Introduction to Calculus

and the Limit Process

 What is Calculus?
• In general, "a" calculus is an • While ideas related to calculus
abstract theory developed in a had been known for some time
purely formal way. (Archimedes' method of
• "The" calculus, more properly exhaustion was a form of
called analysis (or real analysis), calculus), it was not until the
is the branch of mathematics independent work of Sir Isaac
studying the rate of change of Newton and Gottfried Wilhelm
quantities (which can be Leibniz that the modern elegant
interpreted as slopes of curves) tools and ideas of calculus were
and the length, area, and volume developed.
of objects. • Even so, many years elapsed
• The calculus is sometimes until the subject was put on a
divided into differential and mathematically rigorous footing
integral calculus by mathematicians such as Karl
Weierstrass.
 Calculus vs Precalculus
• Calculus is the mathematics
of change
• Calculus is the mathematics
of velocities, accelerations,
tangent lines, slopes, areas,
volumes, etc.
• Although precalculus
mathematics also deals
with velocities and such,
there is a fundamental
difference: precalculus
mathematics is more static,
whereas calculus is more
dynamic
 Calculus vs Precalculus
• Calculus is the mathematics
of change
• Calculus is the mathematics
of velocities, accelerations,
tangent lines, slopes, areas,
volumes, etc.
• Although precalculus
mathematics also deals
with velocities and such,
there is a fundamental
difference: precalculus
mathematics is more static,
whereas calculus is more
dynamic
 The Limit Process
• Each of these situations involves • The tangent line problem
the same general strategy – the
reformulation of precalculus
mathematics through the use of
a limit process
𝑷

• The notion of a limit is

fundamental to the study of
calculus
• There are two classic problems
in calculus: the tangent line
problem and the area problem
 The Limit Process
• Each of these situations involves • The area problem
the same general strategy – the
reformulation of precalculus
mathematics through the use of
a limit process

• The notion of a limit is

fundamental to the study of
calculus
• There are two classic problems
in calculus: the tangent line
problem and the area problem
 Introduction to Limits
• Suppose you are asked to sketch
the graph of the function 𝑓 given
𝑥 3 −1
by 𝑓 𝑥 = ,𝑥 ≠ 1
𝑥−1
• For all values other than 𝑥 = 1,
standard curve-sketching
techniques can be used
• However, it is not clear what to
expect at 𝑥 = 1
• To get an idea of the behavior of
the graph of 𝑓 near 𝑥 = 1, you
can use two sets of 𝑥-values –
one set that approaches 1 from
the left and one set that
approaches 1 from the right
 Introduction to Limits
Informal Definition of a Limit 1, 𝑥 ≠ 2
2. lim 𝑓 𝑥 , where 𝑓 𝑥 = ቊ
• If 𝑓 𝑥 becomes arbitrarily close 𝑥→2 2, 𝑥 = 2
to a single number 𝐿 as 𝑥 3. lim 2
𝑥−4
approaches 𝑐 from either side, 𝑥→4 𝑥 −3𝑥−4
the limit of 𝑓 𝑥 as 𝑥 approaches 4. lim
sin 𝑥
𝑐, written as lim 𝑓 𝑥 , is 𝐿, i.e. 𝑥→0 𝑥
𝑥→𝑐 cos 𝑥−1
lim 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝐿 5. lim
𝑥
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→0

Examples: Estimate the given

limits numerically
𝑥
1. lim
𝑥→0 𝑥+1−1
 Limits that Fail to Exist
Discuss the existence of the
following limits:
𝑥
1. lim
𝑥→0 𝑥
1
2. lim 2
𝑥→0 𝑥
1
3. lim sin
𝑥
𝑥→0
 A Formal Definition of Limits
• Informal Definition: If 𝑓 𝑥 definition of limit is the standard
becomes arbitrarily close to a used today
single number 𝐿 as 𝑥 approaches 𝑐 • Let 𝜀 represent a small positive
from either side, the limit of 𝑓 𝑥 as number. The phrase “𝑓 𝑥 becomes
𝑥 approaches 𝑐, written as lim 𝑓 𝑥 , arbitrarily close to 𝐿” means that
𝑥→𝑐
is 𝐿, i.e. lim 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝐿 𝑓 𝑥 lies in the interval 𝐿 − 𝜀, 𝐿 + 𝜀 .
𝑥→𝑐
In inequality/absolute value
• The definition above is informal notation, this is written as ȁ𝑓 𝑥 −
since there are no exact meanings 𝐿ȁ < 𝜀
to the phrases “𝑓 𝑥 becomes
arbitrarily close to a single number • The phrase “𝑥 approaches 𝑐” means
𝐿” and “𝑥 approaches 𝑐” that there exists a positive number
𝛿 such that 𝑥 lies either in the
• The first person to assign interval 𝑐 − 𝛿, 𝑐 or the interval
mathematically rigorous meanings 𝑐, 𝑐 + 𝛿 . This can be concisely
to these two phrases was Augustin- written as 0 < 𝑥 − 𝑐 < 𝛿
Louis Cauchy and his 𝜺 − 𝜹
 A Formal Definition of Limits
Definition of Limit
• Let 𝑓 be a function defined on an
open interval containing 𝑐
(except possibly at 𝑐) and let 𝐿
be a real number. The statement
lim 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝐿 means that for each
𝑥→𝑐
𝜀 > 0 there exists a 𝛿 > 0 such
that if 0 < 𝑥 − 𝑐 < 𝛿, then
𝑓 𝑥 −𝐿 <𝜀
Note:
The expression lim 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝐿 implies
𝑥→𝑐
two statements – the limit exists
and the limit is 𝐿 𝒄 𝒄 𝒄
 A Formal Definition of Limits
1. Given the limit lim 2𝑥 − 5 = 1, find 𝛿 such that 2𝑥 − 5 − 1 < 0.01
𝑥→3
whenever 0 < 𝑥 − 3 < 𝛿
2. Use the 𝜀 − 𝛿 definition of limit to prove that lim 3𝑥 − 2 = 4
𝑥→2
3. Find 𝛿 such that if 0 < 𝑥 − 2 < 𝛿 then 𝑓 𝑥 − 3 < 0.4 given that
lim 𝑥 + 1 = 3
𝑥→2
4. Use the 𝜀 − 𝛿 definition of limit to prove that lim 2𝑥 + 5 = −1
𝑥→−3
2 37
5. Use the 𝜀 − 𝛿 definition of limit to prove that lim 𝑥 +7 =
𝑥→1 5 5