pee PORTLAND CEMUEAd ASSOCIATION ThAcknors Design for Corrects yaa ancl Staast Fremont ~ (184 Authded by Rolect a. Packard , Grtniipat paring enginiy , Cwif awh TaowsfeVtokion Defarbrwut 5 Portland Cewvrend Agsoctition .Thickness+ Concrete Highway-and: Street Pavements: CONTENTS Chapter I, Introduction ...... ‘Applications of Design Procedures. Computer Programs Available . Basis for Design...... Metric Version. Chapter 2. Design Factors .. Flexural Strength of Conerete . Subgrade and Subbase Support Design Period Traffic Projection Capacity ADTT ‘Truck Directional Distribution . Axle-Load Distribution « Load Safety Factors Chapter 3. Design Procedure (Axle-Load Data Available), Fatigue Analysis ... Erosion Analysis . ‘Sample Problems .....- Chapter 4, Simplified Design Procedure (Axle-Load Data Not Available). Sample Problems ...... Comments cn Simplified Procedure Modulus of Rupture . Design Period ...- esignifor! Aggregate Interlock or Doweled Joints User-Developed Design Tables ...- Appendix A. Development of Design Procedure. ‘Analysis of Concrete Pavernents Jointed Pavements .. Continuously Reinforced Pavements Truck-Load Placement. . Variation in Concrete Strength . Concrete Strength Gain with Age Warpingand Curling of Conerete. Fatigue « Erosion Appendix B. Design of Conerete Pavements with Lean Concrete Lower Course «++ +36 Lean Concrete Subbase +36 Monolithic Pavement .... 36 239. ‘Appendix C. Analysis of Tridem Axle Loads =. Appendix D. Estimating Trafic Volume by Capacity z Appendix E. References. Design Worksheet for ReproductionFigures ural strength, age, and design rel : poeta interrelationships of soilclassifications ships ng, values s, Proportion of trucks in ight lane of a mulitane divided highway. 4, Design 1A. 5. Fatigue analysis—allowable load repetitions based fon stress ratio factor (with and without concrete shoulders). 62. Erosion analysis—allowable load repetitions based on erosion factor (without concrete shoulder) 6b, Erosion analysis—allowable load repetitions based on erosion factor (with concrete shoulder) 7. Design 1D. 8. Design 24, AL. Critical axle-load positions A2, Equivalent edge stress factor depends on percent of trucks at edge A3, Fatigue relationships, BI. Design chart for composite concrete pavement (lean concrete subbase), B2. Design chart for composite concrete pavement (monolithic with lean concrete lower layer). 83, Modulus of rupture versus compressive strength, “I. Analysis of tridems, ables 1. Effect of Untreated Subbase on & Values 2. Design & Values for Cement-Treated Subbase 3 Yearly isaies of Vratlic Growth and Corresponding Projection Factors 4 Percentages of Four-Tire Single Units and Trucks (ADTT) on Various Highway Systems Axle-Load Data Equivalent Stress—No Concrete Shoulder Equivalent Stress—Conerete Shoulder Erosion Factors—Doweled Joints, No Concrete Shoulder >. Erosion Factors—Aggregate-Interlock Joints, No Concrete Shoulder Erosion Factors—Doweled Joints, Concrete Shoulder Erosion Factors—Aggregate-Interlock Joints, Conerete Shoulder” Axle-Load Categories ‘Subgrade Soil Types and Approximate & Values Allowable ADTT, Axle-Load Category 1—Pavee ments with Aggregate-Interlock Joints Allowable ADTT, Axle-Load Category 2—Paves ments with Doweled Joints Allowable ADTT, Axle-Load Category 2—Pave- ments with Aggregate-Interlock Joints Allowable ADTT, Axle-Load Category 3—Pave. nnents with Doweled Joints 3b, Allowable ADTT, Axle-Load Category 3—Pave- ‘ments with Aggregate-Interlock Joints 4a, Allowable ADTT, Axle-Load. Category 4—Pave~ ‘ments with Doweled Joints Ib, Allowable ADTT, Axle-Load Category 4 ‘ments with Aggregate-Interlock Joints 15. Axle-Load Distribution Used for Preparing Design Tables 11 Through 14 Cl. Equivatent Stress — Tridems 2. Erosion Factors — Tridems — Doweled Joints (C3. Erosion Factors — Tridems — Aggregate-Interlock Joints DI. Design Capacities for Multilane Highways D2. Design Capacities for Uninterrupted Flow on Two Lane Highways us. customary Metric } Conversion ‘unit unit eeffecient in mm 35.40 m 0.30 ke 0.45 N 445 kN 445 kPa 6.9 (valuey | MPajm | 0271 @ & ; desi The get Toc fo:/3—Pave- 4—Pave- Arne FE ng Design oints Interlock on Two- CHAPTER 1 Introduction ‘This bulletin deals with methods of determining slab thicknesses adequate to carry traffic loads on concrete streets, roads, and highways, “The design purpose is the same as for other engineered structures —t0 find the minimum thickness that will re- Sult in the lowest annual cost as shown by both first cost find maintenance costs. If the thickness is greater than needed, the pavement will give good service with low maintenance costs, BUI first cost will be high. [the thick hess is not adequate, premature and costly maintenance ‘tnd interruptions ia traffic will more than offset the lower first eost. Sound engineering requires thickness designs that properly balance first cost and maintenance costs, ‘While this bulletin is confined to the topic of thickness design, other design aspects are equally important t0 en- Sure the performance and longllife of concrete pavements, These include— © Provision for reasonably uniform support. (See Sub- grades and Subbases for Concrete Pavements.*) «* Prevention of mud-pumping with a relatively thin untreated or cement-treated subbase on projects where the expected truck traffic will be great enough to eause pumping, (The need forand requirements of Subbase are also given in the booklet cited above.) + Use of a joint design that will afford adequate load transfer; enable joint sealants, ifrequired, to beeffec~ tive: and prevent joint distress due to infiltration. (See Joint Design for Concrete Highway and Street Pavements.**) «© Use of a concrete mix design and aggregates that will provide quality concrete with the strength and dura~ Bility needed for long life under the actual exposure conditions. (See Design and Coritrol of Concrete Mixtures.t) The thickness design criteria suggested are based on ‘general pavement performance experience. If regional or local specifie performance experience becomes available for more favorable or adverse conditions, the design cri teria can be appropriately modified. This could be the ‘case for particular climate, soil, or drainage conditions and future design innovations. Applications of Design Procedures “The design procedures given in this text apply te the fol- lowing types of concrete pavements: plain, piaindowsied. reinforced, and continuously reinforced. Plain pavements are constructed without ré.aforsing steel or doweled joints. Load transfer at the joints ws ob- tained by aggregate interlock between the cracked Zace: below the joint saw cut or groove. For load transfer 10 be effective, itis necessary that short joint spacings be wsed Plain-doweled pavements are built without ranfoccing steel however, smooth steel dowel bars are instalied a1 Toad transfer devices at each contraction joint and rela- tively short joint spacings are used to control cracking Reinforced pavements contain’ reinforcing stec2 anc “dowel bars for load transferat the contraction joints. The pavements are constructed with longer joint spacing: than used for unreinforced pavements. Betweenthe joints fone of more transverse cracks will usually deveiop: thes: fare held tightly together by the reinforcing steeland goo: Toad transfer is provided. ‘Commonly used joint spacings that perform well ate t ft for plain pavements,t not more than 20 fe for plaic doweled pavements, and not more than abou: 40 ft fe reinforced pavements. Joint spacings greater thar. shes have ‘been used but sometimes greater spacing cause pavement distress at joints and intermediate cracies be ‘owen joints. ‘Continuously reinforced pavements are buitt warhow contraction joints. Due to the relatively heavy. comtine Ous-steel reinforcement in the longitudinal dire=tiot these pavements develop transverse cracks at close ante vals. A high degree of load transfer is developed a= thet track faces held tightly together by steel reinfoccersxtnt “The design procedures given here cover design one wns that have not been directly addressed bef-re “Porand Cement Arsociaticn publication 1$0297- Porta Cent Assocation pobliation 18059: ‘sPortland Cement Atroiation publication EBOO T-. ‘tor very thin pavements, a 154jint spacing ay Becta ti aforementioned PCA publeaton on join eH = catsother procedures. These include recognition of: |The degree of load transfer at transverse joints pro- Vided by the different pavement types described. 2. The effect of using a conerete shoulder adjacent to the pavement, concrete shoulders reduce the flex- ine Pisces and deflections caused by vehicle loads, ‘The effect of using a lean conerete (econocrete)sub- base, which reduces pavement stresses and deflec- Gong, provides considerable support when trucks pass over joints, and provides resistance to subbase Erosion caused by repeated pavement deflections 4. Two design criteria: (a) fatigue, to keep pavement stresses due to repeated loads within safe limits and thus prevent fatigue cracking: and (b) erosion, to limit the effects of pavement deflectionsatslabedges, joints, and corners and thus control the erosion of Toundation and shoulder materials. The criterion for erosion is needed since some modes of pavement distress such as pumping, faulting, and. shoulder distress are unrelated to fatigue, 4. Triple axles can be considered in design. While the conventional single-axle and tandemaxle config- trations arestill the predominant loadson highways, Use of triple axles (Iridems) is increasing, They seen on some over-the-road trucks and on special Toads used for hauling coal or other minerals. Ti- ems may be more damaging from an erosion crite tion (deflection) than from a fatigue criterion Selection of an adequate thickness is dependent upon tne choice of other design features -joimting system, type Df subbace if needed, and shoulder type With these additional design conditions, the thickness requirements of design alternatives, which influence cost, cam be directly compared ‘Chapter 2 describes how the factors needed forsulving «design problem are determined. Chapter 3 deails the {ull design procedure that is used when specific axle-load- distribution data are known or estimated, If detailed ‘txlerload data are not available, the designean beaccom- plished as described in Chapter 4, by the selection of one fof several categories of data that represent a range of pavement facilis varying from residential streets up to busy interstate highways. Computer Programs Available Thickness design problems can be worked out by hand with the tables and charts provided here or by computer and microcomputer with programs that are available from Portland Cement Association. Basis for Design ‘The thickness design methods presented here are based on knowledge of pavement theory, performance, and re- search experience from the following sources: 1. Theoretical studies: of pavement slab, behavior by Westergaard,!"* Pickett and Ray, "and recently developed finite-element computer analyses, one of which is used as the basis for this design procedure." 2, Model and full-scale tests such as Arlington Tests" ‘nd several research projects conducted by PCA and ‘ther agencies on subbases,"™ "joints" and con- crete shoulders." 3. Experimental pavements subjected to controlled test traffic, such as the Bates Test Road, the Pitts- burg Test Highway.” the Maryland Road Test!" the AASHO** Road Test," and studies of in service highway pavements made by various state departments of transportation. 4. The performance of normally constructed pave: ments subject to normal mixed traffic. All these sources of knowledge are useful. However, the knowledge gained from performance of normally constructed pavements is the most important. Accord ingly, it is essential to examine the relationship between the roles that performance and theory play in a design procedure. Sophisticated theoretical methods developed in recent years permit the responses of the pavement Stresses, deflections, pressures to be more accurately modeled. This theoretical analysis is a necessary part of 41 mechanistic design procedure, fr it allows considera~ tion of a full range of design-variable combinations. An important second aspect of the design procedure is the criteria applied to the theoretically computed values the limiting or allowable values of stress, deflection, or pressure. Defining the criteria so that design results are Telated to pavement performance experienceand research data is critical in developing a design procedure. The theoretical parts of the design procedures given here are based on a comprehensive analysis of concrete stresses and deflections by a finite-element computer pro- gram.” The program models the conventional design factors of concrete properties, foundation support, aad loadings, plus joint load transfer by dowels or aggregate interlock and concrete shoulder, foraxle-load placements at slab intetior, edge, joint, and corner. The eriteria for the design procedures are based on the pavement design, performance, and research experience referenced above including relationships to performance ‘of pavements atthe AASHO Road Test" and to stud- ies" * of the faulting of pavements More information on development and basis of the de- sign procedure is given in Appendix A and Reference 3. Metric Version A metric version of this publication is also available from Portland Cement Association—publication EB209P. jpetsript numbers in parentheses denote reerencesat the eas of Now the American Associaton of State Highway and Transpo tion Officials (AASHTO), Pe Pe © fe festate pave rally ders: ns. An is the tues Is are search given ee pro- desisn rand regate > stud thede- nce 30. le from QP. eens of CHAPTER 2 Design Factors After selection of the type of concrete pavement (plain pavement with or without dowels. reinforced jointed pavement with dowels, of continuously reinforced pave~ iment), type of subbase if needed, and type of shoulder (with or without conerete shoulder, curb and gutter or integral curb), thickness design is determined based on four design factor = 1 Flexural strength of the conerete (modulus of rup- ture, MR) 2 Strength of the subgrade, or subgrade and subbase combination (k) 3. The weights, frequencies, and types of truck axle loads that the pavement will carry 4° Désign period, which in this and other pavement de- sign procedures is usually taken at 20 years, but may bbe more or less ‘These design factors are discussed in more detail in the following sections. Other design considerations in¢orpo- rated in the procedure are discussed in Appendix A. Flexural Strength of Concrete Consideration of the flexural strength of the conerete is, applicable in the design procedure for the fatigue crite~ rion, which controls cracking of the pavement under repetitive truck loadings. Bending of a concrete pavement under axle loads pro- duces both compressive and flexural stresses, However, the ratios of compressive stresses to compressivestrength are too small to influence slab thickness design. Ratios of flexural stress to flexural strength are much higher, often ‘exceeding values of 0.5. As a result, flexural stresses and flexural strength of the conerete are used in thickness de- sign, Flexural strength is determined by modulus of rup- ture tests, usually made on 6x6x30-in, beams. For specific projects, the concrete mix should be de- jgned to give -both adequate durability and flexural strength at the lowest possible cost. Mix design proce- dures are described in the Portland Cement Association publication Design and Control of Concrete Mixtures. ‘The modulus of rupture can be found by cantileve center-point, of thied-point loading. An important di ference in these test methods is that the third-point te shows the minimum strength of the middle third of t test beam, while the other two methods show strength ‘only one point. The value determined by the more co servative thied-point method (American Society for Te> ing and Materials, ASTM C78) is used for design in tt procedure." Modulus of rupture tests are commonly made at ~ 2k, and 90 days. The 7-and 14-day test results are cor pared with specification requirements for job control ar for determining when pavements can be opened totraffi ‘The 28-day test results have been commonly used f thickness design of highways and streets and are reco! mended for use with this procedure; 90-day results 3 used for the design of airfields. These values are used t ‘cause thete are very few stress repetitions during the fi 28 or 90 days of pavement life as coripared to the millio of stress repetitions that occur later. Conerete continues to gain strength with age as shot in Fig. |. Strength gain is shown by the solid curve, whi represents average MR values for several series by le oratory tests, feld-cured test beams, and sections of cc crete taken from pavements in service. In this design procedure the effects** of variations concrete strength from point to point in the paveme ‘and-gains in conerete strength with age are incorporat in the design charts and tables. The designer does not rectly apply these effects but simply inputs the averc 28-day strength value. Fora standard 30.n, beam, centerpoint-onding test a about 15 pa higher, and cantleverdoncing test valve about 10 Figherahanthid-poit loading tex values These higher sales aft minded tobe we - ten methods intended tobe wed Tor design purposes, Ithese other et ‘ied, + downward adjustment should be made by establish {atin to thied-poiavlond test valuct. 2a "A Thes effects are discussed in Appendix A.‘able 1. Effect of Untreated Subbage 129] ‘on k Values, ‘Subgrade ase valve, pol ele Subgrad ‘Subbase A valve, pa bel tin] _6m. Si. Tia, 50 oS 75 85 v0 L 100 130 0 162 0 200 zo | zo} 20 320 so se rR 309) sz0_| 30 370 330 2 de 30" 30 Soy Fig. 1, Flexural strength, age, and design relationships. Subgrade and Subbase Support “The support given to concrete pavements by thesubgrade. ‘and the subbase where used, is the second factor in thick- ress design. Subgrade and subbase support is defined in terms of the Westergaard modulus of subgrade reaction (4). Ih is equal to the load in pounds per square inch ona Ioaded area (a 30-in.-diamieter plate) divided by the de- flection in inches for thatload. The k valuesare expressed ‘4s pounds per square inch per inch (psi/in.) or, more ‘commonly, as pounds per cubic inch (pei). Equipment ‘and procedures for determining & values are given in References 31 and 32. Since the plate-loading testis time consuming and ex- pensive, the & value is usually estimated by correlation to Simpler tests such as the California Bearing Ratio (CBR) for R-value tests, The result is valid because exact deter- mination of the k valueis not required; normal variations from an estimated value will not appreciably affect pave- ‘ment thickness requirements, The relationships shown! Fig, 2 are satisfactory for design purposes. ‘The AASHO Road Test" gave a convincing demon- stration that the reduced subgeade support during thaw periods has little or no effect on the required thickness ‘of concrete pavements. This is true because the brief per- jods when & values are low during spring thaws are more than offset by the longer periods when the subgrade is frozen and k values are much higher than assumed for design, To avoid the tedious methods required to design, for seasonal variations in k, normal summer- or fall- weather k values are used as reasonable mean values. It is not economical to use untreated subbases for the sole purpose of increasing & values. Where a subbase is tused,* there will be an increase in & that should be used in the thickness design. If the subbase is an untreated granular material, the approximate increase in k can be taken from Table 1 ‘The values shown in Table | are based on the Burmis- 9" analysis of two-layer systems and plate-loading tests made to determine k values on subgrades and sub- bases for full-scale test slabs." Table 2. Design k Values for Cement- Treated Subbases Sabgrade Tubbaze F vive. ee C am] Sim ain 50 170 0 a0 100 220 | 400 520 200 ao |_ 600 ao | Coment-treated subbases are widely used for heavy- duty concrete pavements. They are constructed from AASHTO Soil Classes A-I, A-2-4, A-2-5, and A-3 granu- lar materials, The cement content of cement-treated sub- base is bused on standard ASTM laboratory freeze-thav: and wetdry tests! “and PCA weight-loss criteria." Other procedures that give anequivalent quality of mate- rial can be used. Design k values for eement-treated sub- bases meeting these are given in Table 2. In recent years, the use of lean concrete subbases has been on the increasé, Thickness design of concrete pave- ‘ments on these very stiff subbases represents a special ‘case that is covered in Appendix B. Design Period ‘The terin design period is used in this publication rather than pavement life. The latter is not subject to precise definition. Some engineers and highway agencies cons sider the life of a concrete pavement ended when the first ‘overlay is placed. The life of concrete pavements may vary from less than 20 years on some projects that have carried more traffic than originally estimated or have had design, material, or construction defects to more than 40, years on other projects where defects are absent The term design period is sometimes considered to be synonymous with the term traffic-analysis period. Since traffic can probably not be predicted with much accuracy for a longer period, a design period of 20 years is com- monly used in pavement design procedures. However. there are often cases where use of a shorter or longer de- sign period may be economically justified. such as a spe- cial haul road that will be used for only a few years, ora of subbase is recommendel for projecis where condi would eae modpumping preva f , ‘should be used and how thick they should bese the PCA publication. Subgrades and Subboses for Concrete Pavements.or heavy= ted from “Beran. ated sub- e7e-thaw "of mate- ated sub- 2 bases has ete pave- a special on rather 0 precise the first hat have have had ethan 40 nger de- as 2 spe- ‘ubbases beatin, CALIFORNIA GEARING RATIO-CORI eae > 6 7890 1° 20 | as Sg0 ag c foie ASTM SOIL CLASSFICATION SYSTEM‘) | Untied Clatitzoton) | LT] ARSHTO SOL CLASSIFICATION 3) | FEDERAL AVIATION ADHNIS TRATION SOW CLASSIFICATIONS? | RESISTANCE VALUE=) wo) 401 [- w 0 JMoouLus OF susGRADE REACTION-K PS! PER wy (6) 0 20 ee i CALIFORNIA BEARING RATIO- COR oe se 3203s 30 £1 For na besiege, s00 0.5. Porter, “Foundations for Fesole Pavement Moatng, 1302. Vol 22 bapes 160-136 (@) ASTM Designation 0248" (3) “Ciatsteston of highway Subgeade Mater nesee (4) Anport Paving, US. Ospariment of Commerce, Federal Avision Agency, May 1848, pages 1-16. Extimated uting valute given in FAA Oz ‘stant for Airport Pavements {Formerly used FAA Classiieaon; Unied Glessileation now used) 20s tenia eae di). ames, “Corian Batwen ave and kun unpusned Yep Porkond Gamat Asotin, esky Moule Nortoes glen, Oztoser 1971 foes correlation with corectio for sturavon, nd. Bantam, “So Tests for Design of Funny Pavements” Higimay Research Board Proceedings of tne Twe~t second Anrin! Mosing. 1342, Vol 72 page 1 {7 See tem (6), page 18 "Highway Research Board Proceesings of the Twonty-racond Aa 2 Highway Research Board Proceedings of the TwoniylithAnnuAl Meeting: 1945. Yor 28. ea Fig, 2. Approximate interrelationships of soll classifications‘and bearing values.for which high lvel of performance prem ene with ile or no pavement maintenanceis fora longtime wi ter el thatthe desig pti for desc. orhca highways should ben the range of 300 35 YEO sign period selected affects thickness design since determines how many years and thus how many Tui! the pavement must serve. Selection of the design aif fora specific projects based on enginecringjudg- Pen and economic analysts of pavement costs and Sr¥~ ice provided throughout the entire period, premium facil Traffic “The numbers and weights of heavy axle loads expected during the design life are major factors in the thickness design of concrete pavement, These are derived fromesti- mates of, ADT (average daily traffic in both directions, all vehicles) ADTT (average daily truck trafficin both directions) axle loads of trucks Information on ADT is obtained from special traffic counts or from state, county, or city traffic-volume maps. This ADT is called the present or eurrent ADT. The de- sign ADT is then estimated by the commonly used meth- ods discussed here. However, any other method that gives reasonable estimate of expected traffic during thedesign life can be used. Projection ‘One method for getting the traffic volume data (design ADT) needed is 10 use yearly rates of traffic growth and traffic projection factors. Table 3 shows relationships be- tween yearly rates of growth and projection factors for both 20- and 46-year design periods. In a design problem, the projection factor is multiplied by the present ADT to obtain adesign ADT representing the average value for the design period. In some proce- dures, this is called AADT (average annual daily traffic). ‘The following factors influence yearly growth rates and traffic projections: |. Attracted or diverted traffie—the increase overexist- ing traffic because of improvement of an existing roadway. 2. Normal traffic growth—the increase duetoincreased numbers and usage of motor vehicles. 3. Generated traffic—the increase due to motor vehicle trips that would not have been made ifthe new facil ity had not been constructed 4, Development traffic—the increase due to changesin land use due to construction of the new facility, The combined effects will cause annual growth rates of about 2% to 6%. These rates correspond to 20-year traf- fic projection factors of 1.2 to 1.8 as’shown in Table 3 ‘The planning survey sections of state highway depart- ments are very useful sources of knowledge about traffic growth and projection factors. Table 3. Yearly Rates of Trattlc Growth and Corresponding Projection Factors™ Yearly ‘ate of tate Projection growth ‘actor, m ao yeats 40 years 7 + 12 4 12 13 2 12 18 | 2 13 16 3 12 18 an 14 20 4 15 22 | a 16 24 i 5 16 27 i 5% 17 29 6 18 32 Where there is some question about the ratc of growth. i may be wise to use a fairly high rate, This is true oa intercity routes and on urban projects where a high rate of urban growth may cause a higher-than-expected rate of traffic growth, However, the growth of truck volumes may be less than that for passenger cars. High growth rates donotapply ontwoslane-ruralroads jential streets where the primary function island use or abutting property service. Their growth ratesmay be below 2% per year (projection factors of 1.1 to 1.3) ‘Some engincers suggest that the use of simple interese ‘growth rates may be appropriate, rather than compounc interest rates, which when used with a long design perioc may predict unrealistically heavy future traffic. | Capacity ‘The other method of estimating design ADTis based o@ capacity—the maximum number of vehicles that can use the pavement without unreasonable delay. This method of estimating the volume of trafficis described in Appec |- dix D and should be checked for specific projects wher= | the projected traffic volume is high; more traffic lanes may be needed if reasonable traffic flow is desired ADTT ‘The average daily truck trafficin both directions(ADTT) is needed in the design procedure. It may be expressed as 4 percentage of ADT or as an actual value, The ADTT value includes only trucks with six tires or more and does ‘not include panel and pickup trucks and other four-tir® vehicles. 7 ; ‘The data from state, county, or city traffic-volunne maps may include, in addition to ADT, the percentage oof te th. cle the hig Th sig wh fou sys wh Tike lary Tagrowth. high rate cied rate | volumes rralroads on is land rates may 10 1.3). >mpounc gn petiog based on s method n Appen- cts where ffic lanes red. (ADTT) ressed 2 @ ADTT and does four-tire tucks from which ADTT can be computed. For design of major Interstate and primary system projects, the planning survey sections of state depart ‘ments of transportation usually make specific traffic sur veys. These data are then used to determine the percent age relationship between ADTT and ADT. ‘ADTT percentages and other essential traffic data can also be obtained from surveys conducted by the highway department at specific locations on the state highway sys tem. These locations, called loadometer stations, have bbeen carefully selected to give reliable information on traffic composition, truck weights, and axle loads. Sur- vey results are compiled into a ser of tables from which the ADT percentage can be determined for the highway classes within a state. This makes it possible to compute the ADTT percentage for each station. For example, a highway department loadometer table (Table W-3) for a Midwestern state yields the following vehicle count for a loadometer station on their Interstate rural system: All vehicles ADT 9492 Trucks: All single units and combinations Panels and pickups Other four-tire single units» Therefore, for this station: 1645 353 7 Te = 1645 ~ (953 + 76) = 1216 = 26 7 ADIT = B28 x 100 = 13% This ADTT percentage would be appropriate for de- sign of a project where factors influencing the gowth and composition of traffic are similar to those at this load- ometer station, Another source of information on ADTT percentages is the National Truck Characteristic Report." Table 4, which is taken from this study, shows the percentages of four-tire single units and trucks on the major highway systems in the United States. The current publication, which is updated periodically, shows that two-axle, four. tire trucks comprise between 40% to 65% of the total ‘number of trucks, with a national average of 49%. It is likely that the lower values on urban routes are due to larger volumes of passesiger cars rather than fewer trucks. Table 4. Percentages of Four-Tire Single Units and Trucks (ADTT) on Various Highway Systems For design purposes, the total number of rucks in the n period is needed. This is obtained by multiplyice design ADT by ADT percentage divided by 100. tims the number of days in the design period (365 X design period in years). ies of four lanes or more, the ADT is ¢2 justed by the use of Fig. 3 100 ‘ADT (One Diteton), THOUSANDS a a a PROPORTION OF TRUCKS WRIGHT LANE Fig. 3. Proportion of trucks In right lane of a muttitane divided highway. (Derived trom Relerence 38.) ~"VTrcks ences panels and pickups and other foursive vehi Rural average sy vate | Urben average dally wats ign Tora Totat Syston wens | Tot Trucks | “ot Grn | am (aor | botn Interstate «| 2 pas we | 2 omer tegera | 4 |, ore eee 3s | 2 | ow 9 | 2 Scotay’ | 0 | os | as | 14 e [2PE ee et nmsued tase wis In mor dein ra a atonattaly a eae doesnt a a aT AD TL Ts may not be Axle-Load Distribution Data on the axleoad distribution of the truck traffic is heeded to compute the numbers of single and tandem cles" of various weights expected during the design per- fod. These data can be determined in one of three ways (1) special traffic studies to establish the loadometer data for the specific project; (2) data from the state highway department's loadometer weight stations (Table W-4) or regh-in-motion studies on routes representing truck Weights and types that are expected to be similar to the project under design: (3) when axle-load distribution Gata are not available, methods described in Chapter 4 based on categories of representative data for different types of pavement facilities The use of axle-load data is illustrated in Table 5 in which Table W-4 data have been grouped by 2-kip and 4-kip increments for single- and tandemvaxle loads, re- yectively. ‘The data under the heading “Axles per 1000 Trucks” are in a convenient form for computing the axle- toad distribution. However, anadjustment must be made. Column 2 of Tabie 5 gives values for all trucks, including the unwanted values for panels, pickups, and other four- tire vehicles, To overcome this difficulty, the tabulated Values are adjusted as described in the Table 5 notes. Column 4 of Table 5 gives the repetitions of various single- and tandem-axle loads expected during a 20-year~ design period for the Design | sample problem given in Chapter 3. \ Load Safety Factors In the design procedure, the axle loads determined in the previous section are multiplied by a load safety factor (LSF). These load safety factors are recommended: * For Interstate and other multilane projects where there will be uninterrupted traffic flow and high vol- umes of truck traffic, LSF = 1.2 '* For highways and arterial streets where there will be moderate volumes of truck traffic, LSF = 1.1. '* For roads, residential streets, and other streets that will carry small volumes of truck traffic, LSF = 1.0. Aside from the load safety factors, a degree of conserv~ atism is provided in the design procedure to compensate Table 5. Axle-Load Data a @ a @ axis Jantes por | 1: fatetoad, | 1000 | truck ci Noe | tucks | fadiustoc) | nenioe Single axles eu | om 26-28 065 2426 133 2228 2a 2022 an re20 | 1040 oy rere | tas6 | vers | 1868 yore | 25.069 . “ wore ~ | 61.06. 152 O88 wea 188 soe sst ‘ asao | wes 3236 | 3908 2032 | 4106 zeze | 1307 rors | aes w20 | seis | ete | s9as | {Golumns tand2aenveation Slot tora wen counted wi Gun grt 52/00) {Colm «= Colum trucks for such things as un mal construction varia " layer thicknesses. Abo’ ‘ (LSF = 1.0), the load sat a greater allowance ( heavy truck loads anc ment. serviceability ‘ment facilities In special eases. th: 1.3 may be justified level of pavement serie) periéd. Anexample is « ‘ alternate detour route better to provide a pre hay to. © seu Tong time the need fo: 4 tenance that would 0) 0 TSee Appendix Cifitse incloded i the talc fo ~~182%. and nor- rties and ervatism ? provide oredicted tof pave- Pe pave- sshighas a-normal ie design y with no (may be rent for 2 cnt main- CHAPTER 3 Design Procedure (Axle-Load Data Available) The methods in this chapter are used when detailed axle- load- lade f- 25 et otic otic 100e Fig. 60, Erosion analysis—allowable load repetitions based on erosion factor (with concrete shoulder. PRISER cso CORRE HORI LPS 6Calculation of Pavement Thickness 7 Design tte, Paass lass Latarstatia,, patel eee [ove 12.2 Doweled oints: yes —— is Cesian pericd ZO vears ms Project ‘al thickness — sunbase-subgrade # ——ZAP2 Modulus of eupture. MB BS. in. cement Awake sible 7 per Conerete shoulder yes 0 = wutioiea | expecteg — L | |e eae Favgue, | Algae [42 | j_ pea | tito cs 2 oo ‘ ‘ee feel sequuatentswess 46 7.- YoErosiontactor 2.72 rey a. sess rate ctor 2 25-7 $$ t | 40 | eo, 4810 | 4222 220 ga [ase | 620 | alanitea’ | _zé | 24 eo | - bLEVLO 22 | zee, Sete | 20 | 240 | 235 4e@o } i 2s 00 | L“w@| vez) “22 S22 (“4 | 44) sg a0 | ___— Loivz | see | 4837 2e@0 | —__— 18, Equweatent stress $2, Suess ran fn Tandem Axles Use | Aa SD a. 2 S2L A ft a. 25 LAD 3 2.220 a S Z. taal ia 3b. ; ic “ | 2 i rn a d 7 L Fig. 7. Design 10. 20i Pees Worksheets for the other variations of Design | are not shown here but the results are compared as follows: “Ticknes 95 shoulder Sonbase Joins pranular doweled in. cementtreated | doweled aS in. granular doweled | ye 85 in, comentreated | aggregate interlock | no 190 in, cementarcated | aggregate interlock | yes Bs For Design 1 conditions, use of a cement-trcated sub- base reduces the thickness Fequirement by L.Oin. (Design TA versus IB); and concrete shoulders reduce the thick= ness requirement by 1.0 0 1.5in. (Designs TA versus IC land 1D versus IE), Use of agaregate-interlock joints in= stead -of dowels increases the thickness requirement by LS in, (Design 1B versus. ID). These effects will vary in different design problems depending on the specific de~ sign conditions Design 2 Project and Traflic Data: Awo-lane-secondary road Design period = 40 years Current ADT = 600 Projection factor = 1.2 ADTT = 2.5% of ADT ‘Traffic Calculations Design ADT = 600 X 1.2 = 720 ABET 720 0025 "18 Trick athe cach ay = 2 Fora doer design period 93 38 3A = 13.40 eek Axle-load data are shown in Table 15, Category I.and the expected number of axle-load repetitions are shown in Fig. 8 Values Used to Calculate Thickness: Design 2A: aggregrate-interlock joints, no subbase,* no concrete shoulder Clay subgrade, & LSF = 10 Conerete MR. = 650 psi 00 pei Design 2B: doweled joints.** no subbase,.no concrete shoulder ~ Same as 2A except Dovweled joints ‘Thickness Calculations: For Design 2A, a trial thickness of 6 in. is evaluated by completing the worksheet shewn in Fig. 8, according t the procedure given on page 11. Table Ga and Fig. $ att used for the fatigue analysisand Table 7b and Fig. 622¢¢ used for the erosion analysis. For Design 2B, a worksheet is not shown here but th: design was worked out for comparison with Design 24 Comments on Design 2 For Design 2A; (1) Totals of fatigue use and erosio damage of 89% and 89%, respectively, show that the 6.0% thickness is adequate. (2) Separate calculations show th a 5.S:in, pavement would not be adequate because © excessive fatigue consumption. (3) The thickness de is controlled by the fatigue analysis—which is usually cease for light-truck-traflic facilities The calculations for Design 2B, which is the same s Design 2A except the joints are doweled, show Tatig. and erosion values of 89% and 2%, respectively. Co™ ments: (1) The thickness requirement of 6.0in.is the as for Design 2A. (2) The fatigue-analysis values are ¢ actly the same as in Design 2A.* (3) Because of the dos cls, the erosion damage is reduced from 8% to 2%¢: ho’ fever, this is immaterial since the fatigue analysis contro the design, For the Design 2 situation, itis shown that dowex joints are not required. This is borne out by pavemes performance experience on light-truck-traffic facili, Such as residential streets and secondary roacs and a: bystudies"” ™ showing the effects of the number of trus fon pavements with ageregate-interlock joints “Performance experience tas shown that subbase) are 30424 sehen ruck tafie vers heh seethe PCA publication, Suterades« Sunbases for Concree Pavements Desi 20 shown for ilusatve purposes only. Doseies jo are not nese where truck aie very ightsse the PCA pubs Sein Design for Concree Highwas and Sven) Pavemert {The typeof load transfer atthe joints—dowel, or apsrees< Jost docs not afet the fatiguecaeulations sine the eval ani postion for stress snd fatigue e wherethe axle loads are paced mips fhent edge and migpanc, away (rom the joins See Appendix A