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Preface
TO THE STuDENT
Authors of books live with the hope that someone actually reads them. Contrary to
what you might believe, almost everything in a typical college-level mathematics text
is written for you and not the instructor. True, the topics covered in the text are chosen
to appeal to instructors because they make the decision on whether to use it in their
classes, but everything written in it is aimed directly at you, the student. So I want
to encourage you—no, actually I want to tell you—to read this textbook! But do not
read this text as you would a novel; you should not read it fast and you should not skip
anything. Think of it as a workbook. By this I mean that mathematics should always
be read with pencil and paper at the ready because, most likely, you will have to work
your way through the examples and the discussion. Before attempting any problems in
the section exercise sets, work through all the examples in that section. The examples
are constructed to illustrate what I consider the most important aspects of the section,
and therefore, reflect the procedures necessary to work most of the problems. When
reading an example, copy it down on a piece of paper and do not look at the solution in
the book. Try working it, then compare your results against the solution given, and, if
necessary resolve any differences. I have tried to include most of the important steps in
each example, but if something is not clear you should always try—and here is where
the pencil and paper come in again—to fill in the details or missing steps. This may not
be easy, but it is part of the learning process. The accumulation of facts followed by
the slow assimilation of understanding simply cannot be achieved without a struggle.
Specifically for you, a Student Resource Manual (SRM) is available as an op-
tional supplement. In addition to containing solutions of selected problems from the
exercises sets, the SRM contains hints for solving problems, extra examples, and a
review of those areas of algebra and calculus that I feel are particularly important
to the successful study of differential equations. Bear in mind you do not have to
purchase the SRM; you can review the appropriate mathematics from your old pre-
calculus or calculus texts.
In conclusion, I wish you good luck and success. I hope you enjoy the text and
the course you are about to embark on—as an undergraduate math major it was one
of my favorites because I liked mathematics that connected with the physical world.
If you have any comments, or if you find any errors as you read/work your way
through the text, or if you come up with a good idea for improving either it or the
SRM, please feel free to contact me through Cengage Learning:
spencer.arritt@cengage.com.
TO THE INSTRuCTOR
In case you are examining this text for the first time, Differential Equations with
Boundary-Value Problems, Ninth Edition, can be used for either a one- or two-
semester course that covers ordinary and partial differential equations. The shorter
version of the text, A First Course in Differential Equations with Modeling Applica-
tions, Eleventh Edition, is intended for either a one-semester or one-quarter course
in ordinary differential equations. This text ends with Chapter 9. For a one-semester
course, it is assumed that the students have successfully completed at least two semes-
ters of calculus. Since you are reading this, undoubtedly you have already examined
vii
viii PrefaCe
the table of contents for the topics that are covered. You will not find a “suggested
syllabus” in this preface; I will not pretend to be so wise as to tell other teachers
what to teach. I feel that there is plenty of material here to choose from and to form
a course to your liking. The text strikes a reasonable balance between the analytical,
qualitative, and quantitative approaches to the study of differential equations. As far
as my “underlying philosophy” goes, it is this: An undergraduate text should be writ-
ten with the students’ understanding kept firmly in mind, which means to me that
the material should be presented in a straightforward, readable, and helpful manner,
while keeping the level of theory consistent with the notion of a “first course.”
For those who are familiar with the previous editions, I would like to mention a
few improvements made in this edition.
● Many exercise sets have been updated by the addition of new problems. Some
of these problems involve new and, I think, interesting mathematical models.
● Additional examples, figures, and remarks have been added to many sections.
● Throughout the text I have given a greater emphasis to the concepts of
piecewise-linear differential equations and solutions that involve
nonelementary integrals.
● Appendix A, Integral-Defined Functions, is new to the text.
● The superposition principle has been added to the discussion in Section 12.4,
Wave Equation.
● Section 12.6, Nonhomogeneous Boundary-Value Problems, has been rewritten.
● Modified Bessel functions are given a greater emphasis in Section 13.6, Polar
and Cylindrical Coordinates.
Student Resources
● Student Resource Manual (SRM), prepared by Warren S. Wright and
Roberto Martinez (ISBN 978-1-305-96573-7, accompanies A First Course
in Differential Equations with Modeling Applications, Eleventh Edition, and
ISBN 978-1-305-96581-2 accompanies Differential Equations with Boundary-
Value Problems, Ninth Edition) provides important review material from
algebra and calculus, the solution of every third problem in each exercise
set (with the exception of the Discussion Problems and Computer Lab
Assignments), relevant command syntax for the computer algebra systems
Mathematica and Maple, and lists of important concepts, as well as helpful
hints on how to start certain problems.
● MindTap for Differential Equations with Boundary-Value Problems, Ninth
Edition, is a digital representation of your course that provides you with the tools
you need to better manage your limited time, stay organized, and be successful.
You can complete assignments whenever and wherever you are ready to learn
with course material specially customized for you by your instructor and
streamlined in one proven, easy-to-use interface. With an array of study tools, you
will get a true understanding of course concepts, achieve better grades, and set the
groundwork for your future courses. Learn more at www.cengage.com/mindtap.
Instructor Resources
● Instructor’s Solutions Manual (ISM), prepared by Warren S. Wright and Roberto
Martinez, provides complete worked-out solutions for all problems in the text. It is
available through the Instructor Companion website at cengage.com.
● Cengage Learning Testing Powered by Cognero is a flexible online system
that allows you to author, edit, and manage test bank content, create multiple
test versions in an instant, and deliver tests from your learning management
system (LMS), your classroom, or wherever you want. This is available online
at www.cengage.com/login.
● Turn the light on with MindTap for Differential Equations with Boundary
Value Problems, Ninth Edition. Through personalized paths of dynamic
PrefaCe ix
assignments and applications, MindTap is a digital learning solution and

representation of your course.
The Right Content: With MindTap’s carefully curated material, you get the
precise content and groundbreaking tools you need for every course you teach.
Personalization: Customize every element of your course—from
rearranging the Learning Path to inserting videos and activities.
Improved Workflow: Save time when planning lessons with all of the
trusted, most current content you need in one place in MindTap.
Tracking Students’ Progress in Real Time: Promote positive outcomes
by tracking students in real time and tailoring your course as needed based on
the analytics.
Learn more at www.cengage.com/mindtap.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Compiling a mathematics textbook such as this and making sure that its thousands of
symbols and hundreds of equations are accurate is an enormous task, but since I am
called “the author,” that is my job and responsibility. But many people besides myself
have expended enormous amounts of time and energy in working toward its eventual
publication. So I would like to take this opportunity to express my sincerest apprecia-
tion to everyone—most of them unknown to me—at Cengage Learning and at MPS
North America who were involved in the publication of this edition. A special word
of thanks goes to Spencer Arritt, Kathryn Schrumpf, Jennifer Risden, Vernon Boes,
and Jill Traut for their guidance in the labyrinth of the production process.
Finally, over the years, this text has been improved in a countless number of
ways through the suggestions and criticisms of the reviewers. Thus it is fitting to
conclude with an acknowledgement of my debt to the following generous people for
sharing their expertise and experience.
REVIEWERS OF PAST EDITIONS

William Atherton, Cleveland State University
Philip Bacon, University of Florida
Bruce Bayly, University of Arizona
William H. Beyer, University of Akron
R. G. Bradshaw, Clarkson College
Bernard Brooks, Rochester Institute of Technology
Allen Brown, Wabash Valley College
Dean R. Brown, Youngstown State University
David Buchthal, University of Akron
Nguyen P. Cac, University of Iowa
T. Chow, California State University–Sacramento
Dominic P. Clemence, North Carolina Agricultural and Technical State University
Pasquale Condo, University of Massachusetts–Lowell
Vincent Connolly, Worcester Polytechnic Institute
Philip S. Crooke, Vanderbilt University
Bruce E. Davis, St. Louis Community College at Florissant Valley
Paul W. Davis, Worcester Polytechnic Institute
Richard A. DiDio, La Salle University
James Draper, University of Florida
James M. Edmondson, Santa Barbara City College
John H. Ellison, Grove City College
Raymond Fabec, Louisiana State University
Donna Farrior, University of Tulsa
Robert E. Fennell, Clemson University
W. E. Fitzgibbon, University of Houston
Harvey J. Fletcher, Brigham Young University
Paul J. Gormley, Villanova
Layachi Hadji, University of Alabama
Ruben Hayrapetyan, Kettering University
x PrefaCe
Terry Herdman, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University

Zdzislaw Jackiewicz, Arizona State University
S. K. Jain, Ohio University
Anthony J. John, Southeastern Massachusetts University
David C. Johnson, University of Kentucky–Lexington
Harry L. Johnson, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University
Kenneth R. Johnson, North Dakota State University
Joseph Kazimir, East Los Angeles College
J. Keener, University of Arizona
Steve B. Khlief, Tennessee Technological University
Helmut Knaust, The University of Texas at El Paso
C. J. Knickerbocker, Sensis Corporation
Carlon A. Krantz, Kean College of New Jersey
Thomas G. Kudzma, University of Lowell
Alexandra Kurepa, North Carolina A&T State University
G. E. Latta, University of Virginia
Cecelia Laurie, University of Alabama
Mulatu Lemma, Savannah State University
James R. McKinney, California Polytechnic State University
James L. Meek, University of Arkansas
Gary H. Meisters, University of Nebraska–Lincoln
Stephen J. Merrill, Marquette University
Vivien Miller, Mississippi State University
George Moss, Union University
Gerald Mueller, Columbus State Community College
Philip S. Mulry, Colgate University
Martin Nakashima, California State Polytechnic University–Pomona
C. J. Neugebauer, Purdue University
Tyre A. Newton, Washington State University
Brian M. O’Connor, Tennessee Technological University
J. K. Oddson, University of California–Riverside
Carol S. O’Dell, Ohio Northern University
Bruce O’Neill, Milwaukee School of Engineering
A. Peressini, University of Illinois, Urbana–Champaign
J. Perryman, University of Texas at Arlington
Joseph H. Phillips, Sacramento City College
Jacek Polewczak, California State University Northridge
Nancy J. Poxon, California State University–Sacramento
Robert Pruitt, San Jose State University
K. Rager, Metropolitan State College
F. B. Reis, Northeastern University
Brian Rodrigues, California State Polytechnic University
Tom Roe, South Dakota State University
Kimmo I. Rosenthal, Union College
Barbara Shabell, California Polytechnic State University
Seenith Sivasundaram, Embry–Riddle Aeronautical University
Don E. Soash, Hillsborough Community College
F. W. Stallard, Georgia Institute of Technology
Gregory Stein, The Cooper Union
M. B. Tamburro, Georgia Institute of Technology
Patrick Ward, Illinois Central College
Jianping Zhu, University of Akron
Jan Zijlstra, Middle Tennessee State University
Jay Zimmerman, Towson University
Dennis G. Zill
Los Angeles, CA
Differential Equations
with Boundary-Value Problems
1
Introduction to Differential Equations
Kevin George/Shutterstock.com
1.1 Definitions and Terminology
1.2 Initial-Value Problems
1.3 Differential Equations as Mathematical Models
Chapter 1 in review
T
he words differential and equations suggest solving some kind of
equation that contains derivatives y9, y0, Á . Analogous to a course in
algebra, in which a good amount of time is spent solving equations such
2
as x 1 5x 1 4 5 0 for the unknown number x, in this course one of our tasks
will be to solve differential equations such as y0 1 2y9 1 y 5 0 for an unknown
function y 5 (x). As the course unfolds, you will see there is more to the study of
differential equations than just mastering methods that mathematicians over past
centuries devised to solve them. But first things first. In order to read, study, and be
conversant in a specialized subject you have to learn some of the terminology of that
discipline. This is the thrust of the first two sections of this chapter. In the last section
we briefly examine the link between differential equations and the real world.
1.1 DEFINITIONs aND TERmINOlOgy 3
1.1 Definitions and Terminology

INTRODUCTION The derivative dyydx of a function y 5 (x) is itself another
2
function 9(x) found by an appropriate rule. The exponential function y 5 e0.1x is
differentiable on the interval (2`, `) and by the Chain Rule its first derivative is
2 2
dyydx 5 0.2xe0.1x . If we replace e0.1x on the right-hand side of the last equation by
the symbol y, the derivative becomes
dy
5 0.2xy. (1)
dx
Now imagine that a friend of yours simply hands you equation (1)—you have no idea
how it was constructed—and asks, What is the function represented by the symbol y?
You are now face to face with one of the basic problems in this course:
How do you solve an equation such as (1) for the function y = (x)?
A Definition The equation that we made up in (1) is called a differential

equation. Before proceeding any further, let us consider a more precise definition
of this concept.
DEFINITION 1.1.1 Differential Equation

An equation containing the derivatives of one or more unknown functions (or
dependent variables), with respect to one or more independent variables, is
said to be a differential equation (DE).
To talk about them, we shall classify differential equations according to type, order,
and linearity.
ClAssifiCAtion by type If a differential equation contains only ordinary

derivatives of one or more unknown functions with respect to a single independent
variable, it is said to be an ordinary differential equation (ODE). An equation
involving partial derivatives of one or more unknown functions of two or more inde-
pendent variables is called a partial differential equation (PDE). Our first example
illustrates several of each type of differential equation.
ExamplE 1 Types of Differential Equations

(a) The equations
an ODE can contain more
than one unknown function
p p
dy d 2 y dy dx dy
1 5y 5 e x, 2 1 6y 5 0, and 1 5 2x 1 y (2)
dx dx 2 dx dt dt
are examples of ordinary differential equations.
(b) The following equations are partial differential equations:*

−2u −2u −2u −2u −u −u −v
1 5 0, 5 2 22 , 52 . (3)
−x2 −y2 −x2 −t −t −y −x
*Except for this introductory section, only ordinary differential equations are considered in A First Course
in Differential Equations with Modeling Applications, Eleventh Edition. In that text the word equation
and the abbreviation DE refer only to ODEs. Partial differential equations or PDEs are considered in the
expanded volume Differential Equations with Boundary-Value Problems, Ninth Edition.
4 CHapTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO DIFFERENTIal EqUaTIONs
Notice in the third equation that there are two unknown functions and two indepen-
dent variables in the PDE. This means u and v must be functions of two or more
independent variables. .
notAtion Throughout this text ordinary derivatives will be written by using

either the Leibniz notation dyydx, d 2yydx 2, d 3yydx 3, . . . or the prime notation y9, y0,
y-, . . . . By using the latter notation, the first two differential equations in (2) can be
written a little more compactly as y9 + 5y = e x and y0 − y9 + 6y = 0. Actually, the
prime notation is used to denote only the first three derivatives; the fourth derivative
is written y (4) instead of y00. In general, the nth derivative of y is written d nyydx n or
y (n). Although less convenient to write and to typeset, the Leibniz notation has an
advantage over the prime notation in that it clearly displays both the dependent and
independent variables. For example, in the equation
unknown function
or dependent variable
d 2x
–––2 1 16x 5 0
dt
independent variable
it is immediately seen that the symbol x now represents a dependent variable,

whereas the independent variable is t. You should also be aware that in physical
sciences and engineering, Newton’s dot notation (derogatorily referred to by some
as the “flyspeck” notation) is sometimes used to denote derivatives with respect
to time t. Thus the differential equation d 2sydt 2 = −32 becomes s̈ = −32. Partial
derivatives are often denoted by a subscript notation indicating the indepen-
dent variables. For example, with the subscript notation the second equation in (3)
becomes u xx = u tt − 2u t.
ClAssifiCAtion by orDer The order of a differential equation (either ODE

or PDE) is the order of the highest derivative in the equation. For example,
second order first order

d 2y
( )
dy 3
––––2 1 5 ––– 2 4y 5 e x
dx dx
is a second-order ordinary differential equation. In Example 1, the first and third

equations in (2) are first-order ODEs, whereas in (3) the first two equations are
second-order PDEs. A first-order ordinary differential equation is sometimes written
in the differential form
M(x, y) dx 1 N(x, y) dy 5 0.
ExamplE 2 Differential Form of a First-Order ODE

If we assume that y is the dependent variable in a first-order ODE, then recall from
calculus that the differential dy is defined to be dy 5 y9dx.
(a) By dividing by the differential dx an alternative form of the equation

(y 2 x) dx 1 4x dy 5 0 is given by
dy dy
y 2 x 1 4x 5 0 or equivalently 4x 1 y 5 x.
dx dx
(b) By multiplying the differential equation

dy
6xy 1 x2 1 y2 5 0
dx
by dx we see that the equation has the alternative differential form
(x2 1 y2) dx 1 6xy dy 5 0. .
In symbols we can express an nth-order ordinary differential equation in one

dependent variable by the general form
F(x, y, y9, . . . , y(n)) 5 0, (4)
where F is a real-valued function of n + 2 variables: x, y, y9, . . . , y (n). For both
practical and theoretical reasons we shall also make the assumption hereafter that
it is possible to solve an ordinary differential equation in the form (4) uniquely
for the highest derivative y (n) in terms of the remaining n + 1 variables. The dif-
ferential equation
d ny
5 f (x, y, y9, . . . , y (n21)), (5)
dx n
where f is a real-valued continuous function, is referred to as the normal form of (4).
Thus when it suits our purposes, we shall use the normal forms
dy d 2y
5 f (x, y) and 5 f (x, y, y9)
dx dx2
to represent general first- and second-order ordinary differential equations.
ExamplE 3 Normal Form of an ODE

(a) By solving for the derivative dyydx the normal form of the first-order differential
equation
dy dy x 2 y
4x 1 y 5 x is 5 .
dx dx 4x
(b) By solving for the derivative y0 the normal form of the second-order differential
equation
y0 2 y9 1 6 5 0 is y0 5 y9 2 6y. .
ClAssifiCAtion by lineArity An nth-order ordinary differential equation (4)

is said to be linear if F is linear in y, y9, . . . , y(n). This means that an nth-order ODE
is linear when (4) is an(x)y(n) + an−1(x)y(n−1) + Á + a1(x)y9 + a0(x)y − g(x) = 0 or
d ny d n21y dy
an(x) n 1 an21(x) 1 Á 1 a1(x) 1 a0 (x)y 5 g(x). (6)
dx dx n21 dx
Two important special cases of (6) are linear first-order (n 5 1) and linear second-
order (n = 2) DEs:
dy d 2y dy
a1(x) 1 a0(x)y 5 g(x) and a2(x) 2 1 a1(x) 1 a0(x)y 5 g(x). (7)
dx dx dx
In the additive combination on the left-hand side of equation (6) we see that the char-
acteristic two properties of a linear ODE are as follows:
● The dependent variable y and all its derivatives y9, y0, . . . , y (n) are of the
first degree, that is, the power of each term involving y is 1.
● The coefficients a 0, a1, . . . , a n of y, y9, . . . , y (n) depend at most on the
independent variable x.
A nonlinear ordinary differential equation is simply one that is not linear. Nonlinear
functions of the dependent variable or its derivatives, such as sin y or ey9, cannot
appear in a linear equation.
ExamplE 4 Linear and Nonlinear ODEs

(a) The equations
d 3y dy
(y 2 x) dx 1 4x dy 5 0, y0 2 2y 1 y 5 0, x3 1x 2 5y 5 ex
dx3 dx
are, in turn, linear first-, second-, and third-order ordinary differential equations. We
have just demonstrated in part (a) of Example 2 that the first equation is linear in the
variable y by writing it in the alternative form 4xy9 + y = x.
(b) The equations
nonlinear term: nonlinear term: nonlinear term:

coefficient depends on y nonlinear function of y power not 1
d 2y d 4y
(1 2 y)y9 1 2y 5 ex, ––––2 1 sin y 5 0, and ––––4 1 y 2 5 0
dx dx
are examples of nonlinear first-, second-, and fourth-order ordinary differential equa-
tions, respectively. .
solutions As was stated on page 2, one of the goals in this course is to solve,
or find solutions of, differential equations. In the next definition we consider the con-
cept of a solution of an ordinary differential equation.
DEFINITION 1.1.2 solution of an ODE

Any function f, defined on an interval I and possessing at least n derivatives
that are continuous on I, which when substituted into an nth-order ordinary
differential equation reduces the equation to an identity, is said to be a solution
of the equation on the interval.
In other words, a solution of an nth-order ordinary differential equation (4) is a

function f that possesses at least n derivatives and for which
F(x, (x), 9(x), . . . , (n)(x)) 5 0 for all x in I.
We say that f satisfies the differential equation on I. For our purposes we shall also
assume that a solution f is a real-valued function. In our introductory discussion we
2
saw that y 5 e0.1x is a solution of dyydx = 0.2xy on the interval (−`, `).
Occasionally, it will be convenient to denote a solution by the alternative
symbol y(x).
intervAl of Definition You cannot think solution of an ordinary differential

equation without simultaneously thinking interval. The interval I in Definition 1.1.2
is variously called the interval of definition, the interval of existence, the interval
of validity, or the domain of the solution and can be an open interval (a, b), a closed
interval [a, b], an infinite interval (a, `), and so on.
ExamplE 5 Verification of a Solution

Verify that the indicated function is a solution of the given differential equation on
the interval (−`, `).
dy 1 4
(a) 5 xy1/2; y 5 16 x (b) y0 2 2y9 1 y 5 0; y 5 xex
dx
sOlUTION One way of verifying that the given function is a solution is to see, after
substituting, whether each side of the equation is the same for every x in the interval.
(a) From
dy 1 1
left { hand side: 5 (4 ? x 3) 5 x 3,
dx 16 4
1 2 114 x 2 5 41 x ,
1/2
1 4
right { hand side: xy1/2 5 x ? x 5x? 2 3
16
we see that each side of the equation is the same for every real number x. Note that
y1/2 5 14 x2 is, by definition, the nonnegative square root of 16
1 4
x.
(b) From the derivatives y9 = xe x + e x and y0 = xe x + 2e x we have, for every real

number x,
left { hand side: y0 2 2y9 1 y 5 (xe x 1 2e x ) 2 2(xe x 1 e x ) 1 xe x 5 0,

right { hand side: 0. .
Note, too, that each differential equation in Example 5 possesses the constant
solution y 5 0, −` < x < `. A solution of a differential equation that is identically
zero on an interval I is said to be a trivial solution.
y solution Curve The graph of a solution f of an ODE is called a solution

curve. Since f is a differentiable function, it is continuous on its interval I of defini-
tion. Thus there may be a difference between the graph of the function f and the
1 graph of the solution f. Put another way, the domain of the function f need not
be the same as the interval I of definition (or domain) of the solution f. Example 6
x
1 illustrates the difference.
ExamplE 6 Function versus Solution

(a) function y 5 1/x, x ? 0
(a) The domain of y = 1yx, considered simply as a function, is the set of all
y
real numbers x except 0. When we graph y = 1yx, we plot points in the xy-plane
corresponding to a judicious sampling of numbers taken from its domain. The
rational function y = 1yx is discontinuous at 0, and its graph, in a neighborhood
1 of the origin, is given in Figure 1.1.1(a). The function y = 1yx is not differen-
tiable at x = 0, since the y-axis (whose equation is x = 0) is a vertical asymptote
1 x of the graph.
(b) Now y = 1yx is also a solution of the linear first-order differential equation
xy9 + y = 0. (Verify.) But when we say that y = 1yx is a solution of this DE, we
mean that it is a function defined on an interval I on which it is differentiable and
(b) solution y 5 1/x, (0, ∞)
satisfies the equation. In other words, y = 1yx is a solution of the DE on any interval
FIgURE 1.1.1 In Example 6 the function that does not contain 0, such as (−3, −1), _12, 10+, (−`, 0), or (0, `). Because the
y = 1yx is not the same as the solution solution curves defined by y = 1yx for −3 < x < −1 and 12 , x , 10 are simply
y = 1yx segments, or pieces, of the solution curves defined by y = 1yx for −` < x < 0 and
0 < x < `, respectively, it makes sense to take the interval I to be as large as pos-
sible. Thus we take I to be either (−`, 0) or (0, `). The solution curve on (0, `) is
shown in Figure 1.1.1(b). .
expliCit AnD impliCit solutions You should be familiar with the terms
explicit functions and implicit functions from your study of calculus. A solution
in which the dependent variable is expressed solely in terms of the independent
variable and constants is said to be an explicit solution. For our purposes, let us
think of an explicit solution as an explicit formula y = f(x) that we can manipulate,
evaluate, and differentiate using the standard rules. We have just seen in the last
1 4
two examples that y 5 16 x , y = xex, and y = 1yx are, in turn, explicit solutions
1/2
of dyydx = xy , y0 − 2y9 + y = 0, and xy9 + y = 0. Moreover, the trivial solu-
tion y = 0 is an explicit solution of all three equations. When we get down to the
business of actually solving some ordinary differential equations, you will see that
methods of solution do not always lead directly to an explicit solution y = f(x).
This is particularly true when we attempt to solve nonlinear first-order differential
equations. Often we have to be content with a relation or expression G(x, y) = 0 that
defines a solution f implicitly.
DEFINITION 1.1.3 Implicit solution of an ODE

A relation G(x, y) = 0 is said to be an implicit solution of an ordinary differen-
tial equation (4) on an interval I, provided that there exists at least one function
f that satisfies the relation as well as the differential equation on I.
It is beyond the scope of this course to investigate the conditions under which a
relation G(x, y) = 0 defines a differentiable function f. So we shall assume that if
the formal implementation of a method of solution leads to a relation G(x, y) = 0,
then there exists at least one function f that satisfies both the relation (that is,
G(x, f(x)) = 0) and the differential equation on an interval I. If the implicit solution
G(x, y) = 0 is fairly simple, we may be able to solve for y in terms of x and obtain
one or more explicit solutions. See (iv) in the Remarks.
ExamplE 7 Verification of an Implicit Solution

The relation x 2 + y 2 = 25 is an implicit solution of the differential equation
dy x
52 (8)
dx y
on the open interval (−5, 5). By implicit differentiation we obtain
d 2 d 2 d dy
x 1 y 5 25 or 2x 1 2y 5 0. (9)
dx dx dx dx
Solving the last equation in (9) for the symbol dyydx gives (8). Moreover, solving
x2 + y2 = 25 for y in terms of x yields y 5 6Ï25 2 x2. The two functions
y 5 1(x) 5 Ï25 2 x2 and y 5 2(x) 5 2Ï25 2 x2 satisfy the relation (that is,
x2 + 21 = 25 and x2 + 22 = 25) and are explicit solutions defined on the interval
(−5, 5). The solution curves given in Figures 1.1.2(b) and 1.1.2(c) are segments of the
graph of the implicit solution in Figure 1.1.2(a).
y y y
5 5 5
5 5 5
x x x
25
(a) implicit solution (b) explicit solution (c) explicit solution

x 1 y 5 25
2 2 y1 5 Ï25 2 x , 2 5 , x , 5
2
y2 5 2Ï25 2 x 2, 25 , x , 5
FIgURE 1.1.2 An implicit solution and two explicit solutions of (8) in Example 7 .
Because the distinction between an explicit solution and an implicit solution

should be intuitively clear, we will not belabor the issue by always saying, “Here is
an explicit (implicit) solution.”
fAmilies of solutions The study of differential equations is similar to

that of integral calculus. When evaluating an antiderivative or indefinite integral
in calculus, we use a single constant c of integration. Analogously, we shall see
in Chapter 2 that when solving a first-order differential equation F(x, y, y9) 5 0
we usually obtain a solution containing a single constant or parameter c. A solu-
tion of F(x, y, y9) 5 0 containing a constant c is a set of solutions Gsx, y, cd 5 0
called a one-parameter family of solutions. When solving an nth-order differen-
tial equation F(x, y, y9, Á , y(n)) 5 0 we seek an n-parameter family of solutions
G(x, y, c1, c2, Á , cn) 5 0. This means that a single differential equation can possess
an infinite number of solutions corresponding to an unlimited number of choices for
the parameter(s). A solution of a differential equation that is free of parameters is
called a particular solution.
The parameters in a family of solutions such as G(x, y, c1, c2, Á , cn) 5 0 are
arbitrary up to a point. For example, proceeding as in (9) a relation x2 1 y2 5 c
y
formally satisfies (8) for any constant c. However, it is understood that the relation
c.0 should always make sense in the real number system; thus, if c 5 225 we cannot say
c50 that x2 1 y2 5 225 is an implicit solution of the differential equation.
x
c,0
ExamplE 8 Particular Solutions
(a) For all real values of c, the one-parameter family y 5 cx 2 x cos x is an explicit
solution of the linear first-order equation
FIgURE 1.1.3 Some solutions of DE in
xy9 2 y 5 x2 sin x
part (a) of Example 8
on the interval (−`, `). (Verify.) Figure 1.1.3 shows the graphs of some particular
solutions in this family for various choices of c. The solution y = −x cos x, the blue
y
graph in the figure, is a particular solution corresponding to c = 0.
(b) The two-parameter family y = c1e x + c 2xe x is an explicit solution of the linear
second-order equation
x y0 − 2y9 + y = 0
in part (b) of Example 5. (Verify.) In Figure 1.1.4 we have shown seven of the “dou-
ble infinity” of solutions in the family. The solution curves in red, green, and blue
FIgURE 1.1.4 Some solutions of DE in are the graphs of the particular solutions y = 5xe x (cl = 0, c2 = 5), y = 3e x (cl = 3,
part (b) of Example 8 c2 = 0), and y = 5ex − 2xex (c1 = 5, c2 = 2), respectively. .
Sometimes a differential equation possesses a solution that is not a member of

a family of solutions of the equation—that is, a solution that cannot be obtained by
specializing any of the parameters in the family of solutions. Such an extra solution
1 4
is called a singular solution. For example, we have seen that y 5 16 x and y = 0
1/2
are solutions of the differential equation dyydx = xy on (−`, `). In Section 2.2
we shall demonstrate, by actually solving it, that the differential equation dyydx = xy1/2
2
possesses the one-parameter family of solutions y 5 _14 x2 1 c+ , c $ 0. When c = 0,
1 4
the resulting particular solution is y 5 16 x . But notice that the trivial solution y = 0
2
is a singular solution since it is not a member of the family y 5 _14 x2 1 c+ ; there is
no way of assigning a value to the constant c to obtain y = 0.
In all the preceding examples we used x and y to denote the independent and
dependent variables, respectively. But you should become accustomed to seeing
and working with other symbols to denote these variables. For example, we could
denote the independent variable by t and the dependent variable by x.
ExamplE 9 Using Different Symbols

The functions x = c1 cos 4t and x = c2 sin 4t, where c1 and c2 are arbitrary constants
or parameters, are both solutions of the linear differential equation
x0 1 16x 5 0.
For x = c1 cos 4t the first two derivatives with respect to t are x9 = −4c1 sin 4t
and x0 = −16c1 cos 4t. Substituting x0 and x then gives
x0 1 16x 5 216c1 cos 4t 1 16(c1 cos 4t) 5 0.
In like manner, for x = c 2 sin 4t we have x0 = −16c 2 sin 4t, and so
x0 1 16x 5 216c2 sin 4t 1 16(c2 sin 4t) 5 0.
Finally, it is straightforward to verify that the linear combination of solutions, or the
two-parameter family x = c1 cos 4t + c 2 sin 4t, is also a solution of the differential
equation. .
The next example shows that a solution of a differential equation can be a

y piecewise-defined function.
c51
ExamplE 10 Piecewise-Defined Solution
x
c 5 21 The one-parameter family of quartic monomial functions y = cx 4 is an explicit solu-
tion of the linear first-order equation
xy9 − 4y = 0
(a) two explicit solutions on the interval (−`, `). (Verify.) The blue and red solution curves shown in
Figure 1.1.5(a) are the graphs of y = x4 and y = −x4 and correspond to the choices
y c = 1 and c = −1, respectively.
The piecewise-defined differentiable function
c 5 1,
5
x$0 2x4, x , 0
y5
x x4, x . 0
c 5 21,
x,0 is also a solution of the differential equation but cannot be obtained from the family
y = cx4 by a single choice of c. As seen in Figure 1.1.5(b) the solution is constructed
from the family by choosing c = −1 for x < 0 and c = 1 for x $ 0. .
(b) piecewise-defined solution
FIgURE 1.1.5 Some solutions of DE in systems of DifferentiAl equAtions Up to this point we have been dis-
Example 10 cussing single differential equations containing one unknown function. But often
in theory, as well as in many applications, we must deal with systems of differ-

ential equations. A system of ordinary differential equations is two or more
equations involving the derivatives of two or more unknown functions of a single
independent variable. For example, if x and y denote dependent variables and
t denotes the independent variable, then a system of two first-order differential
equations is given by
dx
5 f (t, x, y)
dt
(10)
dy
5 g(t, x, y).
dt
A solution of a system such as (10) is a pair of differentiable functions x = f 1(t),

y = f 2(t), defined on a common interval I, that satisfy each equation of the system
on this interval.
REmaRks
(i) It might not be apparent whether a first-order ODE written in differential
form M(x, y) dx 1 N(x, y) dy 5 0 is linear or nonlinear because there is
nothing in this form that tells us which symbol denotes the dependent variable.
See Problems 9 and 10 in Exercises 1.1.
(ii) We will see in the chapters that follow that a solution of a differential equa-
tion may involve an integral-defined function. One way of defining a function
F of a single variable x by means of a definite integral is:
# g(t) dt.
x
F(x) 5 (11)
a
If the integrand g in (11) is continuous on an interval [a, b] and a # x # b, then

the derivative form of the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus states that F is
differentiable on (a, b) and
# g(t) dt 5 g(x)
d x
F9(x) 5 (12)
dx a
The integral in (11) is often nonelementary, that is, an integral of a function g

that does not have an elementary-function antiderivative. Elementary functions
include the familiar functions studied in a typical precalculus course:
constant, polynomial, rational, exponential, logarithmic, trigonometric,

and inverse trigonometric functions,
as well as rational powers of these functions; finite combinations of these func-
tions using addition, subtraction, multiplication, division; and function com-
2
positions. For example, even though e2t ,Ï1 1 t3, and cos t2 are elementary
2
functions, the integrals ee2t dt, eÏ1 1 t3 dt, and e cos t2 dt are nonelementary.
See Problems 25–28 in Exercises 1.1. Also see Appendix A.
(iii) Although the concept of a solution of a differential equation has been
emphasized in this section, you should be aware that a DE does not necessarily
have to possess a solution. See Problem 43 in Exercises 1.1. The question of
whether a solution exists will be touched on in the next section.
(continued)
(iv) A few last words about implicit solutions of differential equations are in
order. In Example 7 we were able to solve the relation x 2 + y 2 = 25 for y in terms
of x to get two explicit solutions, 1(x) 5 Ï25 2 x2 and 2(x) 5 2Ï25 2 x2,
of the differential equation (8). But don’t read too much into this one example.
Unless it is easy or important or you are instructed to, there is usually no need
to try to solve an implicit solution G(x, y) = 0 for y explicitly in terms of x. Also
do not misinterpret the second sentence following Definition 1.1.3. An implicit
solution G(x, y) = 0 can define a perfectly good differentiable function f that is
a solution of a DE, yet we might not be able to solve G(x, y) = 0 using analyti-
cal methods such as algebra. The solution curve of f may be a segment or piece
of the graph of G(x, y) = 0. See Problems 49 and 50 in Exercises 1.1. Also,
read the discussion following Example 4 in Section 2.2.
(v) It might not seem like a big deal to assume that F(x, y, y9, . . . , y (n) ) = 0
can be solved for y (n), but one should be a little bit careful here. There
are exceptions, and there certainly are some problems connected with this
assumption. See Problems 56 and 57 in Exercises 1.1.
(vi) If every solution of an nth-order ODE F(x, y, y9, . . . , y (n)) = 0 on an inter-
val I can be obtained from an n-parameter family G(x, y, c1, c 2, . . . , cn ) = 0 by
appropriate choices of the parameters ci, i = 1, 2, . . . , n, we then say that the
family is the general solution of the DE. In solving linear ODEs, we shall im-
pose relatively simple restrictions on the coefficients of the equation; with these
restrictions one can be assured that not only does a solution exist on an interval
but also that a family of solutions yields all possible solutions. Nonlinear ODEs,
with the exception of some first-order equations, are usually difficult or impos-
sible to solve in terms of elementary functions. Furthermore, if we happen to
obtain a family of solutions for a nonlinear equation, it is not obvious whether
this family contains all solutions. On a practical level, then, the designation
“general solution” is applied only to linear ODEs. Don’t be concerned about
this concept at this point, but store the words “general solution” in the back
of your mind —we will come back to this notion in Section 2.3 and again in
Chapter 4.
ExErcIsEs 1.1 Answers to selected odd-numbered problems begin on page ANS-1.
In Problems 1 – 8 state the order of the given ordinary differential 7. (sin u)y- − (cos u)y9 = 2
equation. Determine whether the equation is linear or nonlinear by
x?2 ?
matching it with (6).
1. (1 − x)y0 − 4xy9+ 5y = cos x
$
1
8. x 2 1 2
3 2
x1x50
2. x
d 3y
dx 3
2 SD
dy
dx
4
1y50 In Problems 9 and 10 determine whether the given first-order dif-
ferential equation is linear in the indicated dependent variable by
matching it with the first differential equation given in (7).
3. t5y(4) − t 3y0 + 6y = 0
9. (y2 − 1) dx + x dy = 0; in y; in x
d 2u du
4. 2 1 1 u 5 cos(r 1 u) 10. u dv + (v + uv − ueu) du = 0; in v; in u
dr dr
5.
d 2y
dx 2
5 Î 11 1dx2
dy 2
In Problems 11–14 verify that the indicated function is an explicit
solution of the given differential equation. Assume an appropriate
interval I of definition for each solution.
d 2R k
6. 52 2
dt 2
R 11. 2y9 + y = 0; y = e−x/2
1.1 Definitions anD terminology 13
dy 6 6 29. Verify that the piecewise-defined function

12. 1 20y 5 24; y 5 2 e220t
dt 5 5
52xx ,,
2
x,0
3x y5
13. y0 − 6y9 + 13y = 0; y = e cos 2x 2
x$0
14. y0 + y = tan x; y = −(cos x) ln(sec x + tan x) is a solution of the differential equation xy9 − 2y = 0 on
(−`, `).
In Problems 15–18 verify that the indicated function y = f(x) is an 30. In Example 7 we saw that y = f1(x) = Ï25 2 x2 and
explicit solution of the given first-order differential equation. Pro- y 5 2(x) 5 2Ï25 2 x2 are solutions of dyydx = −xyy on the
ceed as in Example 6, by considering f simply as a function and give interval (−5, 5). Explain why the piecewise-defined function
its domain. Then by considering f as a solution of the differential
5Ï2Ï252522x x ,
2
equation, give at least one interval I of definition. 25 , x , 0
y5 2
0#x,5
15. (y 2 x)y9 5 y 2 x 1 8; y 5 x 1 4Ïx 1 2
is not a solution of the differential equation on the interval (−5, 5).
16. y9 = 25 + y2; y = 5 tan 5x
17. y9 = 2xy2; y = 1y(4 − x2) In Problems 31–34 find values of m so that the function y = emx is a
solution of the given differential equation.
18. 2y9 = y3 cos x; y = (1 − sin x)−1/2
31. y9 + 2y = 0 32. 5y9 = 2y
In Problems 19 and 20 verify that the indicated expression is an im- 33. y0 − 5y9 + 6y = 0 34. 2y0 + 7y9 − 4y = 0
plicit solution of the given first-order differential equation. Find at
least one explicit solution y = f(x) in each case. Use a graphing util- In Problems 35 and 36 find values of m so that the function y = xm is
ity to obtain the graph of an explicit solution. Give an interval I of a solution of the given differential equation.
definition of each solution f. 35. xy0 + 2y9 = 0
2X 2 1
1 2
dX 36. x2y0 − 7xy9 + 15y = 0
19. 5 (X 2 1)(1 2 2X); ln 5t
dt X21
In Problems 37–40 use the concept that y = c, −` < x < `, is a
20. 2xy dx + (x2 − y) dy = 0; −2x2y + y2 = 1 constant function if and only if y9 = 0 to determine whether the given
differential equation possesses constant solutions.
In Problems 21–24 verify that the indicated family of functions is a
37. 3xy9 + 5y = 10 38. y9 = y2 + 2y − 3
solution of the given differential equation. Assume an appropriate
interval I of definition for each solution. 39. (y − 1)y9 = 1 40. y0 + 4y9 + 6y = 10
dP c1et In Problems 41 and 42 verify that the indicated pair of functions is a

21. 5 P(1 2 P); P 5 solution of the given system of differential equations on the interval
dt 1 1 c1et
(−`, `).
dy 2
22. 1 4xy 5 8x3; y 5 2x2 2 1 1 c1e22x dx d 2x
dx 41. 5 x 1 3y 42. 5 4y 1 et
dt dt 2
d 2y dy dy d 2y
23. 24 1 4y 5 0; y 5 c1e 2x 1 c2xe 2x 5 5x 1 3y; 5 4 x 2 et;
dx 2 dx dt dt 2
d3y d 2y dy x 5 e22t 1 3e6t, x 5 cos 2t 1 sin 2t 1 15 et,
24. x 3 1 2x 2 2x 1 y 5 12x 2;
dx 3 dx 2 dx y 5 2e22t 1 5e6t y 5 2cos 2t 2 sin 2t 2 15 et
y 5 c1x21 1 c2x 1 c3x ln x 1 4x2

Discussion Problems
In Problems 25–28 use (12) to verify that the indicated function is 43. Make up a differential equation that does not possess any real
a solution of the given differential equation. Assume an appropriate solutions.
interval I of definition of each solution.
44. Make up a differential equation that you feel confident
possesses only the trivial solution y = 0. Explain your
# et
dy x 23t
25. x 2 3xy 5 1; y 5 e3x dt reasoning.
dx 1
45. What function do you know from calculus is such that its first
#
dy x cos t
26. 2x 2 y 5 2x cos x; y 5 Ïx dt derivative is itself? Its first derivative is a constant multiple k of
dx 4 Ït itself? Write each answer in the form of a first-order differential
equation with a solution.
# sint t dt
dy 5 10 x
27. x2 1 xy 5 10 sin x; y 5 1
dx x x 1 46. What function (or functions) do you know from calculus is such
that its second derivative is itself? Its second derivative is the
# e dt
dy 2 2
x
t2 negative of itself? Write each answer in the form of a second-
28. 1 2xy 5 1; y 5 e2x 1 e2x
dx 0 order differential equation with a solution.
47. The function y 5 sin x is an explicit solution of the first-order 57. The normal form (5) of an nth-order differential equation
dy is equivalent to (4) whenever both forms have exactly the
dx Ï
differential equation 5 1 2 y2. Find an interval I of
same solutions. Make up a first-order differential equation
definition. [Hint: I is not the interval (−`, `).] for which F(x, y, y9) = 0 is not equivalent to the normal form
48. Discuss why it makes intuitive sense to presume that the linear dyydx = f (x, y).
differential equation y0 + 2y9 + 4y = 5 sin t has a solution of 58. Find a linear second-order differential equation F(x, y, y9, y0) = 0
the form y = A sin t + B cos t, where A and B are constants. for which y = c1x + c2x2 is a two-parameter family of solutions.
Then find specific constants A and B so that y = A sin t + B cos t Make sure that your equation is free of the arbitrary parameters
is a particular solution of the DE. c1 and c2.
In Problems 49 and 50 the given figure represents the graph Qualitative information about a solution y = f(x) of a
of an implicit solution G(x, y) = 0 of a differential equation differential equation can often be obtained from the equation
dyydx = f (x, y). In each case the relation G(x, y) = 0 implicitly de- itself. Before working Problems 59–62, recall the geometric
fines several solutions of the DE. Carefully reproduce each figure significance of the derivatives dyydx and d2yydx2.
on a piece of paper. Use different colored pencils to mark off seg- 2
ments, or pieces, on each graph that correspond to graphs of so- 59. Consider the differential equation dyydx 5 e2x .
lutions. Keep in mind that a solution f must be a function and (a) Explain why a solution of the DE must be an increasing
differentiable. Use the solution curve to estimate an interval I of function on any interval of the x-axis.
definition of each solution f.
y
(b) What are lim dyydx and lim dyydx? What does this
x S 2` xS`
49. y 50. suggest about a solution curve as x S 6`?
(c) Determine an interval over which a solution curve is
1
concave down and an interval over which the curve is
x concave up.
1
1 (d) Sketch the graph of a solution y = f(x) of the differential
equation whose shape is suggested by parts (a) – (c).
1 x
60. Consider the differential equation dyydx = 5 − y.
FIgURE 1.1.6 Graph for FIgURE 1.1.7 Graph for (a) Either by inspection or by the method suggested in
Problem 49 Problem 50 Problems 37– 40, find a constant solution of the DE.
(b) Using only the differential equation, find intervals on the
51. The graphs of members of the one-parameter family y-axis on which a nonconstant solution y = f(x) is
x3 + y3 = 3cxy are called folia of Descartes. Verify that this increasing. Find intervals on the y-axis on which y = f(x)
family is an implicit solution of the first-order differential is decreasing.
equation 61. Consider the differential equation dyydx = y(a − by), where
dy y( y3 2 2x3) a and b are positive constants.
5 .
dx x(2y3 2 x3)
(a) Either by inspection or by the method suggested in
52. The graph in Figure 1.1.7 is the member of the family of folia in Problems 37– 40, find two constant solutions of the DE.
Problem 51 corresponding to c = 1. Discuss: How can the DE in
(b) Using only the differential equation, find intervals on the
Problem 51 help in finding points on the graph of x3 + y3 = 3xy
y-axis on which a nonconstant solution y = f(x) is increas-
where the tangent line is vertical? How does knowing where
ing. Find intervals on which y = f(x) is decreasing.
a tangent line is vertical help in determining an interval I of
definition of a solution f of the DE? Carry out your ideas (c) Using only the differential equation, explain why
and compare with your estimates of the intervals in Problem 50. y = ay2b is the y-coordinate of a point of inflection of the
graph of a nonconstant solution y = f(x).
53. In Example 7 the largest interval I over which the explicit
solutions y = f1(x) and y = f2(x) are defined is the open (d) On the same coordinate axes, sketch the graphs of the
interval (−5, 5). Why can’t the interval I of definition be the two constant solutions found in part (a). These constant
closed interval [−5, 5]? solutions partition the xy-plane into three regions. In
each region, sketch the graph of a nonconstant solution
54. In Problem 21 a one-parameter family of solutions of the DE
y = f(x) whose shape is suggested by the results in
P9 = P(1 − P) is given. Does any solution curve pass through
parts (b) and (c).
the point (0, 3)? Through the point (0, 1)?
62. Consider the differential equation y9 = y2 + 4.
55. Discuss, and illustrate with examples, how to solve differential
equations of the forms dyydx = f (x) and d 2yydx 2 = f (x). (a) Explain why there exist no constant solutions of the DE.
2 3
56. The differential equation x(y9) − 4y9 − 12x = 0 has the form (b) Describe the graph of a solution y = f(x). For example,
given in (4). Determine whether the equation can be put into the can a solution curve have any relative extrema?
normal form dyydx = f (x, y).
1.2 INITIal-ValUE pROblEms 15
(c) Explain why y 5 0 is the y-coordinate of a point of the indicated function is a particular solution of the given
inflection of a solution curve. differential equation.
(d) Sketch the graph of a solution y = f(x) of the differential 63. y(4) − 20y- + 158y0 − 580y9 + 841y = 0;
equation whose shape is suggested by parts (a) –(c).
y = xe5x cos 2x
64. x 3 y90 1 2x 2 y0 1 20xy9 2 78y 5 0;
Computer lab assignments
In Problems 63 and 64 use a CAS to compute all derivatives cos(5 ln x) sin(5 ln x)
y 5 20 23
and to carry out the simplifications needed to verify that x x
1.2 Initial-Value Problems

INTRODUCTION We are often interested in problems in which we seek a solution y(x)
of a differential equation so that y(x) also satisfies certain prescribed side conditions,
that is, conditions that are imposed on the unknown function y(x) and its derivatives
at a number x0. On some interval I containing x0 the problem of solving an nth-order
differential equation subject to n side conditions specified at x0:
d ny
Solve: 5 f (x, y, y9, Á , y (n21))
dx n (1)
sn21d
Subject to: ysx0d 5 y0, y9sx0d 5 y1, Á , y sx0d 5 yn21,
where y0, y1, Á , yn21 are arbitrary constants, is called an nth-order initial-value
problem (IVP). The values of y(x) and its first n21 derivatives at x0, y(x0) 5 y0,
y9(x0) 5 y1, Á , y(n21)(x0) 5 yn21 are called initial conditions (IC).
Solving an nth-order initial-value problem such as (1) frequently entails first
finding an n-parameter family of solutions of the differential equation and then using
the initial conditions at x0 to determine the n constants in this family. The resulting
particular solution is defined on some interval I containing the number x0.
solutions of the DE
y
GeometriC interpretAtion The cases n 5 1 and n 5 2 in (1),
dy
Solve: 5 f sx, yd
(x0, y0) dx
(2)
Subject to: ysx0d 5 y0
x
I and
FIgURE 1.2.1 Solution curve of
first-order IVP d 2y
Solve: 5 f (x, y, y9)
dx 2 (3)
Subject to: y(x0) 5 y0, y9(x0) 5 y1
solutions of the DE
y
are examples of first- and second-order initial-value problems, respectively. These
two problems are easy to interpret in geometric terms. For (2) we are seeking a
m 5 y1 solution y(x) of the differential equation y9 = f (x, y) on an interval I containing x 0 so
that its graph passes through the specified point (x 0, y 0). A solution curve is shown
(x0, y0) in blue in Figure 1.2.1. For (3) we want to find a solution y(x) of the differential
x equation y0 = f (x, y, y9) on an interval I containing x 0 so that its graph not only
I
passes through (x 0, y 0) but the slope of the curve at this point is the number y1. A
FIgURE 1.2.2 Solution curve of solution curve is shown in blue in Figure 1.2.2. The words initial conditions derive
second-order IVP from physical systems where the independent variable is time t and where y(t 0) = y 0
and y9(t 0) = y1 represent the position and velocity, respectively, of an object at some
beginning, or initial, time t 0.
ExamplE 1 Two First-Order IVPs

y (a) In Problem 45 in Exercises 1.1 you were asked to deduce that y = cex is a one-
(0, 3) parameter family of solutions of the simple first-order equation y9 = y. All the so-
lutions in this family are defined on the interval (−`, `). If we impose an initial
condition, say, y(0) = 3, then substituting x = 0, y = 3 in the family determines the
constant 3 = ce0 = c. Thus y = 3e x is a solution of the IVP
x y9 5 y, y(0) 5 3.
(b) Now if we demand that a solution curve pass through the point (1, −2) rather
(1,22)
than (0, 3), then y(1) = −2 will yield −2 = ce or c = −2e−1. In this case y = −2e x−1
is a solution of the IVP
FIgURE 1.2.3 Solution curves of two y9 5 y, y(1) 5 22.

IVPs in Example 1 The two solution curves are shown in dark blue and dark red in Figure 1.2.3. .
The next example illustrates another first-order initial-value problem. In this ex-
ample notice how the interval I of definition of the solution y(x) depends on the initial
condition y(x 0) = y 0.
ExamplE 2 Interval I of Definition of a Solution
y In Problem 6 of Exercises 2.2 you will be asked to show that a one-parameter family
of solutions of the first-order differential equation y9 + 2xy 2 = 0 is y = 1y(x 2 + c).
If we impose the initial condition y(0) = −1, then substituting x = 0 and y = −1
into the family of solutions gives −1 = 1yc or c = −1. Thus y = 1y(x 2 − 1). We
now emphasize the following three distinctions:
● Considered as a function, the domain of y = 1y(x 2 − 1) is the set of real
21 1 x numbers x for which y(x) is defined; this is the set of all real numbers
except x = −1 and x = 1. See Figure 1.2.4(a).
● Considered as a solution of the differential equation y9 + 2xy 2 = 0, the
interval I of definition of y = 1y(x 2 − 1) could be taken to be any
interval over which y(x) is defined and differentiable. As can be seen in
Figure 1.2.4(a), the largest intervals on which y = 1y(x 2 − 1) is a solution
(a) function defined for all x except x = 61 are (−`,−1), (−1, 1), and (1, `).
● Considered as a solution of the initial-value problem y9 + 2xy 2 = 0,
y y(0) = −1, the interval I of definition of y = 1y(x 2 − 1) could be taken to
be any interval over which y(x) is defined, differentiable, and contains the
initial point x = 0; the largest interval for which this is true is (−1, 1). See
the red curve in Figure 1.2.4(b). .
See Problems 3 – 6 in Exercises 1.2 for a continuation of Example 2.

21 1 x
(0, 21)
ExamplE 3 Second-Order IVP
In Example 9 of Section 1.1 we saw that x = c1 cos 4t + c2 sin 4t is a two-
parameter family of solutions of x0 + 16x = 0. Find a solution of the initial-value
problem
(b) solution defined on interval containing x = 0
FIgURE 1.2.4 Graphs of function and

solution of IVP in Example 2
x0 1 16x 5 0, x 12 2 5 22, x912 2 5 1. (4)
sOlUTION We first apply x(py2) = −2 to the given family of solutions: c1 cos 2p +

c 2 sin 2p = −2. Since cos 2p = 1 and sin 2p = 0, we find that c1 = −2. We next apply
x9(py2) = 1 to the one-parameter family x(t) = −2 cos 4t + c 2 sin 4t. Differentiating
and then setting t = py2 and x9 = 1 gives 8 sin 2p + 4c 2 cos 2p = 1, from which we
see that c2 5 14. Hence x 5 22 cos 4t 1 14 sin 4t is a solution of (4). .
existenCe AnD uniqueness Two fundamental questions arise in considering

an initial-value problem:
Does a solution of the problem exist? If a solution exists, is it unique?
For the first-order initial-value problem (2) we ask:
Existence
5Do
Does the differential equation dyydx = f (x, y) possess solutions?
any of the solution curves pass through the point (x , y )? 0 0
5 passing through the point (x , y )?

Uniqueness When can we be certain that there is precisely one solution curve
0 0
Note that in Examples 1 and 3 the phrase “a solution” is used rather than “the solution”
of the problem. The indefinite article “a” is used deliberately to suggest the
possibility that other solutions may exist. At this point it has not been demonstrated
that there is a single solution of each problem. The next example illustrates an initial-
value problem with two solutions.
ExamplE 4 An IVP Can Have Several Solutions

1 4
y y 5 x 4 /16 Each of the functions y = 0 and y 5 16 x satisfies the differential equation
dyydx = xy 1/2 and the initial condition y(0) = 0, so the initial-value problem
1 dy
5 xy1/2, y(0) 5 0
x dx
y50 (0, 0)
has at least two solutions. As illustrated in Figure 1.2.5, the graphs of both functions,
FIgURE 1.2.5 Two solution curves of the shown in red and blue pass through the same point (0, 0). .
same IVP in Example 4
Within the safe confines of a formal course in differential equations one can be
fairly confident that most differential equations will have solutions and that solu-
tions of initial-value problems will probably be unique. Real life, however, is not so
idyllic. Therefore it is desirable to know in advance of trying to solve an initial-value
problem whether a solution exists and, when it does, whether it is the only solution
of the problem. Since we are going to consider first-order differential equations in
the next two chapters, we state here without proof a straightforward theorem that
gives conditions that are sufficient to guarantee the existence and uniqueness of a
solution of a first-order initial-value problem of the form given in (2). We shall wait
until Chapter 4 to address the question of existence and uniqueness of a second-order
initial-value problem.
THEOREm 1.2.1 Existence of a Unique solution

Let R be a rectangular region in the xy-plane defined by a # x # b, c # y # d
that contains the point (x 0, y 0) in its interior. If f (x, y) and −f y−y are continuous
on R, then there exists some interval I 0: (x 0 − h, x 0 + h), h . 0, contained in
[a, b], and a unique function y(x), defined on I 0, that is a solution of the initial-
value problem (2).
y The foregoing result is one of the most popular existence and uniqueness theo-
rems for first-order differential equations because the criteria of continuity of f (x, y)
d
R and −fy−y are relatively easy to check. The geometry of Theorem 1.2.1 is illustrated
in Figure 1.2.6.
(x0 , y0)
ExamplE 5 Example 4 Revisited
c
We saw in Example 4 that the differential equation dyydx = xy1/2 possesses at least
a I0 b x two solutions whose graphs pass through (0, 0). Inspection of the functions
FIgURE 1.2.6 Rectangular region R
−f x
f (x, y) 5 xy1/2 and 5 1/2
−y 2y
shows that they are continuous in the upper half-plane defined by y > 0. Hence
Theorem 1.2.1 enables us to conclude that through any point (x 0, y 0), y 0 > 0 in the
upper half-plane there is some interval centered at x 0 on which the given differential
equation has a unique solution. Thus, for example, even without solving it, we know
that there exists some interval centered at 2 on which the initial-value problem
dyydx = xy 1/2, y(2) = 1 has a unique solution. .
In Example 1, Theorem 1.2.1 guarantees that there are no other solutions of the
initial-value problems y9 = y, y(0) = 3 and y9 = y, y(1) = −2 other than y = 3e x
and y = −2e x−1, respectively. This follows from the fact that f (x, y) = y and
−f y−y = 1 are continuous throughout the entire xy-plane. It can be further shown that
the interval I on which each solution is defined is (−`, `).
intervAl of existenCe/uniqueness Suppose y(x) represents a solution

of the initial-value problem (2). The following three sets on the real x-axis may
not be the same: the domain of the function y(x), the interval I over which the solu-
tion y(x) is defined or exists, and the interval I0 of existence and uniqueness. Ex-
ample 6 of Section 1.1 illustrated the difference between the domain of a function
and the interval I of definition. Now suppose (x0, y0) is a point in the interior of
the rectangular region R in Theorem 1.2.1. It turns out that the continuity of the
function f (x, y) on R by itself is sufficient to guarantee the existence of at least one
solution of dyydx = f (x, y), y(x0) = y0, defined on some interval I. The interval I
of definition for this initial-value problem is usually taken to be the largest interval
containing x0 over which the solution y(x) is defined and differentiable. The interval
I depends on both f (x, y) and the initial condition y(x0) = y0. See Problems 31–34 in
Exercises 1.2. The extra condition of continuity of the first partial derivative −fy−y
on R enables us to say that not only does a solution exist on some interval I0 con-
taining x0, but it is the only solution satisfying y(x0) = y0. However, Theorem 1.2.1
does not give any indication of the sizes of intervals I and I0; the interval I of
definition need not be as wide as the region R, and the interval I0 of existence and
uniqueness may not be as large as I. The number h > 0 that defines the interval
I0: (x0 − h, x0 + h) could be very small, so it is best to think that the solution y(x)
is unique in a local sense—that is, a solution defined near the point (x0, y0). See
Problem 51 in Exercises 1.2.
REmaRks
(i) The conditions in Theorem 1.2.1 are sufficient but not necessary. This means
that when f (x, y) and −fy−y are continuous on a rectangular region R, it must
always follow that a solution of (2) exists and is unique whenever (x 0, y 0) is
a point interior to R. However, if the conditions stated in the hypothesis of
Theorem 1.2.1 do not hold, then anything could happen: Problem (2) may still
have a solution and this solution may be unique, or (2) may have several solu-
tions, or it may have no solution at all. A rereading of Example 5 reveals that
the hypotheses of Theorem 1.2.1 do not hold on the line y = 0 for the differen-
tial equation dyydx = xy 1/2, so it is not surprising, as we saw in Example 4 of
this section, that there are two solutions defined on a common interval (2h, h)
satisfying y(0) = 0. On the other hand, the hypotheses of Theorem 1.2.1 do not
hold on the line y = 1 for the differential equation dyydx = uy − 1u.
Nevertheless it can be proved that the solution of the initial-value problem
dyydx = uy − 1u, y(0) = 1, is unique. Can you guess this solution?
(ii) You are encouraged to read, think about, work, and then keep in mind
Problem 50 in Exercises 1.2.
(iii) Initial conditions are prescribed at a single point x0. But we are also
interested in solving differential equations that are subject to conditions
specified on y(x) or its derivative at two different points x0 and x1. Condi-
tions such as
y(1) 5 0, y(5) 5 0 or y(y2) 5 0, y9() 5 1
are called boundary conditions (BC). A differential equation together with

boundary conditions is called a boundary-value problem (BVP). For example,
y0 1 y 5 0, y9(0) 5 0, y9() 5 0
is a boundary-value problem. See Problems 39–44 in Exercises 1.2.

When we start to solve differential equations in Chapter 2 we will solve
only first-order equations and first-order initial-value problems. The math-
ematical description of many problems in science and engineering involve
second-order IVPs or two-point BVPs. We will examine some of these
problems in Chapters 4 and 5.
ExErcIsEs 1.2 Answers to selected odd-numbered problems begin on page ANS-1.
In Problems 1 and 2, y 5 1y(1 1 c1e2x) is a one-parameter family the second-order IVP consisting of this differential equation and the
of solutions of the first-order DE y9 = y − y2. Find a solution of the given initial conditions.
first-order IVP consisting of this differential equation and the given 7. x(0) = −1, x9(0) = 8
initial condition.
8. x(py2) = 0, x9(py2) = 1
1. y(0) 5 213 2. y(−1) = 2 1
9. x(y6) 5 2, x9(y6) 5 0
In Problems 3–6, y = 1y(x2 + c) is a one-parameter family of so- 10. x(y4) 5 Ï2, x9(y4) 5 2Ï2
lutions of the first-order DE y9 + 2xy2 = 0. Find a solution of the
In Problems 11–14, y = c1ex + c2e−x is a two-parameter family of
first-order IVP consisting of this differential equation and the given
solutions of the second-order DE y0 − y = 0. Find a solution of the
initial condition. Give the largest interval I over which the solution
second-order IVP consisting of this differential equation and the
is defined.
given initial conditions.
3. y(2) 5 13 4. y(22) 5 12
11. y(0) 5 1, y9(0) 5 2
5. y(0) = 1 6. y _12+ 5 24
12. y(1) = 0, y9(1) = e
13. y(−1) = 5, y9(−1) = −5
In Problems 7–10, x = c1 cos t + c2 sin t is a two-parameter family
of solutions of the second-order DE x0 + x = 0. Find a solution of 14. y(0) = 0, y9(0) = 0
In Problems 15 and 16 determine by inspection at least two solutions the largest interval I of definition for the solution of each
of the given first-order IVP. initial-value problem.
15. y9 = 3y2/3, y(0) = 0 (c) Determine the largest interval I of definition for the solution
of the first-order initial-value problem y9 = y2, y(0) = 0.
16. xy9 = 2y, y(0) = 0
[Hint: The solution is not a member of the family of
In Problems 17–24 determine a region of the xy-plane for which solutions in part (a).]
the given differential equation would have a unique solution whose 32. (a) Show that a solution from the family in part (a) of Problem 31
graph passes through a point (x0, y0) in the region. that satisfies y9 = y2, y(1) = 1, is y = 1y(2 − x).
dy dy (b) Then show that a solution from the family in part (a)
17. 5 y2/3 18. 5 Ïxy
dx dx of Problem 31 that satisfies y9 = y2, y(3) = −1, is
dy dy y = 1y(2 − x).
19. x 5y 20. 2y5x
dx dx (c) Are the solutions in parts (a) and (b) the same?
2 2 3 2
21. (4 − y )y9 = x 22. (1 + y )y9 = x 33. (a) Verify that 3x2 − y2 = c is a one-parameter family of
solutions of the differential equation y dyydx = 3x.
23. (x2 + y2)y9 = y2 24. (y − x)y9 = y + x
(b) By hand, sketch the graph of the implicit solution
In Problems 25–28 determine whether Theorem 1.2.1 guarantees that 3x2 − y2 = 3. Find all explicit solutions y = f(x) of the
the differential equation y9 5 Ïy2 2 9 possesses a unique solution DE in part (a) defined by this relation. Give the interval I
through the given point. of definition of each explicit solution.
25. (1, 4) 26. (5, 3) (c) The point (−2, 3) is on the graph of 3x2 − y2 = 3,
but which of the explicit solutions in part (b) satisfies
27. (2, −3) 28. (−1, 1)
y(−2) = 3?
29. (a) By inspection find a one-parameter family of solutions of
34. (a) Use the family of solutions in part (a) of Problem 33 to
the differential equation xy9 = y. Verify that each member
find an implicit solution of the initial-value problem
of the family is a solution of the initial-value problem
y dyydx = 3x, y(2) = −4. Then, by hand, sketch the
xy9 = y, y(0) = 0.
graph of the explicit solution of this problem and give its
(b) Explain part (a) by determining a region R in the xy-plane interval I of definition.
for which the differential equation xy9 = y would have a (b) Are there any explicit solutions of y dyydx = 3x that pass
unique solution through a point (x0, y0) in R. through the origin?
(c) Verify that the piecewise-defined function
In Problems 35–38 the graph of a member of a family of solutions
5
0, x , 0 of a second-order differential equation d2yydx2 = f (x, y, y9) is given.
y5 Match the solution curve with at least one pair of the following initial
x, x $ 0
conditions.
satisfies the condition y(0) = 0. Determine whether this
(a) y(1) = 1, y9(1) = −2
function is also a solution of the initial-value problem in
part (a). (b) y(−1) = 0, y9(−1) = −4
30. (a) Verify that y = tan (x + c) is a one-parameter family of (c) y(1) = 1, y9(1) = 2
solutions of the differential equation y9 = 1 + y2.
(d) y(0) = −1, y9(0) = 2
(b) Since f (x, y) = 1 + y2 and −fy−y = 2y are continuous ev-
erywhere, the region R in Theorem 1.2.1 can be taken to (e) y(0) = −1, y9(0) = 0
be the entire xy-plane. Use the family of solutions in part (f) y(0) = −4, y9(0) = −2
(a) to find an explicit solution of the first-order initial-value
problem y9 = 1 + y2, y(0) = 0. Even though x0 = 0 is in 35. y
the interval (−2, 2), explain why the solution is not defined 5
on this interval.
(c) Determine the largest interval I of definition for the solution
of the initial-value problem in part (b).
31. (a) Verify that y = −1y(x + c) is a one-parameter family of 5 x
solutions of the differential equation y9 = y2.
(b) Since f (x, y) = y2 and −fy−y = 2y are continuous every-
where, the region R in Theorem 1.2.1 can be taken to be
the entire xy-plane. Find a solution from the family in 25
part (a) that satisfies y(0) = 1. Then find a solution from
the family in part (a) that satisfies y(0) = −1. Determine FIgURE 1.2.7 Graph for Problem 35
36. y 46. Find a function whose second derivative is y0 = 12x − 2 at

5 each point (x, y) on its graph and y = −x + 5 is tangent to the
graph at the point corresponding to x = 1.
47. Consider the initial-value problem y9 = x − 2y, y(0) 5 12.
Determine which of the two curves shown in Figure 1.2.11 is
x the only plausible solution curve. Explain your reasoning.
5
y
25
(0, 12 )
FIgURE 1.2.8 Graph for Problem 36
37. y
5 1 x
FIgURE 1.2.11 Graphs for Problem 47
48. Show that
# Ït 11 1 dt
y
5 x
x5 3
0
is an implicit solution of the initial-value problem

d 2y
25 2 2 2 3y2 5 0, ys0d 5 0, y9s0d 5 1.
dx
Assume that y $ 0. [Hint: The integral is nonelementary. See
FIgURE 1.2.9 Graph for Problem 37
(ii) in the Remarks at the end of Section 1.1.]
y
38. 5 49. Determine a plausible value of x0 for which the graph of the
solution of the initial-value problem y9 + 2y = 3x − 6, y(x0) = 0
is tangent to the x-axis at (x0, 0). Explain your reasoning.
50. Suppose that the first-order differential equation dyydx = f (x, y)
possesses a one-parameter family of solutions and that f (x, y)
5 x satisfies the hypotheses of Theorem 1.2.1 in some rectangular
region R of the xy-plane. Explain why two different solution
curves cannot intersect or be tangent to each other at a point
(x0, y0) in R.
25 1 4
51. The functions y(x) 5 16 x , 2` , x , ` and
5
0, x,0
FIgURE 1.2.10 Graph for Problem 38 y(x) 5 1
16 x4, x $ 0
In Problems 39–44, y 5 c1 cos 2x 1 c2 sin 2x is a two-parameter have the same domain but are clearly different. See
family of solutions of the second-order DE y0 1 4y 5 0. If possible, Figures 1.2.12(a) and 1.2.12(b), respectively. Show that
find a solution of the differential equation that satisfies the given side both functions are solutions of the initial-value problem
conditions. The conditions specified at two different points are called dyydx = xy1/2, y(2) = 1 on the interval (−`, `). Resolve the
boundary conditions. apparent contradiction between this fact and the last sentence
in Example 5.
39. y(0) 5 0, y(y4) 5 3 40. y(0) 5 0, y() 5 0
y y
41. y9(0) 5 0, y9(y6) 5 0 42. y(0) 5 1, y9() 5 5
43. y(0) 5 0, y() 5 2 44. y9(y2) 5 1, y9() 5 0
(2, 1) (2, 1)
Discussion problems
In Problems 45 and 46 use Problem 55 in Exercises 1.1 and (2) and x x
(3) of this section.
(a) (b)
45. Find a function whose graph at each point (x, y) has the slope
given by 8e2x + 6x and has the y-intercept (0, 9). FIgURE 1.2.12 Two solutions of the IVP in Problem 51
1.3 Differential Equations as Mathematical Models

INTRODUCTION In this section we introduce the notion of a differential equation
as a mathematical model and discuss some specific models in biology, chemistry, and
physics. Once we have studied some methods for solving differential equations in
Chapters 2 and 4, we return to and solve some of these models in Chapters 3 and 5.
mAthemAtiCAl moDels It is often desirable to describe the behavior of

some real-life system or a phenomenon—whether physical, sociological, or even
economic—in mathematical terms. The mathematical description of a system or a
phenomenon is called a mathematical model and is constructed with certain goals
in mind. For example, we may wish to understand the mechanisms of a certain eco-
system by studying the growth of animal populations in that system, or we may wish
to date fossils by means of analyzing the decay of a radioactive substance, either in
the fossil or in the stratum in which it was discovered.
Construction of a mathematical model of a system starts with
(i) identification of the variables that are responsible for changing the sys-
tem. We may choose not to incorporate all these variables into the model
at first. In this step we are specifying the level of resolution of the model.
Next
(ii) we make a set of reasonable assumptions, or hypotheses, about the
system we are trying to describe. These assumptions will also include
any empirical laws that may be applicable to the system.
For some purposes it may be perfectly within reason to be content with low-
resolution models. For example, you may already be aware that in beginning
physics courses, the retarding force of air friction is sometimes ignored in modeling
the motion of a body falling near the surface of the Earth, but if you are a scientist
whose job it is to accurately predict the flight path of a long-range projectile, you have
to take into account air resistance and other factors such as the curvature of the Earth.
Since the assumptions made about a system frequently involve a rate of change
of one or more of the variables, the mathematical depiction of all these assumptions
may be one or more equations involving derivatives. In other words, the mathemati-
cal model may be a differential equation or a system of differential equations.
Once we have formulated a mathematical model that is either a differential equa-
tion or a system of differential equations, we are faced with the not insignificant
problem of trying to solve it. If we can solve it, then we deem the model to be reason-
able if its solution is consistent with either experimental data or known facts about
the behavior of the system. But if the predictions produced by the solution are poor,
we can either increase the level of resolution of the model or make alternative as-
sumptions about the mechanisms for change in the system. The steps of the model-
ing process are then repeated, as shown in the diagram in Figure 1.3.1.
Assumptions Express assumptions Mathematical

and hypotheses in terms of DEs formulation
If necessary,
alter assumptions
Solve the DEs
or increase resolution
of model
Check model Display predictions

Obtain
predictions with of model
solutions
known facts (e.g., graphically)
FIgURE 1.3.1 Steps in the modeling process with differential equations
1.3 DIFFERENTIal EqUaTIONs as maTHEmaTICal mODEls 23
Of course, by increasing the resolution, we add to the complexity of the mathemati-

cal model and increase the likelihood that we cannot obtain an explicit solution of
the differential equation.
A mathematical model of a physical system will often involve the variable time t.
A solution of the model then gives the state of the system; in other words, the values
of the dependent variable (or variables) for appropriate values of t describe the system
in the past, present, and future.
populAtion DynAmiCs One of the earliest attempts to model human

population growth by means of mathematics was by the English clergyman and
economist Thomas Malthus (1766–1834) in 1798. Basically, the idea behind the
Malthusian model is the assumption that the rate at which the population of a country
grows at a certain time is proportional* to the total population of the country at that
time. In other words, the more people there are at time t, the more there are going to be
in the future. In mathematical terms, if P(t) denotes the total population at time t, then
this assumption can be expressed as
dP dP
~ P or 5 kP, (1)
dt dt
where k is a constant of proportionality. This simple model, which fails to take into
account many factors that can influence human populations to either grow or decline
(immigration and emigration, for example), nevertheless turned out to be fairly accu-
rate in predicting the population of the United States during the years 1790 –1860.
Populations that grow at a rate described by (1) are rare; nevertheless, (1) is still used
to model growth of small populations over short intervals of time (bacteria growing
in a petri dish, for example).
rADioACtive DeCAy The nucleus of an atom consists of combinations of protons

and neutrons. Many of these combinations of protons and neutrons are unstable —that
is, the atoms decay or transmute into atoms of another substance. Such nuclei are
said to be radioactive. For example, over time the highly radioactive radium, Ra-226,
transmutes into the radioactive gas radon, Rn-222. To model the phenomenon of
radioactive decay, it is assumed that the rate dAydt at which the nuclei of a sub-
stance decay is proportional to the amount (more precisely, the number of nuclei)
A(t) of the substance remaining at time t:
dA dA
~ A or 5 kA. (2)
dt dt
Of course, equations (1) and (2) are exactly the same; the difference is only in the in-
terpretation of the symbols and the constants of proportionality. For growth, as we
expect in (1), k > 0, and for decay, as in (2), k < 0.
The model (1) for growth can also be seen as the equation dSydt = rS, which
describes the growth of capital S when an annual rate of interest r is compounded
continuously. The model (2) for decay also occurs in biological applications such
as determining the half-life of a drug —the time that it takes for 50% of a drug
to be eliminated from a body by excretion or metabolism. In chemistry the decay
model (2) appears in the mathematical description of a first-order chemical reaction.
The point is this:
A single differential equation can serve as a mathematical model for

many different phenomena.
*If two quantities u and v are proportional, we write u ~ v. This means that one quantity is a constant
multiple of the other: u = kv.
Mathematical models are often accompanied by certain side conditions. For ex-
ample, in (1) and (2) we would expect to know, in turn, the initial population P0 and
the initial amount of radioactive substance A 0 on hand. If the initial point in time is
taken to be t = 0, then we know that P(0) = P0 and A(0) = A 0. In other words, a
mathematical model can consist of either an initial-value problem or, as we shall see
later on in Section 5.2, a boundary-value problem.
newton’s lAw of CoolinG/wArminG According to Newton’s empirical

law of cooling/warming, the rate at which the temperature of a body changes is pro-
portional to the difference between the temperature of the body and the temperature
of the surrounding medium, the so-called ambient temperature. If T(t) represents the
temperature of a body at time t, Tm the temperature of the surrounding medium, and
dTydt the rate at which the temperature of the body changes, then Newton’s law of
cooling/warming translates into the mathematical statement
dT dT
~ T 2 Tm or 5 k(T 2 Tm), (3)
dt dt
where k is a constant of proportionality. In either case, cooling or warming, if Tm is a
constant, it stands to reason that k < 0.
spreAD of A DiseAse A contagious disease—for example, a flu virus—is

spread throughout a community by people coming into contact with other people. Let
x(t) denote the number of people who have contracted the disease and y(t) denote the
number of people who have not yet been exposed. It seems reasonable to assume that
the rate dxydt at which the disease spreads is proportional to the number of encoun-
ters, or interactions, between these two groups of people. If we assume that the num-
ber of interactions is jointly proportional to x(t) and y(t)—that is, proportional to the
product xy—then
dx
5 kxy, (4)
dt
where k is the usual constant of proportionality. Suppose a small community has a
fixed population of n people. If one infected person is introduced into this commu-
nity, then it could be argued that x(t) and y(t) are related by x + y = n + 1. Using
this last equation to eliminate y in (4) gives us the model
dx
5 kx(n 1 1 2 x). (5)
dt
An obvious initial condition accompanying equation (5) is x(0) = 1.
ChemiCAl reACtions The disintegration of a radioactive substance, governed

by the differential equation (1), is said to be a first-order reaction. In chemistry
a few reactions follow this same empirical law: If the molecules of substance A
decompose into smaller molecules, it is a natural assumption that the rate at which
this decomposition takes place is proportional to the amount of the first substance
that has not undergone conversion; that is, if X(t) is the amount of substance A
remaining at any time, then dXydt = kX, where k is a negative constant since X is
decreasing. An example of a first-order chemical reaction is the conversion of t-butyl
chloride, (CH3)3CCl, into t-butyl alcohol, (CH3)3COH:
(CH3)3CCl 1 NaOH S (CH3)3COH 1 NaCl.
Only the concentration of the t-butyl chloride controls the rate of reaction. But in the
reaction
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DANCE ON STILTS AT THE GIRLS’ UNYAGO, NIUCHI
Newala, too, suffers from the distance of its water-supply—at least

the Newala of to-day does; there was once another Newala in a lovely
valley at the foot of the plateau. I visited it and found scarcely a trace
of houses, only a Christian cemetery, with the graves of several
missionaries and their converts, remaining as a monument of its
former glories. But the surroundings are wonderfully beautiful. A
thick grove of splendid mango-trees closes in the weather-worn
crosses and headstones; behind them, combining the useful and the
agreeable, is a whole plantation of lemon-trees covered with ripe
fruit; not the small African kind, but a much larger and also juicier
imported variety, which drops into the hands of the passing traveller,
without calling for any exertion on his part. Old Newala is now under
the jurisdiction of the native pastor, Daudi, at Chingulungulu, who,
as I am on very friendly terms with him, allows me, as a matter of
course, the use of this lemon-grove during my stay at Newala.
FEET MUTILATED BY THE RAVAGES OF THE “JIGGER”
(Sarcopsylla penetrans)
The water-supply of New Newala is in the bottom of the valley,

some 1,600 feet lower down. The way is not only long and fatiguing,
but the water, when we get it, is thoroughly bad. We are suffering not
only from this, but from the fact that the arrangements at Newala are
nothing short of luxurious. We have a separate kitchen—a hut built
against the boma palisade on the right of the baraza, the interior of
which is not visible from our usual position. Our two cooks were not
long in finding this out, and they consequently do—or rather neglect
to do—what they please. In any case they do not seem to be very
particular about the boiling of our drinking-water—at least I can
attribute to no other cause certain attacks of a dysenteric nature,
from which both Knudsen and I have suffered for some time. If a
man like Omari has to be left unwatched for a moment, he is capable
of anything. Besides this complaint, we are inconvenienced by the
state of our nails, which have become as hard as glass, and crack on
the slightest provocation, and I have the additional infliction of
pimples all over me. As if all this were not enough, we have also, for
the last week been waging war against the jigger, who has found his
Eldorado in the hot sand of the Makonde plateau. Our men are seen
all day long—whenever their chronic colds and the dysentery likewise
raging among them permit—occupied in removing this scourge of
Africa from their feet and trying to prevent the disastrous
consequences of its presence. It is quite common to see natives of
this place with one or two toes missing; many have lost all their toes,
or even the whole front part of the foot, so that a well-formed leg
ends in a shapeless stump. These ravages are caused by the female of
Sarcopsylla penetrans, which bores its way under the skin and there
develops an egg-sac the size of a pea. In all books on the subject, it is
stated that one’s attention is called to the presence of this parasite by
an intolerable itching. This agrees very well with my experience, so
far as the softer parts of the sole, the spaces between and under the
toes, and the side of the foot are concerned, but if the creature
penetrates through the harder parts of the heel or ball of the foot, it
may escape even the most careful search till it has reached maturity.
Then there is no time to be lost, if the horrible ulceration, of which
we see cases by the dozen every day, is to be prevented. It is much
easier, by the way, to discover the insect on the white skin of a
European than on that of a native, on which the dark speck scarcely
shows. The four or five jiggers which, in spite of the fact that I
constantly wore high laced boots, chose my feet to settle in, were
taken out for me by the all-accomplished Knudsen, after which I
thought it advisable to wash out the cavities with corrosive
sublimate. The natives have a different sort of disinfectant—they fill
the hole with scraped roots. In a tiny Makua village on the slope of
the plateau south of Newala, we saw an old woman who had filled all
the spaces under her toe-nails with powdered roots by way of
prophylactic treatment. What will be the result, if any, who can say?
The rest of the many trifling ills which trouble our existence are
really more comic than serious. In the absence of anything else to
smoke, Knudsen and I at last opened a box of cigars procured from
the Indian store-keeper at Lindi, and tried them, with the most
distressing results. Whether they contain opium or some other
narcotic, neither of us can say, but after the tenth puff we were both
“off,” three-quarters stupefied and unspeakably wretched. Slowly we
recovered—and what happened next? Half-an-hour later we were
once more smoking these poisonous concoctions—so insatiable is the
craving for tobacco in the tropics.
Even my present attacks of fever scarcely deserve to be taken
seriously. I have had no less than three here at Newala, all of which
have run their course in an incredibly short time. In the early
afternoon, I am busy with my old natives, asking questions and
making notes. The strong midday coffee has stimulated my spirits to
an extraordinary degree, the brain is active and vigorous, and work
progresses rapidly, while a pleasant warmth pervades the whole
body. Suddenly this gives place to a violent chill, forcing me to put on
my overcoat, though it is only half-past three and the afternoon sun
is at its hottest. Now the brain no longer works with such acuteness
and logical precision; more especially does it fail me in trying to
establish the syntax of the difficult Makua language on which I have
ventured, as if I had not enough to do without it. Under the
circumstances it seems advisable to take my temperature, and I do
so, to save trouble, without leaving my seat, and while going on with
my work. On examination, I find it to be 101·48°. My tutors are
abruptly dismissed and my bed set up in the baraza; a few minutes
later I am in it and treating myself internally with hot water and
lemon-juice.
Three hours later, the thermometer marks nearly 104°, and I make
them carry me back into the tent, bed and all, as I am now perspiring
heavily, and exposure to the cold wind just beginning to blow might
mean a fatal chill. I lie still for a little while, and then find, to my
great relief, that the temperature is not rising, but rather falling. This
is about 7.30 p.m. At 8 p.m. I find, to my unbounded astonishment,
that it has fallen below 98·6°, and I feel perfectly well. I read for an
hour or two, and could very well enjoy a smoke, if I had the
wherewithal—Indian cigars being out of the question.
Having no medical training, I am at a loss to account for this state
of things. It is impossible that these transitory attacks of high fever
should be malarial; it seems more probable that they are due to a
kind of sunstroke. On consulting my note-book, I become more and
more inclined to think this is the case, for these attacks regularly
follow extreme fatigue and long exposure to strong sunshine. They at
least have the advantage of being only short interruptions to my
work, as on the following morning I am always quite fresh and fit.
My treasure of a cook is suffering from an enormous hydrocele which
makes it difficult for him to get up, and Moritz is obliged to keep in
the dark on account of his inflamed eyes. Knudsen’s cook, a raw boy
from somewhere in the bush, knows still less of cooking than Omari;
consequently Nils Knudsen himself has been promoted to the vacant
post. Finding that we had come to the end of our supplies, he began
by sending to Chingulungulu for the four sucking-pigs which we had
bought from Matola and temporarily left in his charge; and when
they came up, neatly packed in a large crate, he callously slaughtered
the biggest of them. The first joint we were thoughtless enough to
entrust for roasting to Knudsen’s mshenzi cook, and it was
consequently uneatable; but we made the rest of the animal into a
jelly which we ate with great relish after weeks of underfeeding,
consuming incredible helpings of it at both midday and evening
meals. The only drawback is a certain want of variety in the tinned
vegetables. Dr. Jäger, to whom the Geographical Commission
entrusted the provisioning of the expeditions—mine as well as his
own—because he had more time on his hands than the rest of us,
seems to have laid in a huge stock of Teltow turnips,[46] an article of
food which is all very well for occasional use, but which quickly palls
when set before one every day; and we seem to have no other tins
left. There is no help for it—we must put up with the turnips; but I
am certain that, once I am home again, I shall not touch them for ten
years to come.
Amid all these minor evils, which, after all, go to make up the
genuine flavour of Africa, there is at least one cheering touch:
Knudsen has, with the dexterity of a skilled mechanic, repaired my 9
× 12 cm. camera, at least so far that I can use it with a little care.
How, in the absence of finger-nails, he was able to accomplish such a
ticklish piece of work, having no tool but a clumsy screw-driver for
taking to pieces and putting together again the complicated
mechanism of the instantaneous shutter, is still a mystery to me; but
he did it successfully. The loss of his finger-nails shows him in a light
contrasting curiously enough with the intelligence evinced by the
above operation; though, after all, it is scarcely surprising after his
ten years’ residence in the bush. One day, at Lindi, he had occasion
to wash a dog, which must have been in need of very thorough
cleansing, for the bottle handed to our friend for the purpose had an
extremely strong smell. Having performed his task in the most
conscientious manner, he perceived with some surprise that the dog
did not appear much the better for it, and was further surprised by
finding his own nails ulcerating away in the course of the next few
days. “How was I to know that carbolic acid has to be diluted?” he
mutters indignantly, from time to time, with a troubled gaze at his
mutilated finger-tips.
Since we came to Newala we have been making excursions in all
directions through the surrounding country, in accordance with old
habit, and also because the akida Sefu did not get together the tribal
elders from whom I wanted information so speedily as he had
promised. There is, however, no harm done, as, even if seen only
from the outside, the country and people are interesting enough.
The Makonde plateau is like a large rectangular table rounded off
at the corners. Measured from the Indian Ocean to Newala, it is
about seventy-five miles long, and between the Rovuma and the
Lukuledi it averages fifty miles in breadth, so that its superficial area
is about two-thirds of that of the kingdom of Saxony. The surface,
however, is not level, but uniformly inclined from its south-western
edge to the ocean. From the upper edge, on which Newala lies, the
eye ranges for many miles east and north-east, without encountering
any obstacle, over the Makonde bush. It is a green sea, from which
here and there thick clouds of smoke rise, to show that it, too, is
inhabited by men who carry on their tillage like so many other
primitive peoples, by cutting down and burning the bush, and
manuring with the ashes. Even in the radiant light of a tropical day
such a fire is a grand sight.
Much less effective is the impression produced just now by the
great western plain as seen from the edge of the plateau. As often as
time permits, I stroll along this edge, sometimes in one direction,
sometimes in another, in the hope of finding the air clear enough to
let me enjoy the view; but I have always been disappointed.
Wherever one looks, clouds of smoke rise from the burning bush,
and the air is full of smoke and vapour. It is a pity, for under more
favourable circumstances the panorama of the whole country up to
the distant Majeje hills must be truly magnificent. It is of little use
taking photographs now, and an outline sketch gives a very poor idea
of the scenery. In one of these excursions I went out of my way to
make a personal attempt on the Makonde bush. The present edge of
the plateau is the result of a far-reaching process of destruction
through erosion and denudation. The Makonde strata are
everywhere cut into by ravines, which, though short, are hundreds of
yards in depth. In consequence of the loose stratification of these
beds, not only are the walls of these ravines nearly vertical, but their
upper end is closed by an equally steep escarpment, so that the
western edge of the Makonde plateau is hemmed in by a series of
deep, basin-like valleys. In order to get from one side of such a ravine
to the other, I cut my way through the bush with a dozen of my men.
It was a very open part, with more grass than scrub, but even so the
short stretch of less than two hundred yards was very hard work; at
the end of it the men’s calicoes were in rags and they themselves
bleeding from hundreds of scratches, while even our strong khaki
suits had not escaped scatheless.
NATIVE PATH THROUGH THE MAKONDE BUSH, NEAR

MAHUTA
I see increasing reason to believe that the view formed some time
back as to the origin of the Makonde bush is the correct one. I have
no doubt that it is not a natural product, but the result of human
occupation. Those parts of the high country where man—as a very
slight amount of practice enables the eye to perceive at once—has not
yet penetrated with axe and hoe, are still occupied by a splendid
timber forest quite able to sustain a comparison with our mixed
forests in Germany. But wherever man has once built his hut or tilled
his field, this horrible bush springs up. Every phase of this process
may be seen in the course of a couple of hours’ walk along the main
road. From the bush to right or left, one hears the sound of the axe—
not from one spot only, but from several directions at once. A few
steps further on, we can see what is taking place. The brush has been
cut down and piled up in heaps to the height of a yard or more,
between which the trunks of the large trees stand up like the last
pillars of a magnificent ruined building. These, too, present a
melancholy spectacle: the destructive Makonde have ringed them—
cut a broad strip of bark all round to ensure their dying off—and also
piled up pyramids of brush round them. Father and son, mother and
son-in-law, are chopping away perseveringly in the background—too
busy, almost, to look round at the white stranger, who usually excites
so much interest. If you pass by the same place a week later, the piles
of brushwood have disappeared and a thick layer of ashes has taken
the place of the green forest. The large trees stretch their
smouldering trunks and branches in dumb accusation to heaven—if
they have not already fallen and been more or less reduced to ashes,
perhaps only showing as a white stripe on the dark ground.
This work of destruction is carried out by the Makonde alike on the
virgin forest and on the bush which has sprung up on sites already
cultivated and deserted. In the second case they are saved the trouble
of burning the large trees, these being entirely absent in the
secondary bush.
After burning this piece of forest ground and loosening it with the
hoe, the native sows his corn and plants his vegetables. All over the
country, he goes in for bed-culture, which requires, and, in fact,
receives, the most careful attention. Weeds are nowhere tolerated in
the south of German East Africa. The crops may fail on the plains,
where droughts are frequent, but never on the plateau with its
abundant rains and heavy dews. Its fortunate inhabitants even have
the satisfaction of seeing the proud Wayao and Wamakua working
for them as labourers, driven by hunger to serve where they were
accustomed to rule.
But the light, sandy soil is soon exhausted, and would yield no
harvest the second year if cultivated twice running. This fact has
been familiar to the native for ages; consequently he provides in
time, and, while his crop is growing, prepares the next plot with axe
and firebrand. Next year he plants this with his various crops and
lets the first piece lie fallow. For a short time it remains waste and
desolate; then nature steps in to repair the destruction wrought by
man; a thousand new growths spring out of the exhausted soil, and
even the old stumps put forth fresh shoots. Next year the new growth
is up to one’s knees, and in a few years more it is that terrible,
impenetrable bush, which maintains its position till the black
occupier of the land has made the round of all the available sites and
come back to his starting point.
The Makonde are, body and soul, so to speak, one with this bush.
According to my Yao informants, indeed, their name means nothing
else but “bush people.” Their own tradition says that they have been
settled up here for a very long time, but to my surprise they laid great
stress on an original immigration. Their old homes were in the
south-east, near Mikindani and the mouth of the Rovuma, whence
their peaceful forefathers were driven by the continual raids of the
Sakalavas from Madagascar and the warlike Shirazis[47] of the coast,
to take refuge on the almost inaccessible plateau. I have studied
African ethnology for twenty years, but the fact that changes of
population in this apparently quiet and peaceable corner of the earth
could have been occasioned by outside enterprises taking place on
the high seas, was completely new to me. It is, no doubt, however,
correct.
The charming tribal legend of the Makonde—besides informing us
of other interesting matters—explains why they have to live in the
thickest of the bush and a long way from the edge of the plateau,
instead of making their permanent homes beside the purling brooks
and springs of the low country.
“The place where the tribe originated is Mahuta, on the southern
side of the plateau towards the Rovuma, where of old time there was
nothing but thick bush. Out of this bush came a man who never
washed himself or shaved his head, and who ate and drank but little.
He went out and made a human figure from the wood of a tree
growing in the open country, which he took home to his abode in the
bush and there set it upright. In the night this image came to life and
was a woman. The man and woman went down together to the
Rovuma to wash themselves. Here the woman gave birth to a still-
born child. They left that place and passed over the high land into the
valley of the Mbemkuru, where the woman had another child, which
was also born dead. Then they returned to the high bush country of
Mahuta, where the third child was born, which lived and grew up. In
course of time, the couple had many more children, and called
themselves Wamatanda. These were the ancestral stock of the
Makonde, also called Wamakonde,[48] i.e., aborigines. Their
forefather, the man from the bush, gave his children the command to
bury their dead upright, in memory of the mother of their race who
was cut out of wood and awoke to life when standing upright. He also
warned them against settling in the valleys and near large streams,
for sickness and death dwelt there. They were to make it a rule to
have their huts at least an hour’s walk from the nearest watering-
place; then their children would thrive and escape illness.”
The explanation of the name Makonde given by my informants is
somewhat different from that contained in the above legend, which I
extract from a little book (small, but packed with information), by
Pater Adams, entitled Lindi und sein Hinterland. Otherwise, my
results agree exactly with the statements of the legend. Washing?
Hapana—there is no such thing. Why should they do so? As it is, the
supply of water scarcely suffices for cooking and drinking; other
people do not wash, so why should the Makonde distinguish himself
by such needless eccentricity? As for shaving the head, the short,
woolly crop scarcely needs it,[49] so the second ancestral precept is
likewise easy enough to follow. Beyond this, however, there is
nothing ridiculous in the ancestor’s advice. I have obtained from
various local artists a fairly large number of figures carved in wood,
ranging from fifteen to twenty-three inches in height, and
representing women belonging to the great group of the Mavia,
Makonde, and Matambwe tribes. The carving is remarkably well
done and renders the female type with great accuracy, especially the
keloid ornamentation, to be described later on. As to the object and
meaning of their works the sculptors either could or (more probably)
would tell me nothing, and I was forced to content myself with the
scanty information vouchsafed by one man, who said that the figures
were merely intended to represent the nembo—the artificial
deformations of pelele, ear-discs, and keloids. The legend recorded
by Pater Adams places these figures in a new light. They must surely
be more than mere dolls; and we may even venture to assume that
they are—though the majority of present-day Makonde are probably
unaware of the fact—representations of the tribal ancestress.
The references in the legend to the descent from Mahuta to the
Rovuma, and to a journey across the highlands into the Mbekuru
valley, undoubtedly indicate the previous history of the tribe, the
travels of the ancestral pair typifying the migrations of their
descendants. The descent to the neighbouring Rovuma valley, with
its extraordinary fertility and great abundance of game, is intelligible
at a glance—but the crossing of the Lukuledi depression, the ascent
to the Rondo Plateau and the descent to the Mbemkuru, also lie
within the bounds of probability, for all these districts have exactly
the same character as the extreme south. Now, however, comes a
point of especial interest for our bacteriological age. The primitive
Makonde did not enjoy their lives in the marshy river-valleys.
Disease raged among them, and many died. It was only after they
had returned to their original home near Mahuta, that the health
conditions of these people improved. We are very apt to think of the
African as a stupid person whose ignorance of nature is only equalled
by his fear of it, and who looks on all mishaps as caused by evil
spirits and malignant natural powers. It is much more correct to
assume in this case that the people very early learnt to distinguish
districts infested with malaria from those where it is absent.
This knowledge is crystallized in the
ancestral warning against settling in the
valleys and near the great waters, the
dwelling-places of disease and death. At the
same time, for security against the hostile
Mavia south of the Rovuma, it was enacted
that every settlement must be not less than a
certain distance from the southern edge of the
plateau. Such in fact is their mode of life at the
present day. It is not such a bad one, and
certainly they are both safer and more
comfortable than the Makua, the recent
intruders from the south, who have made USUAL METHOD OF
good their footing on the western edge of the CLOSING HUT-DOOR
plateau, extending over a fairly wide belt of
country. Neither Makua nor Makonde show in their dwellings
anything of the size and comeliness of the Yao houses in the plain,
especially at Masasi, Chingulungulu and Zuza’s. Jumbe Chauro, a
Makonde hamlet not far from Newala, on the road to Mahuta, is the
most important settlement of the tribe I have yet seen, and has fairly
spacious huts. But how slovenly is their construction compared with
the palatial residences of the elephant-hunters living in the plain.
The roofs are still more untidy than in the general run of huts during
the dry season, the walls show here and there the scanty beginnings
or the lamentable remains of the mud plastering, and the interior is a
veritable dog-kennel; dirt, dust and disorder everywhere. A few huts
only show any attempt at division into rooms, and this consists
merely of very roughly-made bamboo partitions. In one point alone
have I noticed any indication of progress—in the method of fastening
the door. Houses all over the south are secured in a simple but
ingenious manner. The door consists of a set of stout pieces of wood
or bamboo, tied with bark-string to two cross-pieces, and moving in
two grooves round one of the door-posts, so as to open inwards. If
the owner wishes to leave home, he takes two logs as thick as a man’s
upper arm and about a yard long. One of these is placed obliquely
against the middle of the door from the inside, so as to form an angle
of from 60° to 75° with the ground. He then places the second piece
horizontally across the first, pressing it downward with all his might.
It is kept in place by two strong posts planted in the ground a few
inches inside the door. This fastening is absolutely safe, but of course
cannot be applied to both doors at once, otherwise how could the
owner leave or enter his house? I have not yet succeeded in finding
out how the back door is fastened.
MAKONDE LOCK AND KEY AT JUMBE CHAURO

This is the general way of closing a house. The Makonde at Jumbe
Chauro, however, have a much more complicated, solid and original
one. Here, too, the door is as already described, except that there is
only one post on the inside, standing by itself about six inches from
one side of the doorway. Opposite this post is a hole in the wall just
large enough to admit a man’s arm. The door is closed inside by a
large wooden bolt passing through a hole in this post and pressing
with its free end against the door. The other end has three holes into
which fit three pegs running in vertical grooves inside the post. The
door is opened with a wooden key about a foot long, somewhat
curved and sloped off at the butt; the other end has three pegs
corresponding to the holes, in the bolt, so that, when it is thrust
through the hole in the wall and inserted into the rectangular
opening in the post, the pegs can be lifted and the bolt drawn out.[50]
MODE OF INSERTING THE KEY
With no small pride first one householder and then a second

showed me on the spot the action of this greatest invention of the
Makonde Highlands. To both with an admiring exclamation of
“Vizuri sana!” (“Very fine!”). I expressed the wish to take back these
marvels with me to Ulaya, to show the Wazungu what clever fellows
the Makonde are. Scarcely five minutes after my return to camp at
Newala, the two men came up sweating under the weight of two
heavy logs which they laid down at my feet, handing over at the same
time the keys of the fallen fortress. Arguing, logically enough, that if
the key was wanted, the lock would be wanted with it, they had taken
their axes and chopped down the posts—as it never occurred to them
to dig them out of the ground and so bring them intact. Thus I have
two badly damaged specimens, and the owners, instead of praise,
come in for a blowing-up.
The Makua huts in the environs of Newala are especially
miserable; their more than slovenly construction reminds one of the
temporary erections of the Makua at Hatia’s, though the people here
have not been concerned in a war. It must therefore be due to
congenital idleness, or else to the absence of a powerful chief. Even
the baraza at Mlipa’s, a short hour’s walk south-east of Newala,
shares in this general neglect. While public buildings in this country
are usually looked after more or less carefully, this is in evident
danger of being blown over by the first strong easterly gale. The only
attractive object in this whole district is the grave of the late chief
Mlipa. I visited it in the morning, while the sun was still trying with
partial success to break through the rolling mists, and the circular
grove of tall euphorbias, which, with a broken pot, is all that marks
the old king’s resting-place, impressed one with a touch of pathos.
Even my very materially-minded carriers seemed to feel something
of the sort, for instead of their usual ribald songs, they chanted
solemnly, as we marched on through the dense green of the Makonde
bush:—
“We shall arrive with the great master; we stand in a row and have
no fear about getting our food and our money from the Serkali (the
Government). We are not afraid; we are going along with the great
master, the lion; we are going down to the coast and back.”
With regard to the characteristic features of the various tribes here
on the western edge of the plateau, I can arrive at no other
conclusion than the one already come to in the plain, viz., that it is
impossible for anyone but a trained anthropologist to assign any
given individual at once to his proper tribe. In fact, I think that even
an anthropological specialist, after the most careful examination,
might find it a difficult task to decide. The whole congeries of peoples
collected in the region bounded on the west by the great Central
African rift, Tanganyika and Nyasa, and on the east by the Indian
Ocean, are closely related to each other—some of their languages are
only distinguished from one another as dialects of the same speech,
and no doubt all the tribes present the same shape of skull and
structure of skeleton. Thus, surely, there can be no very striking
differences in outward appearance.
Even did such exist, I should have no time
to concern myself with them, for day after day,
I have to see or hear, as the case may be—in
any case to grasp and record—an
extraordinary number of ethnographic
phenomena. I am almost disposed to think it
fortunate that some departments of inquiry, at
least, are barred by external circumstances.
Chief among these is the subject of iron-
working. We are apt to think of Africa as a
country where iron ore is everywhere, so to
speak, to be picked up by the roadside, and
where it would be quite surprising if the
inhabitants had not learnt to smelt the
material ready to their hand. In fact, the
knowledge of this art ranges all over the
continent, from the Kabyles in the north to the
Kafirs in the south. Here between the Rovuma
and the Lukuledi the conditions are not so
favourable. According to the statements of the
Makonde, neither ironstone nor any other
form of iron ore is known to them. They have
not therefore advanced to the art of smelting
the metal, but have hitherto bought all their
THE ANCESTRESS OF
THE MAKONDE
iron implements from neighbouring tribes.
Even in the plain the inhabitants are not much
better off. Only one man now living is said to
understand the art of smelting iron. This old fundi lives close to
Huwe, that isolated, steep-sided block of granite which rises out of
the green solitude between Masasi and Chingulungulu, and whose
jagged and splintered top meets the traveller’s eye everywhere. While
still at Masasi I wished to see this man at work, but was told that,
frightened by the rising, he had retired across the Rovuma, though
he would soon return. All subsequent inquiries as to whether the
fundi had come back met with the genuine African answer, “Bado”
(“Not yet”).
BRAZIER
Some consolation was afforded me by a brassfounder, whom I

came across in the bush near Akundonde’s. This man is the favourite
of women, and therefore no doubt of the gods; he welds the glittering
brass rods purchased at the coast into those massive, heavy rings
which, on the wrists and ankles of the local fair ones, continually give
me fresh food for admiration. Like every decent master-craftsman he
had all his tools with him, consisting of a pair of bellows, three
crucibles and a hammer—nothing more, apparently. He was quite
willing to show his skill, and in a twinkling had fixed his bellows on
the ground. They are simply two goat-skins, taken off whole, the four
legs being closed by knots, while the upper opening, intended to
admit the air, is kept stretched by two pieces of wood. At the lower
end of the skin a smaller opening is left into which a wooden tube is
stuck. The fundi has quickly borrowed a heap of wood-embers from
the nearest hut; he then fixes the free ends of the two tubes into an
earthen pipe, and clamps them to the ground by means of a bent
piece of wood. Now he fills one of his small clay crucibles, the dross
on which shows that they have been long in use, with the yellow
material, places it in the midst of the embers, which, at present are
only faintly glimmering, and begins his work. In quick alternation
the smith’s two hands move up and down with the open ends of the
bellows; as he raises his hand he holds the slit wide open, so as to let
the air enter the skin bag unhindered. In pressing it down he closes
the bag, and the air puffs through the bamboo tube and clay pipe into
the fire, which quickly burns up. The smith, however, does not keep
on with this work, but beckons to another man, who relieves him at
the bellows, while he takes some more tools out of a large skin pouch
carried on his back. I look on in wonder as, with a smooth round
stick about the thickness of a finger, he bores a few vertical holes into
the clean sand of the soil. This should not be difficult, yet the man
seems to be taking great pains over it. Then he fastens down to the
ground, with a couple of wooden clamps, a neat little trough made by
splitting a joint of bamboo in half, so that the ends are closed by the
two knots. At last the yellow metal has attained the right consistency,
and the fundi lifts the crucible from the fire by means of two sticks
split at the end to serve as tongs. A short swift turn to the left—a
tilting of the crucible—and the molten brass, hissing and giving forth
clouds of smoke, flows first into the bamboo mould and then into the
holes in the ground.
The technique of this backwoods craftsman may not be very far
advanced, but it cannot be denied that he knows how to obtain an
adequate result by the simplest means. The ladies of highest rank in
this country—that is to say, those who can afford it, wear two kinds
of these massive brass rings, one cylindrical, the other semicircular
in section. The latter are cast in the most ingenious way in the
bamboo mould, the former in the circular hole in the sand. It is quite
a simple matter for the fundi to fit these bars to the limbs of his fair
customers; with a few light strokes of his hammer he bends the
pliable brass round arm or ankle without further inconvenience to
the wearer.
SHAPING THE POT
SMOOTHING WITH MAIZE-COB
CUTTING THE EDGE

FINISHING THE BOTTOM
LAST SMOOTHING BEFORE

BURNING
FIRING THE BRUSH-PILE

LIGHTING THE FARTHER SIDE OF
THE PILE
TURNING THE RED-HOT VESSEL
NYASA WOMAN MAKING POTS AT MASASI

Pottery is an art which must always and everywhere excite the
interest of the student, just because it is so intimately connected with
the development of human culture, and because its relics are one of
the principal factors in the reconstruction of our own condition in
prehistoric times. I shall always remember with pleasure the two or
three afternoons at Masasi when Salim Matola’s mother, a slightly-
built, graceful, pleasant-looking woman, explained to me with
touching patience, by means of concrete illustrations, the ceramic art
of her people. The only implements for this primitive process were a
lump of clay in her left hand, and in the right a calabash containing
the following valuables: the fragment of a maize-cob stripped of all
its grains, a smooth, oval pebble, about the size of a pigeon’s egg, a
few chips of gourd-shell, a bamboo splinter about the length of one’s
hand, a small shell, and a bunch of some herb resembling spinach.
Nothing more. The woman scraped with the
shell a round, shallow hole in the soft, fine
sand of the soil, and, when an active young
girl had filled the calabash with water for her,
she began to knead the clay. As if by magic it
gradually assumed the shape of a rough but
already well-shaped vessel, which only wanted
a little touching up with the instruments
before mentioned. I looked out with the
MAKUA WOMAN closest attention for any indication of the use
MAKING A POT. of the potter’s wheel, in however rudimentary
SHOWS THE a form, but no—hapana (there is none). The
BEGINNINGS OF THE embryo pot stood firmly in its little
POTTER’S WHEEL
depression, and the woman walked round it in
a stooping posture, whether she was removing
small stones or similar foreign bodies with the maize-cob, smoothing
the inner or outer surface with the splinter of bamboo, or later, after
letting it dry for a day, pricking in the ornamentation with a pointed
bit of gourd-shell, or working out the bottom, or cutting the edge
with a sharp bamboo knife, or giving the last touches to the finished
vessel. This occupation of the women is infinitely toilsome, but it is
without doubt an accurate reproduction of the process in use among
our ancestors of the Neolithic and Bronze ages.
There is no doubt that the invention of pottery, an item in human
progress whose importance cannot be over-estimated, is due to
women. Rough, coarse and unfeeling, the men of the horde range
over the countryside. When the united cunning of the hunters has
succeeded in killing the game; not one of them thinks of carrying
home the spoil. A bright fire, kindled by a vigorous wielding of the
drill, is crackling beside them; the animal has been cleaned and cut
up secundum artem, and, after a slight singeing, will soon disappear
under their sharp teeth; no one all this time giving a single thought
to wife or child.
To what shifts, on the other hand, the primitive wife, and still more
the primitive mother, was put! Not even prehistoric stomachs could
endure an unvarying diet of raw food. Something or other suggested
the beneficial effect of hot water on the majority of approved but
indigestible dishes. Perhaps a neighbour had tried holding the hard
roots or tubers over the fire in a calabash filled with water—or maybe
an ostrich-egg-shell, or a hastily improvised vessel of bark. They
became much softer and more palatable than they had previously
been; but, unfortunately, the vessel could not stand the fire and got
charred on the outside. That can be remedied, thought our
ancestress, and plastered a layer of wet clay round a similar vessel.
This is an improvement; the cooking utensil remains uninjured, but
the heat of the fire has shrunk it, so that it is loose in its shell. The
next step is to detach it, so, with a firm grip and a jerk, shell and
kernel are separated, and pottery is invented. Perhaps, however, the
discovery which led to an intelligent use of the burnt-clay shell, was
made in a slightly different way. Ostrich-eggs and calabashes are not
to be found in every part of the world, but everywhere mankind has
arrived at the art of making baskets out of pliant materials, such as
bark, bast, strips of palm-leaf, supple twigs, etc. Our inventor has no
water-tight vessel provided by nature. “Never mind, let us line the
basket with clay.” This answers the purpose, but alas! the basket gets
burnt over the blazing fire, the woman watches the process of
cooking with increasing uneasiness, fearing a leak, but no leak
appears. The food, done to a turn, is eaten with peculiar relish; and
the cooking-vessel is examined, half in curiosity, half in satisfaction
at the result. The plastic clay is now hard as stone, and at the same
time looks exceedingly well, for the neat plaiting of the burnt basket
is traced all over it in a pretty pattern. Thus, simultaneously with
pottery, its ornamentation was invented.
Primitive woman has another claim to respect. It was the man,
roving abroad, who invented the art of producing fire at will, but the
woman, unable to imitate him in this, has been a Vestal from the
earliest times. Nothing gives so much trouble as the keeping alight of
the smouldering brand, and, above all, when all the men are absent
from the camp. Heavy rain-clouds gather, already the first large
drops are falling, the first gusts of the storm rage over the plain. The
little flame, a greater anxiety to the woman than her own children,
flickers unsteadily in the blast. What is to be done? A sudden thought
occurs to her, and in an instant she has constructed a primitive hut
out of strips of bark, to protect the flame against rain and wind.
This, or something very like it, was the way in which the principle
of the house was discovered; and even the most hardened misogynist
cannot fairly refuse a woman the credit of it. The protection of the
hearth-fire from the weather is the germ from which the human
dwelling was evolved. Men had little, if any share, in this forward
step, and that only at a late stage. Even at the present day, the
plastering of the housewall with clay and the manufacture of pottery
are exclusively the women’s business. These are two very significant
survivals. Our European kitchen-garden, too, is originally a woman’s
invention, and the hoe, the primitive instrument of agriculture, is,
characteristically enough, still used in this department. But the
noblest achievement which we owe to the other sex is unquestionably
the art of cookery. Roasting alone—the oldest process—is one for
which men took the hint (a very obvious one) from nature. It must
have been suggested by the scorched carcase of some animal
overtaken by the destructive forest-fires. But boiling—the process of
improving organic substances by the help of water heated to boiling-
point—is a much later discovery. It is so recent that it has not even
yet penetrated to all parts of the world. The Polynesians understand
how to steam food, that is, to cook it, neatly wrapped in leaves, in a
hole in the earth between hot stones, the air being excluded, and
(sometimes) a few drops of water sprinkled on the stones; but they
do not understand boiling.
To come back from this digression, we find that the slender Nyasa
woman has, after once more carefully examining the finished pot,
put it aside in the shade to dry. On the following day she sends me
word by her son, Salim Matola, who is always on hand, that she is
going to do the burning, and, on coming out of my house, I find her
already hard at work. She has spread on the ground a layer of very
dry sticks, about as thick as one’s thumb, has laid the pot (now of a
yellowish-grey colour) on them, and is piling brushwood round it.
My faithful Pesa mbili, the mnyampara, who has been standing by,
most obligingly, with a lighted stick, now hands it to her. Both of
them, blowing steadily, light the pile on the lee side, and, when the
flame begins to catch, on the weather side also. Soon the whole is in a
blaze, but the dry fuel is quickly consumed and the fire dies down, so
that we see the red-hot vessel rising from the ashes. The woman
turns it continually with a long stick, sometimes one way and
sometimes another, so that it may be evenly heated all over. In
twenty minutes she rolls it out of the ash-heap, takes up the bundle
of spinach, which has been lying for two days in a jar of water, and
sprinkles the red-hot clay with it. The places where the drops fall are
marked by black spots on the uniform reddish-brown surface. With a
sigh of relief, and with visible satisfaction, the woman rises to an
erect position; she is standing just in a line between me and the fire,
from which a cloud of smoke is just rising: I press the ball of my
camera, the shutter clicks—the apotheosis is achieved! Like a
priestess, representative of her inventive sex, the graceful woman
stands: at her feet the hearth-fire she has given us beside her the
invention she has devised for us, in the background the home she has
built for us.
At Newala, also, I have had the manufacture of pottery carried on
in my presence. Technically the process is better than that already
described, for here we find the beginnings of the potter’s wheel,
which does not seem to exist in the plains; at least I have seen
nothing of the sort. The artist, a frightfully stupid Makua woman, did
not make a depression in the ground to receive the pot she was about
to shape, but used instead a large potsherd. Otherwise, she went to
work in much the same way as Salim’s mother, except that she saved
herself the trouble of walking round and round her work by squatting
at her ease and letting the pot and potsherd rotate round her; this is
surely the first step towards a machine. But it does not follow that
the pot was improved by the process. It is true that it was beautifully
rounded and presented a very creditable appearance when finished,
but the numerous large and small vessels which I have seen, and, in
part, collected, in the “less advanced” districts, are no less so. We
moderns imagine that instruments of precision are necessary to
produce excellent results. Go to the prehistoric collections of our
museums and look at the pots, urns and bowls of our ancestors in the
dim ages of the past, and you will at once perceive your error.
MAKING LONGITUDINAL CUT IN
BARK
DRAWING THE BARK OFF THE LOG
REMOVING THE OUTER BARK

BEATING THE BARK
WORKING THE BARK-CLOTH AFTER BEATING, TO MAKE IT

SOFT
MANUFACTURE OF BARK-CLOTH AT NEWALA

To-day, nearly the whole population of German East Africa is
clothed in imported calico. This was not always the case; even now in
some parts of the north dressed skins are still the prevailing wear,
and in the north-western districts—east and north of Lake
Tanganyika—lies a zone where bark-cloth has not yet been
superseded. Probably not many generations have passed since such
bark fabrics and kilts of skins were the only clothing even in the
south. Even to-day, large quantities of this bright-red or drab
material are still to be found; but if we wish to see it, we must look in
the granaries and on the drying stages inside the native huts, where
it serves less ambitious uses as wrappings for those seeds and fruits
which require to be packed with special care. The salt produced at
Masasi, too, is packed for transport to a distance in large sheets of
bark-cloth. Wherever I found it in any degree possible, I studied the
process of making this cloth. The native requisitioned for the
purpose arrived, carrying a log between two and three yards long and
as thick as his thigh, and nothing else except a curiously-shaped
mallet and the usual long, sharp and pointed knife which all men and
boys wear in a belt at their backs without a sheath—horribile dictu!
[51]
Silently he squats down before me, and with two rapid cuts has
drawn a couple of circles round the log some two yards apart, and
slits the bark lengthwise between them with the point of his knife.
With evident care, he then scrapes off the outer rind all round the
log, so that in a quarter of an hour the inner red layer of the bark
shows up brightly-coloured between the two untouched ends. With
some trouble and much caution, he now loosens the bark at one end,
and opens the cylinder. He then stands up, takes hold of the free
edge with both hands, and turning it inside out, slowly but steadily
pulls it off in one piece. Now comes the troublesome work of
scraping all superfluous particles of outer bark from the outside of
the long, narrow piece of material, while the inner side is carefully
scrutinised for defective spots. At last it is ready for beating. Having
signalled to a friend, who immediately places a bowl of water beside
him, the artificer damps his sheet of bark all over, seizes his mallet,
lays one end of the stuff on the smoothest spot of the log, and
hammers away slowly but continuously. “Very simple!” I think to
myself. “Why, I could do that, too!”—but I am forced to change my
opinions a little later on; for the beating is quite an art, if the fabric is
not to be beaten to pieces. To prevent the breaking of the fibres, the
stuff is several times folded across, so as to interpose several
thicknesses between the mallet and the block. At last the required
state is reached, and the fundi seizes the sheet, still folded, by both
ends, and wrings it out, or calls an assistant to take one end while he
holds the other. The cloth produced in this way is not nearly so fine
and uniform in texture as the famous Uganda bark-cloth, but it is
quite soft, and, above all, cheap.
Now, too, I examine the mallet. My craftsman has been using the
simpler but better form of this implement, a conical block of some
hard wood, its base—the striking surface—being scored across and
across with more or less deeply-cut grooves, and the handle stuck
into a hole in the middle. The other and earlier form of mallet is
shaped in the same way, but the head is fastened by an ingenious
network of bark strips into the split bamboo serving as a handle. The
observation so often made, that ancient customs persist longest in
connection with religious ceremonies and in the life of children, here
finds confirmation. As we shall soon see, bark-cloth is still worn
during the unyago,[52] having been prepared with special solemn
ceremonies; and many a mother, if she has no other garment handy,
will still put her little one into a kilt of bark-cloth, which, after all,
looks better, besides being more in keeping with its African
surroundings, than the ridiculous bit of print from Ulaya.
MAKUA WOMEN

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eTextbook 978-1305965799 Differential

Equations with Boundary-Value

assignments and applications, MindTap is a digital learning solution and

REVIEWERS OF PAST EDITIONS

Terry Herdman, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University

1.1 Definitions and Terminology

A Definition The equation that we made up in (1) is called a differential

DEFINITION 1.1.1 Differential Equation

ClAssifiCAtion by type If a differential equation contains only ordinary

ExamplE 1 Types of Differential Equations

(b) The following equations are partial differential equations:*

notAtion Throughout this text ordinary derivatives will be written by using

it is immediately seen that the symbol x now represents a dependent variable,

ClAssifiCAtion by orDer The order of a differential equation (either ODE

second order first order

is a second-order ordinary differential equation. In Example 1, the first and third

ExamplE 2 Differential Form of a First-Order ODE

(a) By dividing by the differential dx an alternative form of the equation

(b) By multiplying the differential equation

In symbols we can express an nth-order ordinary differential equation in one

ExamplE 3 Normal Form of an ODE

ClAssifiCAtion by lineArity An nth-order ordinary differential equation (4)

ExamplE 4 Linear and Nonlinear ODEs

(b) The equations

nonlinear term: nonlinear term: nonlinear term:

DEFINITION 1.1.2 solution of an ODE

In other words, a solution of an nth-order ordinary differential equation (4) is a

F(x, (x), 9(x), . . . , (n)(x)) 5 0 for all x in I.

intervAl of Definition You cannot think solution of an ordinary differential

ExamplE 5 Verification of a Solution

(b) From the derivatives y9 = xe x + e x and y0 = xe x + 2e x we have, for every real

left { hand side: y0 2 2y9 1 y 5 (xe x 1 2e x ) 2 2(xe x 1 e x ) 1 xe x 5 0,

y solution Curve The graph of a solution f of an ODE is called a solution

ExamplE 6 Function versus Solution

DEFINITION 1.1.3 Implicit solution of an ODE

ExamplE 7 Verification of an Implicit Solution

on the open interval (−5, 5). By implicit differentiation we obtain

(a) implicit solution (b) explicit solution (c) explicit solution

Because the distinction between an explicit solution and an implicit solution

fAmilies of solutions The study of differential equations is similar to

Sometimes a differential equation possesses a solution that is not a member of

ExamplE 9 Using Different Symbols

The next example shows that a solution of a differential equation can be a

in theory, as well as in many applications, we must deal with systems of differ-

A solution of a system such as (10) is a pair of differentiable functions x = f 1(t),

If the integrand g in (11) is continuous on an interval [a, b] and a # x # b, then

The integral in (11) is often nonelementary, that is, an integral of a function g

constant, polynomial, rational, exponential, logarithmic, trigonometric,

ExErcIsEs 1.1 Answers to selected odd-numbered problems begin on page ANS-1.

dy 6 6 29. Verify that the piecewise-defined function

dP c1et In Problems 41 and 42 verify that the indicated pair of functions is a

y 5 c1x21 1 c2x 1 c3x ln x 1 4x2

1.2 Initial-Value Problems

ExamplE 1 Two First-Order IVPs

FIgURE 1.2.3 Solution curves of two y9 5 y, y(1) 5 22.

ExamplE 2 Interval I of Definition of a Solution

See Problems 3 – 6 in Exercises 1.2 for a continuation of Example 2.

FIgURE 1.2.4 Graphs of function and

sOlUTION We first apply x(py2) = −2 to the given family of solutions: c1 cos 2p +

existenCe AnD uniqueness Two fundamental questions arise in considering

5 passing through the point (x , y )?

ExamplE 4 An IVP Can Have Several Solutions

THEOREm 1.2.1 Existence of a Unique solution

F(x, (x), 9(x), . . . , (n)(x)) 5 0 for all x in I.

y(1) 5 0, y(5) 5 0 or y(y2) 5 0, y9() 5 1