has tomer research, cross-network promotions and individualized
long been one of the most visited sites on the World Wide Web.
It is the passionate sports fan that makes ESPN’s success pos-
sible. Over the years, information about the people who watch
and interact with ESPN content had been slowly accumulating
across their different media outlets. This information included
not just web clicks and television viewership, but also purchases
from ESPN and its affiliated advertising partners. Since this
© Matthew Jacques/Shutterstock
information was located in separate databases and across dif-

ferent operating units, it had become difficult to know just who
the fan was, and what they were truly interested in. What could
be done with this considerable business information? Could
ESPN become more knowledgeable (and more profitable) by
learning more about the sports fans who use their content?
CHAPTER 1 The Role of Business Research • 3
advertising content could be built for their sports fans, and that It was business research that made this possible. Gaining
seeing the sports fan as a core asset of the company was criti- intelligence on a critical business function, a function that had
cal to success. In fact, the activities associated with the business global implications, helped create a profitable solution for ESPN.
research they conducted on their customers were not viewed The value of this research for ESPN and its millions of sports
as a cost, but in fact served as a revenue driver to their firm’s fans created a “win-win” for all. ESPN had, in fact, hit a “home
profitability. run” through the use of business research.1
Introduction
The recent history of ESPN demonstrates the need for information in making informed decisions
addressing key issues faced by all competitive businesses. Research can provide that information.
Without it, business decisions involving both tactics and strategies are made in the dark.
We open with two examples illustrating how business decisions require intelligence and how
research can provide that intelligence. The following examples focus specifically on how research
can lead to innovation in the form of new products, improvements in existing goods and services,
or enhancements in employee relationships. Imagine yourself in the role of business manager as
you read these examples and think about the information needs you may have in trying to build
success for your company.
The coffee industry, after years of the “daily grind,” has proved quite dynamic over the past
decade. After years of steady decline, research on consumers’ beverage purchases show that coffee
sales began rebounding around 1995. Telephone interviews with American consumers estimated
that there were 80 million occasional coffee drinkers and 7 million daily upscale coffee drinkers in
1995. By 2001, estimates suggested there were 161 million daily or occasional U.S. coffee drinkers
and 27 million daily upscale coffee drinkers.2
Coffee drinking habits have also changed. In 1991 there were fewer than 450 coffeehouses in
the United States. Today, it seems like places such as Starbucks, Second Cup,The Coffee Bean & Tea
Leaf, and Gloria Jean’s are virtually everywhere in the United States and Canada. There are more
than 17,000 Starbucks locations around the world with the majority of these being wholly owned
stores.3 While locating these outlets requires significant formal research, Starbucks also is researching
new concepts aimed at other ways a coffee shop can provide value to consumers. One concept that
has survived testing thus far is the addition of free, in-store high-speed wireless Internet access.Thus,
you can have hot coffee in a hotspot! After Starbucks baristas began reporting that customers were
asking clerks what music was playing in the stores, Starbucks began testing the sales of CDs contain-
ing their in-store music. In 2009, Starbucks began a bundled pricing promotion offering a breakfast
sandwich or pastry and a tall coffee drink for $3.95 in response to the declining economy. The
research that underlies the introduction of these value-added concepts could first include simply ask-
ing a consumer or a small group of consumers for their reaction to the concept. Survey research and
then actual in-store tests may follow. So, the research underlying such decisions can be multilayered.
Often, business research is directed toward an element of an organization’s internal operations.
For example, DuPont utilizes research techniques to better understand their employees’ needs.
DuPont has 94,000 employees worldwide and 54,000 in the United States.4 The company has
conducted four comprehensive work/life needs assessment surveys of its employees since 1985.
This business research provides the company with considerable insight into employee work/life
behavior and allows DuPont to identify trends regarding employee needs.
The most recent survey found that, as the company’s work force is aging, employees’ child
care needs are diminishing, but elder care needs are emerging. The survey found that 88 percent
of respondents identified themselves as baby boomers. About 50 percent of the employees say that
they have—or expect to have—elder care responsibilities in the next three to four years, up from
40 percent in 1995.
The surveys have shown that DuPont employees want to balance work and family responsibili-
ties, feeling deeply committed to both aspects of their lives.The latest research shows that company
efforts to satisfy these desires have been successful. Employee perception of support from manage-
ment for work/life issues improved from the 1995 study and the results indicate employees feel
SURVEY
THIS!
As a user of this book, you can
take part in a real business research
survey. In each chapter, we’ll refer
back to some aspect of this survey
to illustrate key points about busi-
ness research. For instance, we
can easily illustrate different types
of survey approaches by referring
Courtesy of Qualtrics.com
back to some question contained
in the survey. In later chapters,
your instructor will provide you
with a way to access not only the
data from your particular class, but
also data from all users. This data
can be used to illustrate some of the analytical approaches discussed in the closing chapters of the book. For now, your
instructor will provide you with instructions to access the questionnaire via the Internet. As a first step in this process,
simply respond to the items in the questionnaire just as you would to any other research survey.
less stress. Support from colleagues is rated high, and women indicated they now have more role
models. The study also reported that the feeling of management support is directly connected to
employees’ efforts to make the company successful. Employees who use the work/life programs
are willing to “go the extra mile.”
These examples illustrate the need for information in making informed business decisions.
The statistics about coffee demonstrate how research can track trends that may lead to new busi-
ness opportunities. Starbucks’s research also illustrates how research can be used to examine new
concepts in progressively more complex stages, setting the stage for a more successful product
introduction. DuPont’s ability to track employee attitudes allows them to adjust employee benefit
packages to maximize satisfaction and reduce employee turnover. These are only the tip of the
iceberg when it comes to the types of business research that are conducted every day. This chapter
introduces basic concepts of business research and describes how research can play a crucial role in
creating and managing a successful business.
The Nature of Business Research

Business research covers a wide range of phenomena. For managers, the purpose of research is
to provide knowledge regarding the organization, the market, the economy, or another area of
uncertainty. A financial manager may ask, “Will the environment for long-term financing be bet-
ter two years from now?” A personnel manager may ask, “What kind of training is necessary
for production employees?” or “What is the reason for the company’s high employee turnover?”
A marketing manager may ask, “How can I monitor my retail sales and retail trade activities?” Each
of these questions requires information about how the environment, employees, customers, or the
economy will respond to executives’ decisions. Research is one of the principal tools for answering
these practical questions.
Within an organization, a business researcher may be referred to as a marketing researcher, an
organizational researcher, a director of financial and economic research, or one of many other titles.
Although business researchers are often specialized, the term business research encompasses all of
these functional specialties. While researchers in different functional areas may investigate different
phenomena, they are similar to one another because they share similar research methods.
It’s been said that “every business issue ultimately boils down to an information problem.”5 Can
the right information be delivered? The ultimate goal of research is to supply accurate information
that reduces the uncertainty in managerial decision making. Very often, decisions are made with
little information for various reasons, including cost considerations, insufficient time to conduct
research, or management’s belief that enough is already known. Relying on seat-of-the-pants
decision making—decision making without research—is like betting on a long shot at the race-
track because the horse’s name is appealing. Occasionally there are successes, but in the long run,
intuition without research leads to losses. Business research helps decision makers shift from intui-
tive information gathering to systematic and objective investigation.
Business Research Defined

Business research is the application of the scientific method in searching for the truth about busi- business research
ness phenomena.These activities include defining business opportunities and problems, generating The application of the scientific
and evaluating alternative courses of action, and monitoring employee and organizational perfor- method in searching for
mance. Business research is more than conducting surveys.6 This process includes idea and theory the truth about business
phenomena. These activities
development, problem definition, searching for and collecting information, analyzing data, and
include defining business
communicating the findings and their implications. opportunities and problems,
This definition suggests that business research information is not intuitive or haphazardly gath- generating and evaluating
ered. Literally, research (re-search) means “to search again.” The term connotes patient study and sci- ideas, monitoring performance,
entific investigation wherein the researcher takes another, more careful look at the data to discover and understanding the
business process.
all that is known about the subject. Ultimately, all findings are tied back to the underlying theory.
The definition also emphasizes, through reference to the scientific method, that any infor-
mation generated should be accurate and objective. The nineteenth-century American humorist
Artemus Ward claimed, “It ain’t the things we don’t know that gets us in trouble. It’s the things we
know that ain’t so.” In other words, research isn’t performed to support preconceived ideas but to
test them. The researcher must be personally detached and free of bias in attempting to find truth.
If bias enters into the research process, the value of the research is considerably reduced. We will
discuss this further Chapter 12.
Our definition makes it clear that business research is designed to facilitate the managerial
decision-making process for all aspects of the business: finance, marketing, human resources, and
so on. Business research is an essential tool for management in virtually all problem-solving and
decision-making activities. By providing the necessary information on which to base business
decisions, research can decrease the risk of making a wrong decision in each area. However, it is
important to note that research is an aid to managerial decision making, never a substitute for it.
Finally, this definition of business research is limited by one’s definition of business. Certainly,
research regarding production, finance, marketing, and management in for-profit corporations
like DuPont is business research. However, business research also includes efforts that assist non-
profit organizations such as the American Heart Association, the San Diego Zoo, the Boston Pops
Orchestra, or a parochial school. Further, governmental agencies such as the Federal Emergency
Management Agency (FEMA) and the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) perform many
functions that are similar, if not identical, to those of for-profit business organizations. For instance,
the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) is an important user of research, employing it to address
the way people view and use various food and drugs. One such study commissioned and funded
research to address the question of how consumers used the risk summaries that are included with
all drugs sold in the United States.7 Therefore, not-for-profits and governmental agencies can use
applied business research
research in much the same way as managers at Starbucks or DuPont. While the focus is on for-
Research conducted to address
profit organizations, this book explores business research as it applies to all institutions. a specific business decision for
a specific firm or organization.
Applied and Basic Business Research basic business research

Research conducted without
One useful way to describe research is based on the specificity of its purpose. Applied business a specific decision in mind
research is conducted to address a specific business decision for a specific firm or organization.The that usually does not address
opening vignette describes a situation in which ESPN used applied research to decide how to best the needs of a specific
create knowledge of its sports fans and their preferences. organization. It attempts to
expand the limits of knowledge
Basic business research (sometimes referred to as pure research) is conducted without a specific in general and is not aimed at
decision in mind, and it usually does not address the needs of a specific organization. It attempts to solving a particular pragmatic
expand the limits of knowledge in general, and as such it is not aimed at solving a particular pragmatic problem.
6 • PART ONE Introduction
problem. Basic research can be used to test the validity of a general business theory (one that applies
to all businesses) or to learn more about a particular business phenomenon. For instance, a great
deal of basic research addresses employee motivation. How can managers best encourage workers to
dedicate themselves toward the organization’s goals? From such research, we can learn the factors that
are most important to workers and how to create an environment where employees are most highly
motivated. This basic research does not examine the problem from any single organization’s perspec-
tive. However, Starbucks’ or DuPont’s management may become aware of such research and use it to
design applied research studies examining questions about their own employees. Thus, the two types
of research are not completely independent, as basic research often provides the foundation for later
applied research.
While the distinction between basic and applied is useful in describing research, there are very
few aspects of research that apply only to basic or only to applied research. We will use the term
business research more generally to refer to either type of research. The focus of this text is more
on applied research—studies that are undertaken to answer questions about specific problems or to
make decisions about particular courses of action or policies. Applied research is emphasized in this
text because most students will be oriented toward the day-to-day practice of management, and
most students and researchers will be exposed to short-term, problem-solving research conducted
for businesses or nonprofit organizations.
The Scientific Method

the scientific method All research, whether basic or applied, involves the scientific method. The scientific method is
The way researchers go about the way researchers go about using knowledge and evidence to reach objective conclusions
using knowledge and evidence about the real world. The scientific method is the same in social sciences, such as business, as
to reach objective conclusions in physical sciences, such as physics. In this case, it is the way we come to understand business
about the real world.
phenomena.
Exhibit 1.1 briefly illustrates the scientific method. In the scientific method, there are mul-
tiple routes to developing ideas. When the ideas can be stated in researchable terms, we reach the
hypothesis stage. The next step involves testing the hypothesis against empirical evidence (facts
from observation or experimentation). The results either support a hypothesis or do not support a
hypothesis. From these results, new knowledge is generated.
EXHIBIT 1.1
A Summary of the Scientific
Method Prior
Observation
Knowledge
Hypotheses
Hypothesis Test
(Observation or
Experimentation)
© Cengage Learning 2013
Conclusion
(New Knowledge)
In basic research, testing these prior conceptions or hypotheses and then making inferences
and conclusions about the phenomena leads to the establishment of general laws about the phe-
nomena. Use of the scientific method in applied research ensures objectivity in gathering facts and
testing creative ideas for alternative business strategies. The essence of research, whether basic or
applied, lies in the scientific method. Much of this book deals with scientific methodology. Thus,
the techniques of basic and applied research differ largely in degree rather than in substance.
Managerial Value of Business Research

In all of business strategy, there are only a few business orientations (see Exhibit 1.2). A firm can be
product-oriented. A product-oriented firm prioritizes decision making in a way that emphasizes product-oriented
technical superiority in the product. Thus, research that gathers information from technicians and Describes a firm that prioritizes
experts in the field is very important in making critical decisions. A firm can be production-oriented. decision making in a way
A production-oriented firm prioritizes the efficiency and effectiveness of production processes in that emphasizes technical
superiority in the product.
making decisions. Here, research providing input from workers, engineers, finance, and accounting
becomes important as the firm seeks to drive costs down. Production-oriented firms are usually production-oriented
very large firms manufacturing products in very large quantities. The third orientation is marketing- Describes a firm that prioritizes
oriented, which focuses more on how the firm provides value to customers than on the physical prod- efficiency and effectiveness of
uct or production process. With a marketing-oriented organization the majority of research focuses the production processes in
on the customer. Research addressing consumer desires, beliefs, and attitudes becomes essential. making decisions.
We have argued that research facilitates effective management. For example, Yoplait Go-Gurt marketing-oriented
illustrates the benefit of business research. The company’s consumer research about eating regular Describes a firm in which all
yogurt at school showed that moms and kids in their “tweens” wanted convenience and portabil- decisions are made with a
ity. Some brands, like Colombo Spoon in a Snap, offered the convenience of having a utensil as conscious awareness of their
part of the packaging/delivery system. However, from what Yoplait learned about consumers, they effect on the customer.
thought kids would eat more yogurt if they could “lose the spoon” and eat yogurt anywhere, any-
time. Moms and kids participating in a taste test were invited to sample different types of on-the-go
packaging shapes—long tubes, thin tubes, fat tubes, and other shapes—without being told how to
handle the packaging. One of the company’s researchers said, “It was funny to see the moms fidget
around, then daintily pour the product onto a spoon, then into their mouths. The kids instantly
EXHIBIT 1.2
Product-Oriented Firm Example Business Orientations
Prioritizes decision making that emphasizes The fashion industry makes clothes in styles
physical product design, trendiness, or and sizes that few can adopt.
technical superiority
Research focuses on technicians and experts in the field.
Production-Oriented Firm Example
Prioritizes efficiency and effectiveness of The U.S. auto industry’s assembly-line process
production processes in making decisions is intent on reducing costs of production as
low as possible.
Research focuses on line employees, engineers, accountants, and other efficiency experts.
Marketing-Oriented Firm Example
Focuses on how the firm provides value to Well-known hotel chains are designed to
© Cengage Learning 2013
customers address the needs of travelers, particularly

business travelers.
Research focuses on customers.
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DANCE ON STILTS AT THE GIRLS’ UNYAGO, NIUCHI
Newala, too, suffers from the distance of its water-supply—at least

the Newala of to-day does; there was once another Newala in a lovely
valley at the foot of the plateau. I visited it and found scarcely a trace
of houses, only a Christian cemetery, with the graves of several
missionaries and their converts, remaining as a monument of its
former glories. But the surroundings are wonderfully beautiful. A
thick grove of splendid mango-trees closes in the weather-worn
crosses and headstones; behind them, combining the useful and the
agreeable, is a whole plantation of lemon-trees covered with ripe
fruit; not the small African kind, but a much larger and also juicier
imported variety, which drops into the hands of the passing traveller,
without calling for any exertion on his part. Old Newala is now under
the jurisdiction of the native pastor, Daudi, at Chingulungulu, who,
as I am on very friendly terms with him, allows me, as a matter of
course, the use of this lemon-grove during my stay at Newala.
FEET MUTILATED BY THE RAVAGES OF THE “JIGGER”
(Sarcopsylla penetrans)
The water-supply of New Newala is in the bottom of the valley,

some 1,600 feet lower down. The way is not only long and fatiguing,
but the water, when we get it, is thoroughly bad. We are suffering not
only from this, but from the fact that the arrangements at Newala are
nothing short of luxurious. We have a separate kitchen—a hut built
against the boma palisade on the right of the baraza, the interior of
which is not visible from our usual position. Our two cooks were not
long in finding this out, and they consequently do—or rather neglect
to do—what they please. In any case they do not seem to be very
particular about the boiling of our drinking-water—at least I can
attribute to no other cause certain attacks of a dysenteric nature,
from which both Knudsen and I have suffered for some time. If a
man like Omari has to be left unwatched for a moment, he is capable
of anything. Besides this complaint, we are inconvenienced by the
state of our nails, which have become as hard as glass, and crack on
the slightest provocation, and I have the additional infliction of
pimples all over me. As if all this were not enough, we have also, for
the last week been waging war against the jigger, who has found his
Eldorado in the hot sand of the Makonde plateau. Our men are seen
all day long—whenever their chronic colds and the dysentery likewise
raging among them permit—occupied in removing this scourge of
Africa from their feet and trying to prevent the disastrous
consequences of its presence. It is quite common to see natives of
this place with one or two toes missing; many have lost all their toes,
or even the whole front part of the foot, so that a well-formed leg
ends in a shapeless stump. These ravages are caused by the female of
Sarcopsylla penetrans, which bores its way under the skin and there
develops an egg-sac the size of a pea. In all books on the subject, it is
stated that one’s attention is called to the presence of this parasite by
an intolerable itching. This agrees very well with my experience, so
far as the softer parts of the sole, the spaces between and under the
toes, and the side of the foot are concerned, but if the creature
penetrates through the harder parts of the heel or ball of the foot, it
may escape even the most careful search till it has reached maturity.
Then there is no time to be lost, if the horrible ulceration, of which
we see cases by the dozen every day, is to be prevented. It is much
easier, by the way, to discover the insect on the white skin of a
European than on that of a native, on which the dark speck scarcely
shows. The four or five jiggers which, in spite of the fact that I
constantly wore high laced boots, chose my feet to settle in, were
taken out for me by the all-accomplished Knudsen, after which I
thought it advisable to wash out the cavities with corrosive
sublimate. The natives have a different sort of disinfectant—they fill
the hole with scraped roots. In a tiny Makua village on the slope of
the plateau south of Newala, we saw an old woman who had filled all
the spaces under her toe-nails with powdered roots by way of
prophylactic treatment. What will be the result, if any, who can say?
The rest of the many trifling ills which trouble our existence are
really more comic than serious. In the absence of anything else to
smoke, Knudsen and I at last opened a box of cigars procured from
the Indian store-keeper at Lindi, and tried them, with the most
distressing results. Whether they contain opium or some other
narcotic, neither of us can say, but after the tenth puff we were both
“off,” three-quarters stupefied and unspeakably wretched. Slowly we
recovered—and what happened next? Half-an-hour later we were
once more smoking these poisonous concoctions—so insatiable is the
craving for tobacco in the tropics.
Even my present attacks of fever scarcely deserve to be taken
seriously. I have had no less than three here at Newala, all of which
have run their course in an incredibly short time. In the early
afternoon, I am busy with my old natives, asking questions and
making notes. The strong midday coffee has stimulated my spirits to
an extraordinary degree, the brain is active and vigorous, and work
progresses rapidly, while a pleasant warmth pervades the whole
body. Suddenly this gives place to a violent chill, forcing me to put on
my overcoat, though it is only half-past three and the afternoon sun
is at its hottest. Now the brain no longer works with such acuteness
and logical precision; more especially does it fail me in trying to
establish the syntax of the difficult Makua language on which I have
ventured, as if I had not enough to do without it. Under the
circumstances it seems advisable to take my temperature, and I do
so, to save trouble, without leaving my seat, and while going on with
my work. On examination, I find it to be 101·48°. My tutors are
abruptly dismissed and my bed set up in the baraza; a few minutes
later I am in it and treating myself internally with hot water and
lemon-juice.
Three hours later, the thermometer marks nearly 104°, and I make
them carry me back into the tent, bed and all, as I am now perspiring
heavily, and exposure to the cold wind just beginning to blow might
mean a fatal chill. I lie still for a little while, and then find, to my
great relief, that the temperature is not rising, but rather falling. This
is about 7.30 p.m. At 8 p.m. I find, to my unbounded astonishment,
that it has fallen below 98·6°, and I feel perfectly well. I read for an
hour or two, and could very well enjoy a smoke, if I had the
wherewithal—Indian cigars being out of the question.
Having no medical training, I am at a loss to account for this state
of things. It is impossible that these transitory attacks of high fever
should be malarial; it seems more probable that they are due to a
kind of sunstroke. On consulting my note-book, I become more and
more inclined to think this is the case, for these attacks regularly
follow extreme fatigue and long exposure to strong sunshine. They at
least have the advantage of being only short interruptions to my
work, as on the following morning I am always quite fresh and fit.
My treasure of a cook is suffering from an enormous hydrocele which
makes it difficult for him to get up, and Moritz is obliged to keep in
the dark on account of his inflamed eyes. Knudsen’s cook, a raw boy
from somewhere in the bush, knows still less of cooking than Omari;
consequently Nils Knudsen himself has been promoted to the vacant
post. Finding that we had come to the end of our supplies, he began
by sending to Chingulungulu for the four sucking-pigs which we had
bought from Matola and temporarily left in his charge; and when
they came up, neatly packed in a large crate, he callously slaughtered
the biggest of them. The first joint we were thoughtless enough to
entrust for roasting to Knudsen’s mshenzi cook, and it was
consequently uneatable; but we made the rest of the animal into a
jelly which we ate with great relish after weeks of underfeeding,
consuming incredible helpings of it at both midday and evening
meals. The only drawback is a certain want of variety in the tinned
vegetables. Dr. Jäger, to whom the Geographical Commission
entrusted the provisioning of the expeditions—mine as well as his
own—because he had more time on his hands than the rest of us,
seems to have laid in a huge stock of Teltow turnips,[46] an article of
food which is all very well for occasional use, but which quickly palls
when set before one every day; and we seem to have no other tins
left. There is no help for it—we must put up with the turnips; but I
am certain that, once I am home again, I shall not touch them for ten
years to come.
Amid all these minor evils, which, after all, go to make up the
genuine flavour of Africa, there is at least one cheering touch:
Knudsen has, with the dexterity of a skilled mechanic, repaired my 9
× 12 cm. camera, at least so far that I can use it with a little care.
How, in the absence of finger-nails, he was able to accomplish such a
ticklish piece of work, having no tool but a clumsy screw-driver for
taking to pieces and putting together again the complicated
mechanism of the instantaneous shutter, is still a mystery to me; but
he did it successfully. The loss of his finger-nails shows him in a light
contrasting curiously enough with the intelligence evinced by the
above operation; though, after all, it is scarcely surprising after his
ten years’ residence in the bush. One day, at Lindi, he had occasion
to wash a dog, which must have been in need of very thorough
cleansing, for the bottle handed to our friend for the purpose had an
extremely strong smell. Having performed his task in the most
conscientious manner, he perceived with some surprise that the dog
did not appear much the better for it, and was further surprised by
finding his own nails ulcerating away in the course of the next few
days. “How was I to know that carbolic acid has to be diluted?” he
mutters indignantly, from time to time, with a troubled gaze at his
mutilated finger-tips.
Since we came to Newala we have been making excursions in all
directions through the surrounding country, in accordance with old
habit, and also because the akida Sefu did not get together the tribal
elders from whom I wanted information so speedily as he had
promised. There is, however, no harm done, as, even if seen only
from the outside, the country and people are interesting enough.
The Makonde plateau is like a large rectangular table rounded off
at the corners. Measured from the Indian Ocean to Newala, it is
about seventy-five miles long, and between the Rovuma and the
Lukuledi it averages fifty miles in breadth, so that its superficial area
is about two-thirds of that of the kingdom of Saxony. The surface,
however, is not level, but uniformly inclined from its south-western
edge to the ocean. From the upper edge, on which Newala lies, the
eye ranges for many miles east and north-east, without encountering
any obstacle, over the Makonde bush. It is a green sea, from which
here and there thick clouds of smoke rise, to show that it, too, is
inhabited by men who carry on their tillage like so many other
primitive peoples, by cutting down and burning the bush, and
manuring with the ashes. Even in the radiant light of a tropical day
such a fire is a grand sight.
Much less effective is the impression produced just now by the
great western plain as seen from the edge of the plateau. As often as
time permits, I stroll along this edge, sometimes in one direction,
sometimes in another, in the hope of finding the air clear enough to
let me enjoy the view; but I have always been disappointed.
Wherever one looks, clouds of smoke rise from the burning bush,
and the air is full of smoke and vapour. It is a pity, for under more
favourable circumstances the panorama of the whole country up to
the distant Majeje hills must be truly magnificent. It is of little use
taking photographs now, and an outline sketch gives a very poor idea
of the scenery. In one of these excursions I went out of my way to
make a personal attempt on the Makonde bush. The present edge of
the plateau is the result of a far-reaching process of destruction
through erosion and denudation. The Makonde strata are
everywhere cut into by ravines, which, though short, are hundreds of
yards in depth. In consequence of the loose stratification of these
beds, not only are the walls of these ravines nearly vertical, but their
upper end is closed by an equally steep escarpment, so that the
western edge of the Makonde plateau is hemmed in by a series of
deep, basin-like valleys. In order to get from one side of such a ravine
to the other, I cut my way through the bush with a dozen of my men.
It was a very open part, with more grass than scrub, but even so the
short stretch of less than two hundred yards was very hard work; at
the end of it the men’s calicoes were in rags and they themselves
bleeding from hundreds of scratches, while even our strong khaki
suits had not escaped scatheless.
NATIVE PATH THROUGH THE MAKONDE BUSH, NEAR

MAHUTA
I see increasing reason to believe that the view formed some time
back as to the origin of the Makonde bush is the correct one. I have
no doubt that it is not a natural product, but the result of human
occupation. Those parts of the high country where man—as a very
slight amount of practice enables the eye to perceive at once—has not
yet penetrated with axe and hoe, are still occupied by a splendid
timber forest quite able to sustain a comparison with our mixed
forests in Germany. But wherever man has once built his hut or tilled
his field, this horrible bush springs up. Every phase of this process
may be seen in the course of a couple of hours’ walk along the main
road. From the bush to right or left, one hears the sound of the axe—
not from one spot only, but from several directions at once. A few
steps further on, we can see what is taking place. The brush has been
cut down and piled up in heaps to the height of a yard or more,
between which the trunks of the large trees stand up like the last
pillars of a magnificent ruined building. These, too, present a
melancholy spectacle: the destructive Makonde have ringed them—
cut a broad strip of bark all round to ensure their dying off—and also
piled up pyramids of brush round them. Father and son, mother and
son-in-law, are chopping away perseveringly in the background—too
busy, almost, to look round at the white stranger, who usually excites
so much interest. If you pass by the same place a week later, the piles
of brushwood have disappeared and a thick layer of ashes has taken
the place of the green forest. The large trees stretch their
smouldering trunks and branches in dumb accusation to heaven—if
they have not already fallen and been more or less reduced to ashes,
perhaps only showing as a white stripe on the dark ground.
This work of destruction is carried out by the Makonde alike on the
virgin forest and on the bush which has sprung up on sites already
cultivated and deserted. In the second case they are saved the trouble
of burning the large trees, these being entirely absent in the
secondary bush.
After burning this piece of forest ground and loosening it with the
hoe, the native sows his corn and plants his vegetables. All over the
country, he goes in for bed-culture, which requires, and, in fact,
receives, the most careful attention. Weeds are nowhere tolerated in
the south of German East Africa. The crops may fail on the plains,
where droughts are frequent, but never on the plateau with its
abundant rains and heavy dews. Its fortunate inhabitants even have
the satisfaction of seeing the proud Wayao and Wamakua working
for them as labourers, driven by hunger to serve where they were
accustomed to rule.
But the light, sandy soil is soon exhausted, and would yield no
harvest the second year if cultivated twice running. This fact has
been familiar to the native for ages; consequently he provides in
time, and, while his crop is growing, prepares the next plot with axe
and firebrand. Next year he plants this with his various crops and
lets the first piece lie fallow. For a short time it remains waste and
desolate; then nature steps in to repair the destruction wrought by
man; a thousand new growths spring out of the exhausted soil, and
even the old stumps put forth fresh shoots. Next year the new growth
is up to one’s knees, and in a few years more it is that terrible,
impenetrable bush, which maintains its position till the black
occupier of the land has made the round of all the available sites and
come back to his starting point.
The Makonde are, body and soul, so to speak, one with this bush.
According to my Yao informants, indeed, their name means nothing
else but “bush people.” Their own tradition says that they have been
settled up here for a very long time, but to my surprise they laid great
stress on an original immigration. Their old homes were in the
south-east, near Mikindani and the mouth of the Rovuma, whence
their peaceful forefathers were driven by the continual raids of the
Sakalavas from Madagascar and the warlike Shirazis[47] of the coast,
to take refuge on the almost inaccessible plateau. I have studied
African ethnology for twenty years, but the fact that changes of
population in this apparently quiet and peaceable corner of the earth
could have been occasioned by outside enterprises taking place on
the high seas, was completely new to me. It is, no doubt, however,
correct.
The charming tribal legend of the Makonde—besides informing us
of other interesting matters—explains why they have to live in the
thickest of the bush and a long way from the edge of the plateau,
instead of making their permanent homes beside the purling brooks
and springs of the low country.
“The place where the tribe originated is Mahuta, on the southern
side of the plateau towards the Rovuma, where of old time there was
nothing but thick bush. Out of this bush came a man who never
washed himself or shaved his head, and who ate and drank but little.
He went out and made a human figure from the wood of a tree
growing in the open country, which he took home to his abode in the
bush and there set it upright. In the night this image came to life and
was a woman. The man and woman went down together to the
Rovuma to wash themselves. Here the woman gave birth to a still-
born child. They left that place and passed over the high land into the
valley of the Mbemkuru, where the woman had another child, which
was also born dead. Then they returned to the high bush country of
Mahuta, where the third child was born, which lived and grew up. In
course of time, the couple had many more children, and called
themselves Wamatanda. These were the ancestral stock of the
Makonde, also called Wamakonde,[48] i.e., aborigines. Their
forefather, the man from the bush, gave his children the command to
bury their dead upright, in memory of the mother of their race who
was cut out of wood and awoke to life when standing upright. He also
warned them against settling in the valleys and near large streams,
for sickness and death dwelt there. They were to make it a rule to
have their huts at least an hour’s walk from the nearest watering-
place; then their children would thrive and escape illness.”
The explanation of the name Makonde given by my informants is
somewhat different from that contained in the above legend, which I
extract from a little book (small, but packed with information), by
Pater Adams, entitled Lindi und sein Hinterland. Otherwise, my
results agree exactly with the statements of the legend. Washing?
Hapana—there is no such thing. Why should they do so? As it is, the
supply of water scarcely suffices for cooking and drinking; other
people do not wash, so why should the Makonde distinguish himself
by such needless eccentricity? As for shaving the head, the short,
woolly crop scarcely needs it,[49] so the second ancestral precept is
likewise easy enough to follow. Beyond this, however, there is
nothing ridiculous in the ancestor’s advice. I have obtained from
various local artists a fairly large number of figures carved in wood,
ranging from fifteen to twenty-three inches in height, and
representing women belonging to the great group of the Mavia,
Makonde, and Matambwe tribes. The carving is remarkably well
done and renders the female type with great accuracy, especially the
keloid ornamentation, to be described later on. As to the object and
meaning of their works the sculptors either could or (more probably)
would tell me nothing, and I was forced to content myself with the
scanty information vouchsafed by one man, who said that the figures
were merely intended to represent the nembo—the artificial
deformations of pelele, ear-discs, and keloids. The legend recorded
by Pater Adams places these figures in a new light. They must surely
be more than mere dolls; and we may even venture to assume that
they are—though the majority of present-day Makonde are probably
unaware of the fact—representations of the tribal ancestress.
The references in the legend to the descent from Mahuta to the
Rovuma, and to a journey across the highlands into the Mbekuru
valley, undoubtedly indicate the previous history of the tribe, the
travels of the ancestral pair typifying the migrations of their
descendants. The descent to the neighbouring Rovuma valley, with
its extraordinary fertility and great abundance of game, is intelligible
at a glance—but the crossing of the Lukuledi depression, the ascent
to the Rondo Plateau and the descent to the Mbemkuru, also lie
within the bounds of probability, for all these districts have exactly
the same character as the extreme south. Now, however, comes a
point of especial interest for our bacteriological age. The primitive
Makonde did not enjoy their lives in the marshy river-valleys.
Disease raged among them, and many died. It was only after they
had returned to their original home near Mahuta, that the health
conditions of these people improved. We are very apt to think of the
African as a stupid person whose ignorance of nature is only equalled
by his fear of it, and who looks on all mishaps as caused by evil
spirits and malignant natural powers. It is much more correct to
assume in this case that the people very early learnt to distinguish
districts infested with malaria from those where it is absent.
This knowledge is crystallized in the
ancestral warning against settling in the
valleys and near the great waters, the
dwelling-places of disease and death. At the
same time, for security against the hostile
Mavia south of the Rovuma, it was enacted
that every settlement must be not less than a
certain distance from the southern edge of the
plateau. Such in fact is their mode of life at the
present day. It is not such a bad one, and
certainly they are both safer and more
comfortable than the Makua, the recent
intruders from the south, who have made USUAL METHOD OF
good their footing on the western edge of the CLOSING HUT-DOOR
plateau, extending over a fairly wide belt of
country. Neither Makua nor Makonde show in their dwellings
anything of the size and comeliness of the Yao houses in the plain,
especially at Masasi, Chingulungulu and Zuza’s. Jumbe Chauro, a
Makonde hamlet not far from Newala, on the road to Mahuta, is the
most important settlement of the tribe I have yet seen, and has fairly
spacious huts. But how slovenly is their construction compared with
the palatial residences of the elephant-hunters living in the plain.
The roofs are still more untidy than in the general run of huts during
the dry season, the walls show here and there the scanty beginnings
or the lamentable remains of the mud plastering, and the interior is a
veritable dog-kennel; dirt, dust and disorder everywhere. A few huts
only show any attempt at division into rooms, and this consists
merely of very roughly-made bamboo partitions. In one point alone
have I noticed any indication of progress—in the method of fastening
the door. Houses all over the south are secured in a simple but
ingenious manner. The door consists of a set of stout pieces of wood
or bamboo, tied with bark-string to two cross-pieces, and moving in
two grooves round one of the door-posts, so as to open inwards. If
the owner wishes to leave home, he takes two logs as thick as a man’s
upper arm and about a yard long. One of these is placed obliquely
against the middle of the door from the inside, so as to form an angle
of from 60° to 75° with the ground. He then places the second piece
horizontally across the first, pressing it downward with all his might.
It is kept in place by two strong posts planted in the ground a few
inches inside the door. This fastening is absolutely safe, but of course
cannot be applied to both doors at once, otherwise how could the
owner leave or enter his house? I have not yet succeeded in finding
out how the back door is fastened.
MAKONDE LOCK AND KEY AT JUMBE CHAURO

This is the general way of closing a house. The Makonde at Jumbe
Chauro, however, have a much more complicated, solid and original
one. Here, too, the door is as already described, except that there is
only one post on the inside, standing by itself about six inches from
one side of the doorway. Opposite this post is a hole in the wall just
large enough to admit a man’s arm. The door is closed inside by a
large wooden bolt passing through a hole in this post and pressing
with its free end against the door. The other end has three holes into
which fit three pegs running in vertical grooves inside the post. The
door is opened with a wooden key about a foot long, somewhat
curved and sloped off at the butt; the other end has three pegs
corresponding to the holes, in the bolt, so that, when it is thrust
through the hole in the wall and inserted into the rectangular
opening in the post, the pegs can be lifted and the bolt drawn out.[50]
MODE OF INSERTING THE KEY
With no small pride first one householder and then a second

showed me on the spot the action of this greatest invention of the
Makonde Highlands. To both with an admiring exclamation of
“Vizuri sana!” (“Very fine!”). I expressed the wish to take back these
marvels with me to Ulaya, to show the Wazungu what clever fellows
the Makonde are. Scarcely five minutes after my return to camp at
Newala, the two men came up sweating under the weight of two
heavy logs which they laid down at my feet, handing over at the same
time the keys of the fallen fortress. Arguing, logically enough, that if
the key was wanted, the lock would be wanted with it, they had taken
their axes and chopped down the posts—as it never occurred to them
to dig them out of the ground and so bring them intact. Thus I have
two badly damaged specimens, and the owners, instead of praise,
come in for a blowing-up.
The Makua huts in the environs of Newala are especially
miserable; their more than slovenly construction reminds one of the
temporary erections of the Makua at Hatia’s, though the people here
have not been concerned in a war. It must therefore be due to
congenital idleness, or else to the absence of a powerful chief. Even
the baraza at Mlipa’s, a short hour’s walk south-east of Newala,
shares in this general neglect. While public buildings in this country
are usually looked after more or less carefully, this is in evident
danger of being blown over by the first strong easterly gale. The only
attractive object in this whole district is the grave of the late chief
Mlipa. I visited it in the morning, while the sun was still trying with
partial success to break through the rolling mists, and the circular
grove of tall euphorbias, which, with a broken pot, is all that marks
the old king’s resting-place, impressed one with a touch of pathos.
Even my very materially-minded carriers seemed to feel something
of the sort, for instead of their usual ribald songs, they chanted
solemnly, as we marched on through the dense green of the Makonde
bush:—
“We shall arrive with the great master; we stand in a row and have
no fear about getting our food and our money from the Serkali (the
Government). We are not afraid; we are going along with the great
master, the lion; we are going down to the coast and back.”
With regard to the characteristic features of the various tribes here
on the western edge of the plateau, I can arrive at no other
conclusion than the one already come to in the plain, viz., that it is
impossible for anyone but a trained anthropologist to assign any
given individual at once to his proper tribe. In fact, I think that even
an anthropological specialist, after the most careful examination,
might find it a difficult task to decide. The whole congeries of peoples
collected in the region bounded on the west by the great Central
African rift, Tanganyika and Nyasa, and on the east by the Indian
Ocean, are closely related to each other—some of their languages are
only distinguished from one another as dialects of the same speech,
and no doubt all the tribes present the same shape of skull and
structure of skeleton. Thus, surely, there can be no very striking
differences in outward appearance.
Even did such exist, I should have no time
to concern myself with them, for day after day,
I have to see or hear, as the case may be—in
any case to grasp and record—an
extraordinary number of ethnographic
phenomena. I am almost disposed to think it
fortunate that some departments of inquiry, at
least, are barred by external circumstances.
Chief among these is the subject of iron-
working. We are apt to think of Africa as a
country where iron ore is everywhere, so to
speak, to be picked up by the roadside, and
where it would be quite surprising if the
inhabitants had not learnt to smelt the
material ready to their hand. In fact, the
knowledge of this art ranges all over the
continent, from the Kabyles in the north to the
Kafirs in the south. Here between the Rovuma
and the Lukuledi the conditions are not so
favourable. According to the statements of the
Makonde, neither ironstone nor any other
form of iron ore is known to them. They have
not therefore advanced to the art of smelting
the metal, but have hitherto bought all their
THE ANCESTRESS OF
THE MAKONDE
iron implements from neighbouring tribes.
Even in the plain the inhabitants are not much
better off. Only one man now living is said to
understand the art of smelting iron. This old fundi lives close to
Huwe, that isolated, steep-sided block of granite which rises out of
the green solitude between Masasi and Chingulungulu, and whose
jagged and splintered top meets the traveller’s eye everywhere. While
still at Masasi I wished to see this man at work, but was told that,
frightened by the rising, he had retired across the Rovuma, though
he would soon return. All subsequent inquiries as to whether the
fundi had come back met with the genuine African answer, “Bado”
(“Not yet”).
BRAZIER
Some consolation was afforded me by a brassfounder, whom I

came across in the bush near Akundonde’s. This man is the favourite
of women, and therefore no doubt of the gods; he welds the glittering
brass rods purchased at the coast into those massive, heavy rings
which, on the wrists and ankles of the local fair ones, continually give
me fresh food for admiration. Like every decent master-craftsman he
had all his tools with him, consisting of a pair of bellows, three
crucibles and a hammer—nothing more, apparently. He was quite
willing to show his skill, and in a twinkling had fixed his bellows on
the ground. They are simply two goat-skins, taken off whole, the four
legs being closed by knots, while the upper opening, intended to
admit the air, is kept stretched by two pieces of wood. At the lower
end of the skin a smaller opening is left into which a wooden tube is
stuck. The fundi has quickly borrowed a heap of wood-embers from
the nearest hut; he then fixes the free ends of the two tubes into an
earthen pipe, and clamps them to the ground by means of a bent
piece of wood. Now he fills one of his small clay crucibles, the dross
on which shows that they have been long in use, with the yellow
material, places it in the midst of the embers, which, at present are
only faintly glimmering, and begins his work. In quick alternation
the smith’s two hands move up and down with the open ends of the
bellows; as he raises his hand he holds the slit wide open, so as to let
the air enter the skin bag unhindered. In pressing it down he closes
the bag, and the air puffs through the bamboo tube and clay pipe into
the fire, which quickly burns up. The smith, however, does not keep
on with this work, but beckons to another man, who relieves him at
the bellows, while he takes some more tools out of a large skin pouch
carried on his back. I look on in wonder as, with a smooth round
stick about the thickness of a finger, he bores a few vertical holes into
the clean sand of the soil. This should not be difficult, yet the man
seems to be taking great pains over it. Then he fastens down to the
ground, with a couple of wooden clamps, a neat little trough made by
splitting a joint of bamboo in half, so that the ends are closed by the
two knots. At last the yellow metal has attained the right consistency,
and the fundi lifts the crucible from the fire by means of two sticks
split at the end to serve as tongs. A short swift turn to the left—a
tilting of the crucible—and the molten brass, hissing and giving forth
clouds of smoke, flows first into the bamboo mould and then into the
holes in the ground.
The technique of this backwoods craftsman may not be very far
advanced, but it cannot be denied that he knows how to obtain an
adequate result by the simplest means. The ladies of highest rank in
this country—that is to say, those who can afford it, wear two kinds
of these massive brass rings, one cylindrical, the other semicircular
in section. The latter are cast in the most ingenious way in the
bamboo mould, the former in the circular hole in the sand. It is quite
a simple matter for the fundi to fit these bars to the limbs of his fair
customers; with a few light strokes of his hammer he bends the
pliable brass round arm or ankle without further inconvenience to
the wearer.
SHAPING THE POT
SMOOTHING WITH MAIZE-COB
CUTTING THE EDGE

FINISHING THE BOTTOM
LAST SMOOTHING BEFORE

BURNING
FIRING THE BRUSH-PILE

LIGHTING THE FARTHER SIDE OF
THE PILE
TURNING THE RED-HOT VESSEL
NYASA WOMAN MAKING POTS AT MASASI

Pottery is an art which must always and everywhere excite the
interest of the student, just because it is so intimately connected with
the development of human culture, and because its relics are one of
the principal factors in the reconstruction of our own condition in
prehistoric times. I shall always remember with pleasure the two or
three afternoons at Masasi when Salim Matola’s mother, a slightly-
built, graceful, pleasant-looking woman, explained to me with
touching patience, by means of concrete illustrations, the ceramic art
of her people. The only implements for this primitive process were a
lump of clay in her left hand, and in the right a calabash containing
the following valuables: the fragment of a maize-cob stripped of all
its grains, a smooth, oval pebble, about the size of a pigeon’s egg, a
few chips of gourd-shell, a bamboo splinter about the length of one’s
hand, a small shell, and a bunch of some herb resembling spinach.
Nothing more. The woman scraped with the
shell a round, shallow hole in the soft, fine
sand of the soil, and, when an active young
girl had filled the calabash with water for her,
she began to knead the clay. As if by magic it
gradually assumed the shape of a rough but
already well-shaped vessel, which only wanted
a little touching up with the instruments
before mentioned. I looked out with the
MAKUA WOMAN closest attention for any indication of the use
MAKING A POT. of the potter’s wheel, in however rudimentary
SHOWS THE a form, but no—hapana (there is none). The
BEGINNINGS OF THE embryo pot stood firmly in its little
POTTER’S WHEEL
depression, and the woman walked round it in
a stooping posture, whether she was removing
small stones or similar foreign bodies with the maize-cob, smoothing
the inner or outer surface with the splinter of bamboo, or later, after
letting it dry for a day, pricking in the ornamentation with a pointed
bit of gourd-shell, or working out the bottom, or cutting the edge
with a sharp bamboo knife, or giving the last touches to the finished
vessel. This occupation of the women is infinitely toilsome, but it is
without doubt an accurate reproduction of the process in use among
our ancestors of the Neolithic and Bronze ages.
There is no doubt that the invention of pottery, an item in human
progress whose importance cannot be over-estimated, is due to
women. Rough, coarse and unfeeling, the men of the horde range
over the countryside. When the united cunning of the hunters has
succeeded in killing the game; not one of them thinks of carrying
home the spoil. A bright fire, kindled by a vigorous wielding of the
drill, is crackling beside them; the animal has been cleaned and cut
up secundum artem, and, after a slight singeing, will soon disappear
under their sharp teeth; no one all this time giving a single thought
to wife or child.
To what shifts, on the other hand, the primitive wife, and still more
the primitive mother, was put! Not even prehistoric stomachs could
endure an unvarying diet of raw food. Something or other suggested
the beneficial effect of hot water on the majority of approved but
indigestible dishes. Perhaps a neighbour had tried holding the hard
roots or tubers over the fire in a calabash filled with water—or maybe
an ostrich-egg-shell, or a hastily improvised vessel of bark. They
became much softer and more palatable than they had previously
been; but, unfortunately, the vessel could not stand the fire and got
charred on the outside. That can be remedied, thought our
ancestress, and plastered a layer of wet clay round a similar vessel.
This is an improvement; the cooking utensil remains uninjured, but
the heat of the fire has shrunk it, so that it is loose in its shell. The
next step is to detach it, so, with a firm grip and a jerk, shell and
kernel are separated, and pottery is invented. Perhaps, however, the
discovery which led to an intelligent use of the burnt-clay shell, was
made in a slightly different way. Ostrich-eggs and calabashes are not
to be found in every part of the world, but everywhere mankind has
arrived at the art of making baskets out of pliant materials, such as
bark, bast, strips of palm-leaf, supple twigs, etc. Our inventor has no
water-tight vessel provided by nature. “Never mind, let us line the
basket with clay.” This answers the purpose, but alas! the basket gets
burnt over the blazing fire, the woman watches the process of
cooking with increasing uneasiness, fearing a leak, but no leak
appears. The food, done to a turn, is eaten with peculiar relish; and
the cooking-vessel is examined, half in curiosity, half in satisfaction
at the result. The plastic clay is now hard as stone, and at the same
time looks exceedingly well, for the neat plaiting of the burnt basket
is traced all over it in a pretty pattern. Thus, simultaneously with
pottery, its ornamentation was invented.
Primitive woman has another claim to respect. It was the man,
roving abroad, who invented the art of producing fire at will, but the
woman, unable to imitate him in this, has been a Vestal from the
earliest times. Nothing gives so much trouble as the keeping alight of
the smouldering brand, and, above all, when all the men are absent
from the camp. Heavy rain-clouds gather, already the first large
drops are falling, the first gusts of the storm rage over the plain. The
little flame, a greater anxiety to the woman than her own children,
flickers unsteadily in the blast. What is to be done? A sudden thought
occurs to her, and in an instant she has constructed a primitive hut
out of strips of bark, to protect the flame against rain and wind.
This, or something very like it, was the way in which the principle
of the house was discovered; and even the most hardened misogynist
cannot fairly refuse a woman the credit of it. The protection of the
hearth-fire from the weather is the germ from which the human
dwelling was evolved. Men had little, if any share, in this forward
step, and that only at a late stage. Even at the present day, the
plastering of the housewall with clay and the manufacture of pottery
are exclusively the women’s business. These are two very significant
survivals. Our European kitchen-garden, too, is originally a woman’s
invention, and the hoe, the primitive instrument of agriculture, is,
characteristically enough, still used in this department. But the
noblest achievement which we owe to the other sex is unquestionably
the art of cookery. Roasting alone—the oldest process—is one for
which men took the hint (a very obvious one) from nature. It must
have been suggested by the scorched carcase of some animal
overtaken by the destructive forest-fires. But boiling—the process of
improving organic substances by the help of water heated to boiling-
point—is a much later discovery. It is so recent that it has not even
yet penetrated to all parts of the world. The Polynesians understand
how to steam food, that is, to cook it, neatly wrapped in leaves, in a
hole in the earth between hot stones, the air being excluded, and
(sometimes) a few drops of water sprinkled on the stones; but they
do not understand boiling.
To come back from this digression, we find that the slender Nyasa
woman has, after once more carefully examining the finished pot,
put it aside in the shade to dry. On the following day she sends me
word by her son, Salim Matola, who is always on hand, that she is
going to do the burning, and, on coming out of my house, I find her
already hard at work. She has spread on the ground a layer of very
dry sticks, about as thick as one’s thumb, has laid the pot (now of a
yellowish-grey colour) on them, and is piling brushwood round it.
My faithful Pesa mbili, the mnyampara, who has been standing by,
most obligingly, with a lighted stick, now hands it to her. Both of
them, blowing steadily, light the pile on the lee side, and, when the
flame begins to catch, on the weather side also. Soon the whole is in a
blaze, but the dry fuel is quickly consumed and the fire dies down, so
that we see the red-hot vessel rising from the ashes. The woman
turns it continually with a long stick, sometimes one way and
sometimes another, so that it may be evenly heated all over. In
twenty minutes she rolls it out of the ash-heap, takes up the bundle
of spinach, which has been lying for two days in a jar of water, and
sprinkles the red-hot clay with it. The places where the drops fall are
marked by black spots on the uniform reddish-brown surface. With a
sigh of relief, and with visible satisfaction, the woman rises to an
erect position; she is standing just in a line between me and the fire,
from which a cloud of smoke is just rising: I press the ball of my
camera, the shutter clicks—the apotheosis is achieved! Like a
priestess, representative of her inventive sex, the graceful woman
stands: at her feet the hearth-fire she has given us beside her the
invention she has devised for us, in the background the home she has
built for us.
At Newala, also, I have had the manufacture of pottery carried on
in my presence. Technically the process is better than that already
described, for here we find the beginnings of the potter’s wheel,
which does not seem to exist in the plains; at least I have seen
nothing of the sort. The artist, a frightfully stupid Makua woman, did
not make a depression in the ground to receive the pot she was about
to shape, but used instead a large potsherd. Otherwise, she went to
work in much the same way as Salim’s mother, except that she saved
herself the trouble of walking round and round her work by squatting
at her ease and letting the pot and potsherd rotate round her; this is
surely the first step towards a machine. But it does not follow that
the pot was improved by the process. It is true that it was beautifully
rounded and presented a very creditable appearance when finished,
but the numerous large and small vessels which I have seen, and, in
part, collected, in the “less advanced” districts, are no less so. We
moderns imagine that instruments of precision are necessary to
produce excellent results. Go to the prehistoric collections of our
museums and look at the pots, urns and bowls of our ancestors in the
dim ages of the past, and you will at once perceive your error.
MAKING LONGITUDINAL CUT IN
BARK
DRAWING THE BARK OFF THE LOG
REMOVING THE OUTER BARK

BEATING THE BARK
WORKING THE BARK-CLOTH AFTER BEATING, TO MAKE IT

SOFT
MANUFACTURE OF BARK-CLOTH AT NEWALA

To-day, nearly the whole population of German East Africa is
clothed in imported calico. This was not always the case; even now in
some parts of the north dressed skins are still the prevailing wear,
and in the north-western districts—east and north of Lake
Tanganyika—lies a zone where bark-cloth has not yet been
superseded. Probably not many generations have passed since such
bark fabrics and kilts of skins were the only clothing even in the
south. Even to-day, large quantities of this bright-red or drab
material are still to be found; but if we wish to see it, we must look in
the granaries and on the drying stages inside the native huts, where
it serves less ambitious uses as wrappings for those seeds and fruits
which require to be packed with special care. The salt produced at
Masasi, too, is packed for transport to a distance in large sheets of
bark-cloth. Wherever I found it in any degree possible, I studied the
process of making this cloth. The native requisitioned for the
purpose arrived, carrying a log between two and three yards long and
as thick as his thigh, and nothing else except a curiously-shaped
mallet and the usual long, sharp and pointed knife which all men and
boys wear in a belt at their backs without a sheath—horribile dictu!
[51]
Silently he squats down before me, and with two rapid cuts has
drawn a couple of circles round the log some two yards apart, and
slits the bark lengthwise between them with the point of his knife.
With evident care, he then scrapes off the outer rind all round the
log, so that in a quarter of an hour the inner red layer of the bark
shows up brightly-coloured between the two untouched ends. With
some trouble and much caution, he now loosens the bark at one end,
and opens the cylinder. He then stands up, takes hold of the free
edge with both hands, and turning it inside out, slowly but steadily
pulls it off in one piece. Now comes the troublesome work of
scraping all superfluous particles of outer bark from the outside of
the long, narrow piece of material, while the inner side is carefully
scrutinised for defective spots. At last it is ready for beating. Having
signalled to a friend, who immediately places a bowl of water beside
him, the artificer damps his sheet of bark all over, seizes his mallet,
lays one end of the stuff on the smoothest spot of the log, and
hammers away slowly but continuously. “Very simple!” I think to
myself. “Why, I could do that, too!”—but I am forced to change my
opinions a little later on; for the beating is quite an art, if the fabric is
not to be beaten to pieces. To prevent the breaking of the fibres, the
stuff is several times folded across, so as to interpose several
thicknesses between the mallet and the block. At last the required
state is reached, and the fundi seizes the sheet, still folded, by both
ends, and wrings it out, or calls an assistant to take one end while he
holds the other. The cloth produced in this way is not nearly so fine
and uniform in texture as the famous Uganda bark-cloth, but it is
quite soft, and, above all, cheap.
Now, too, I examine the mallet. My craftsman has been using the
simpler but better form of this implement, a conical block of some
hard wood, its base—the striking surface—being scored across and
across with more or less deeply-cut grooves, and the handle stuck
into a hole in the middle. The other and earlier form of mallet is
shaped in the same way, but the head is fastened by an ingenious
network of bark strips into the split bamboo serving as a handle. The
observation so often made, that ancient customs persist longest in
connection with religious ceremonies and in the life of children, here
finds confirmation. As we shall soon see, bark-cloth is still worn
during the unyago,[52] having been prepared with special solemn
ceremonies; and many a mother, if she has no other garment handy,
will still put her little one into a kilt of bark-cloth, which, after all,
looks better, besides being more in keeping with its African
surroundings, than the ridiculous bit of print from Ulaya.
MAKUA WOMEN

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Business Research Methods (Book

Only) ■ Ebook PDF Version

PART ONE Introduction, 1

PART TWO Beginning Stages of the Research Process, 105

PART THREE Research Methods for Collecting Primary Data, 183

PART FOUR Measurement Concepts, 287

PART FIVE Sampling and Fieldwork, 383

PART SIX Data Analysis and Presentation, 457

PART SEVEN Comprehensive Cases with Computerized

PART ONE Questions for Review and Critical Thinking, 16

Intranets, 33 Research Snapshot Rolling Rock, 66

PART TWO Qualitative “versus” Quantitative Research, 133

Observation of Human Behavior, 238 Issues of Experimental Validity, 271

Summary, 249 CASE 12.1 Tooheys, 285

CHAPTER 14 Survey This!, 335

Message Communication/Playback (Sales Point Random Sampling and Nonsampling

Survey This!, 412 Principles of Good Interviewing, 449

Introduction, 442 Research Snapshot Do You Have Integrity?, 462

Computerized Survey Data Processing, 476 Survey This!, 508

Calculating Rank Order, 494

Partitioning Variance in ANOVA, 544 CHAPTER 24

Introduction, 561 Summary, 602

Basic Business Research Report, 619 PART SEVEN

Enhancements in Business Research Methods

Organization of the Book

Additionally, Chapter 12 focuses specifically on experimental research. Experiments allow the

processes in a variety of modern businesses situations, ranging from international consider-

Comprehensive Instructor Resources

■■ Web resources at http://login.cengage.com provide the latest information about what’s

Resources for Students

Tom K. Massey Harlan Spotts

ESPN Hits a Home Run by Leveraging the

information was located in separate databases and across dif-

The Nature of Business Research

Business Research Defined

Applied and Basic Business Research basic business research

The Scientific Method

Managerial Value of Business Research

Product-Oriented Firm Example Business Orientations

Research focuses on technicians and experts in the field.

Production-Oriented Firm Example

Marketing-Oriented Firm Example

customers address the needs of travelers, particularly

Research focuses on customers.

Newala, too, suffers from the distance of its water-supply—at least

The water-supply of New Newala is in the bottom of the valley,

NATIVE PATH THROUGH THE MAKONDE BUSH, NEAR

MAKONDE LOCK AND KEY AT JUMBE CHAURO

MODE OF INSERTING THE KEY

With no small pride first one householder and then a second

Some consolation was afforded me by a brassfounder, whom I

SMOOTHING WITH MAIZE-COB

CUTTING THE EDGE

LAST SMOOTHING BEFORE

FIRING THE BRUSH-PILE

TURNING THE RED-HOT VESSEL

NYASA WOMAN MAKING POTS AT MASASI

DRAWING THE BARK OFF THE LOG