Etextbook 978 1337275378 Multivariable Calculus

eTextbook 978-1337275378
Multivariable Calculus
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iv Contents
14 Multiple Integration 969

14.1 Iterated Integrals and Area in the Plane 970
14.2 Double Integrals and Volume 978
14.3 Change of Variables: Polar Coordinates 990
14.4 Center of Mass and Moments of Inertia 998
Section Project: Center of Pressure on a Sail 1005
14.5 Surface Area 1006
Section Project: Surface Area in Polar Coordinates 1012
14.6 Triple Integrals and Applications 1013
14.7 Triple Integrals in Other Coordinates 1024
Section Project: Wrinkled and Bumpy Spheres 1030
14.8 Change of Variables: Jacobians 1031
Review Exercises 1038
P.S. Problem Solving 1041
15 Vector Analysis 1043
15.1 Vector Fields 1044
15.2 Line Integrals 1055
15.3 Conservative Vector Fields and Independence of Path 1069
15.4 Green’s Theorem 1079
Section Project: Hyperbolic and Trigonometric Functions 1087
15.5 Parametric Surfaces 1088
15.6 Surface Integrals 1098
Section Project: Hyperboloid of One Sheet 1109
15.7 Divergence Theorem 1110
15.8 Stokes’s Theorem 1118
16 Additional Topics in Differential Equations 1129

16.1 Exact First-Order Equations 1130
16.2 Second-Order Homogeneous Linear Equations 1137
16.3 Second-Order Nonhomogeneous Linear Equations 1145
Section Project: Parachute Jump 1152
16.4 Series Solutions of Differential Equations 1153
Contents v
Appendices
Appendix A: Proofs of Selected Theorems A2
Appendix B: Integration Tables A3
Appendix C: Precalculus Review (Online)*
Appendix D: Rotation and the General Second-Degree
Equation (Online)*
Appendix E: Complex Numbers (Online)*
Appendix F: Business and Economic Applications (Online)*
Appendix G: Fitting Models to Data (Online)*
Answers to All Odd-Numbered Exercises A89

Index A125
*Available at the text-specific website www.cengagebrain.com
Preface
Welcome to Calculus, Eleventh Edition. We are excited to offer you a new edition with even more
resources that will help you understand and master calculus. This textbook includes features and
resources that continue to make Calculus a valuable learning tool for students and a trustworthy
teaching tool for instructors.
Calculus provides the clear instruction, precise mathematics, and thorough coverage that you expect
for your course. Additionally, this new edition provides you with free access to three companion websites:
• CalcView.com––video solutions to selected exercises

• CalcChat.com––worked-out solutions to odd-numbered exercises and access to online tutors
• LarsonCalculus.com––companion website with resources to supplement your learning
These websites will help enhance and reinforce your understanding of the material presented in
this text and prepare you for future mathematics courses. CalcView® and CalcChat® are also
available as free mobile apps.
Features
NEW ®
The website CalcView.com contains video
solutions of selected exercises. Watch
instructors progress step-by-step through
solutions, providing guidance to help you
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is available for free at the Apple® App Store®
or Google Play™ store. The app features an
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UPDATED ®
In each exercise set, be sure to notice the reference to
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vi
Preface vii
REVISED LarsonCalculus.com
All companion website features have been updated based on this revision. Watch videos explaining
concepts or proofs from the book, explore examples, view three-dimensional graphs, download articles
from math journals, and much more.
NEW Conceptual Exercises

The Concept Check exercises and Exploring Concepts exercises appear in each section. These
exercises will help you develop a deeper and clearer knowledge of calculus. Work through these
exercises to build and strengthen your understanding of the calculus concepts and to prepare you for
the rest of the section exercises.
REVISED Exercise Sets

The exercise sets have been carefully and extensively examined to ensure they are rigorous and
relevant and to include topics our users have suggested. The exercises are organized and titled
so you can better see the connections between examples and exercises. Multi-step, real-life exercises
reinforce problem-solving skills and mastery of concepts by giving you the opportunity to apply the
concepts in real-life situations.
REVISED Section Projects

Projects appear in selected sections and encourage you to explore applications related to the topics
you are studying. We have added new projects, revised others, and kept some of our favorites.
All of these projects provide an interesting and engaging way for you and other students to work
and investigate ideas collaboratively.
How Do You See It? Exercise

The How Do You See It? exercise in each section presents 56. HOW DO YOU SEE IT? Each figure shows
a problem that you will solve by visual inspection using the a region of integration for the double integral
concepts learned in the lesson. This exercise is excellent for ∫R∫ f (x, y) dA. For each region, state whether
horizontal representative elements, vertical
classroom discussion or test preparation.
representative elements, or polar sectors would
yield the easiest method for obtaining the limits
Applications of integration. Explain your reasoning.
Carefully chosen applied exercises and examples are included
(a) (b) (c)
throughout to address the question, “When will I use this?” y y y
These applications are pulled from diverse sources, such as
current events, world data, industry trends, and more, and
R
relate to a wide range of interests. Understanding where
R R
calculus is (or can be) used promotes fuller understanding of
the material. x x x
viii Preface
Chapter Opener
Each Chapter Opener highlights real-life 166 Chapter 3 Applications of Differentiation
applications used in the examples and exercises. 3.1 Extrema on an Interval

Understand the definition of extrema of a function on an interval.
Section Objectives Understand the definition of relative extrema of a function on an open interval.
Find extrema on a closed interval.
A bulleted list of learning objectives provides
Extrema of a Function
you with the opportunity to preview what will In calculus, much effort is devoted to determining the behavior of a function f on an
be presented in the upcoming section. interval I. Does f have a maximum value on I? Does it have a minimum value? Where
is the function increasing? Where is it decreasing? In this chapter, you will learn
how derivatives can be used to answer these questions. You will also see why these
questions are important in real-life applications.
Theorems y
Theorems provide the conceptual framework 5 (2, 5) Maximum Definition of Extrema

Let f be defined on an interval I containing c.
for calculus. Theorems are clearly stated and 4 f(x) = x 2 + 1
1. f (c) is the minimum of f on I when f (c) ≤ f (x) for all x in I.
3
separated from the rest of the text by boxes 2
2. f (c) is the maximum of f on I when f (c) ≥ f (x) for all x in I.
The minimum and maximum of a function on an interval are the extreme
for quick visual reference. Key proofs often (0, 1) Minimum values, or extrema (the singular form of extrema is extremum), of the function
on the interval. The minimum and maximum of a function on an interval are
follow the theorem and can be found at −1 1 2 3
x
also called the absolute minimum and absolute maximum, or the global
minimum and global maximum, on the interval. Extrema can occur at interior
LarsonCalculus.com. (a) f is continuous, [−1, 2] is closed.
points or endpoints of an interval (see Figure 3.1). Extrema that occur at the
y endpoints are called endpoint extrema.
5
Not a
Definitions 4
maximum
f(x) = x 2 + 1
A function need not have a minimum or a maximum on an interval. For instance, in
Figures 3.1(a) and (b), you can see that the function f (x) = x2 + 1 has both a minimum
As with theorems, definitions are clearly stated 3
and a maximum on the closed interval [−1, 2] but does not have a maximum on the
2 open interval (−1, 2). Moreover, in Figure 3.1(c), you can see that continuity (or the
using precise, formal wording and are separated lack of it) can affect the existence of an extremum on the interval. This suggests the
(0, 1) Minimum theorem below. (Although the Extreme Value Theorem is intuitively plausible, a proof
from the text by boxes for quick visual reference. −1 1 2 3
x of this theorem is not within the scope of this text.)
(b) f is continuous, (−1, 2) is open.
Explorations
THEOREM 3.1 The Extreme Value Theorem
y
If f is continuous on a closed interval [a, b], then f has both a minimum and a
Maximum maximum on the interval.
Explorations provide unique challenges to 5
4
(2, 5)
study concepts that have not yet been formally 3

g(x) = x 2 + 1, x ≠ 0
2, x=0
Exploration
covered in the text. They allow you to learn by 2
Finding Minimum and Maximum Values The Extreme Value Theorem (like
Not a
discovery and introduce topics related to ones minimum
x
the Intermediate Value Theorem) is an existence theorem because it tells of the
existence of minimum and maximum values but does not show how to find
presently being studied. Exploring topics in this −1 1 2 3
(c) g is not continuous, [−1, 2] is closed.

these values. Use the minimum and maximum features of a graphing utility to
find the extrema of each function. In each case, do you think the x-values are
way encourages you to think outside the box. Figure 3.1 exact or approximate? Explain your reasoning.
a. f (x) = x2 − 4x + 5 on the closed interval [−1, 3]
b. f (x) = x3 − 2x2 − 3x − 2 on the closed interval [−1, 3]
Remarks
These hints and tips reinforce or expand upon
concepts, help you learn how to study
mathematics, caution you about common errors, 9781337275347_0301.indd 166 9/15/16 12:48 PM
address special cases, or show alternative or

additional steps to a solution of an example.
Historical Notes and Biographies

Historical Notes provide you with background information on the foundations of calculus.
The Biographies introduce you to the people who created and contributed to calculus.
Technology
Throughout the book, technology boxes show you how to use technology to solve problems
and explore concepts of calculus. These tips also point out some pitfalls of using technology.
Putnam Exam Challenges

Putnam Exam questions appear in selected sections. These actual Putnam Exam questions will
challenge you and push the limits of your understanding of calculus.
Student Resources
Student Solutions Manual for Multivariable Calculus
ISBN-13: 978-1-337-27539-2
Need a leg up on your homework or help to prepare for an exam? The Student
Solutions Manual contains worked-out solutions for all odd-numbered exercises. This
manual is a great resource to help you understand how to solve those tough problems.
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ix
Instructor Resources
Complete Solutions Manual for Multivariable Calculus
ISBN-13: 978-1-337-27542-2
The Complete Solutions Manual contains worked-out solutions to all exercises
in the text. It is posted on the instructor companion website.
Instructor’s Resource Guide (on instructor companion site)

This robust manual contains an abundance of instructor resources keyed to the
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x
Acknowledgments
We would like to thank the many people who have helped us at various stages of
Calculus over the last 43 years. Their encouragement, criticisms, and suggestions
have been invaluable.
Reviewers
Stan Adamski, Owens Community College; Tilak de Alwis; Darry Andrews;
Alexander Arhangelskii, Ohio University; Seth G. Armstrong, Southern Utah
University; Jim Ball, Indiana State University; Denis Bell, University of Northern
Florida; Marcelle Bessman, Jacksonville University; Abraham Biggs, Broward
Community College; Jesse Blosser, Eastern Mennonite School; Linda A. Bolte,
Eastern Washington University; James Braselton, Georgia Southern University;
Harvey Braverman, Middlesex County College; Mark Brittenham, University of
Nebraska; Tim Chappell, Penn Valley Community College; Mingxiang Chen, North
Carolina A&T State University; Oiyin Pauline Chow, Harrisburg Area Community
College; Julie M. Clark, Hollins University; P.S. Crooke, Vanderbilt University;
Jim Dotzler, Nassau Community College; Murray Eisenberg, University of
Massachusetts at Amherst; Donna Flint, South Dakota State University;
Michael Frantz, University of La Verne; David French, Tidewater Community College;
Sudhir Goel, Valdosta State University; Arek Goetz, San Francisco State University;
Donna J. Gorton, Butler County Community College; John Gosselin, University of
Georgia; Arran Hamm; Shahryar Heydari, Piedmont College; Guy Hogan, Norfolk
State University; Marcia Kleinz, Atlantic Cape Community College; Ashok Kumar,
Valdosta State University; Kevin J. Leith, Albuquerque Community College;
Maxine Lifshitz, Friends Academy; Douglas B. Meade, University of South Carolina;
Bill Meisel, Florida State College at Jacksonville; Shahrooz Moosavizadeh;
Teri Murphy, University of Oklahoma; Darren Narayan, Rochester Institute of
Technology; Susan A. Natale, The Ursuline School, NY; Martha Nega, Georgia
Perimeter College; Sam Pearsall, Los Angeles Pierce College; Terence H. Perciante,
Wheaton College; James Pommersheim, Reed College; Laura Ritter, Southern
Polytechnic State University; Leland E. Rogers, Pepperdine University;
Paul Seeburger, Monroe Community College; Edith A. Silver, Mercer County
Community College; Howard Speier, Chandler-Gilbert Community College;
Desmond Stephens, Florida A&M University; Jianzhong Su, University of Texas at
Arlington; Patrick Ward, Illinois Central College; Chia-Lin Wu, Richard Stockton
College of New Jersey; Diane M. Zych, Erie Community College
Many thanks to Robert Hostetler, The Behrend College, The Pennsylvania State
University, and David Heyd, The Behrend College, The Pennsylvania State University,
for their significant contributions to previous editions of this text.
We would also like to thank the staff at Larson Texts, Inc., who assisted in preparing
the manuscript, rendering the art package, typesetting, and proofreading the pages and
supplements.
On a personal level, we are grateful to our wives, Deanna Gilbert Larson and
Consuelo Edwards, for their love, patience, and support. Also, a special note of thanks
goes out to R. Scott O’Neil.
If you have suggestions for improving this text, please feel free to write to us. Over
the years we have received many useful comments from both instructors and students,
and we value these very much.
Ron Larson
Bruce Edwards
xi
11 Vectors and the
Geometry of Space
11.1 Vectors in the Plane
11.2 Space Coordinates and Vectors in Space
11.3 The Dot Product of Two Vectors
11.4 The Cross Product of Two Vectors in Space
11.5 Lines and Planes in Space
11.6 Surfaces in Space
11.7 Cylindrical and Spherical Coordinates
Geography (Exercise 47, p. 807)
Modeling Data
(Exercise 105, p. 796)
Work (Exercise 62, p. 778)
Auditorium Lights
(Exercise 99, p. 769)
Navigation (Exercise 84, p. 761)

751
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752 Chapter 11 Vectors and the Geometry of Space
11.1 Vectors in the Plane

Write the component form of a vector.
Perform vector operations and interpret the results geometrically.
Write a vector as a linear combination of standard unit vectors.
Component Form of a Vector

Q Many quantities in geometry and physics, such as area, volume, temperature, mass, and
Terminal time, can be characterized by a single real number that is scaled to appropriate units of
point measure. These are called scalar quantities, and the real number associated with each
P PQ is called a scalar.
Initial Other quantities, such as force, velocity, and acceleration, involve both magnitude
point and direction and cannot be characterized completely by a single real number. A directed
A directed line segment line segment is used to represent such a quantity, as shown in Figure 11.1. The
\
Figure 11.1 directed line segment PQ has initial point P and terminal point Q, and its length (or
\
magnitude) is denoted by PQ . Directed line segments that have the same length and
direction are equivalent, as shown in Figure 11.2. The set of all directed line segments
\
that are equivalent to a given directed line segment PQ is a vector in the plane and is
denoted by
\
v = PQ .
In typeset material, vectors are usually denoted by lowercase, boldface letters such as
u, v, and w. When written by hand, however, vectors are often denoted by letters with
arrows above them, such as → u, →v , and →
w.
Equivalent directed line segments Be sure you understand that a vector represents a set of directed line segments
Figure 11.2 (each having the same length and direction). In practice, however, it is common not to
distinguish between a vector and one of its representatives.
Vector Representation: Directed Line Segments

Let v be represented by the directed line segment from (0, 0) to (3, 2), and let u be
represented by the directed line segment from (1, 2) to (4, 4). Show that v and u are
equivalent.
Solution Let P(0, 0) and Q(3, 2) be the initial and terminal points of v, and let
R(1, 2) and S(4, 4) be the initial and terminal points of u, as shown in Figure 11.3. You
\ \
can use the Distance Formula to show that PQ and RS have the same length.
\
PQ = √(3 − 0)2 + (2 − 0)2 = √13

\
RS = √(4 − 1)2 + (4 − 2)2 = √13

y
Both line segments have the same direction,
because they both are directed toward the 4
(4, 4)
S
upper right on lines having the same slope.
\ 2−0 2 3
u
Slope of PQ = =
3−0 3
(1, 2) (3, 2)
2 Q
and R
\ 4−2 2 v
Slope of RS = = 1
4−1 3
\ \
Because PQ and RS have the same length P (0, 0) 1

x
2 3 4
and direction, you can conclude that the two
vectors are equivalent. That is, v and u are The vectors u and v are equivalent.
equivalent. Figure 11.3
11.1 Vectors in the Plane 753
y
The directed line segment whose initial point is the origin is often the most
convenient representative of a set of equivalent directed line segments such as those
4
shown in Figure 11.3. This representation of v is said to be in standard position. A
directed line segment whose initial point is the origin can be uniquely represented by
3 the coordinates of its terminal point Q(v1, v2 ), as shown in Figure 11.4. In the next
(v1, v2) definition, note the difference in the notation between the component form of a vector
2 Q v = 〈v1, v2 〉 and the point (v1, v2).
1 v
v = 〈 v1, v2 〉 Definition of Component Form of a Vector in the Plane
(0, 0)
P
x If v is a vector in the plane whose initial point is the origin and whose terminal
1 2 3 4
point is (v1, v2 ), then the component form of v is v = 〈v1, v2 〉. The coordinates
A vector in standard position v1 and v2 are called the components of v. If both the initial point and the
Figure 11.4 terminal point lie at the origin, then v is called the zero vector and is denoted
by 0 = 〈0, 0〉.
This definition implies that two vectors u = 〈u1, u2 〉 and v = 〈v1, v2 〉 are equal if
and only if u1 = v1 and u2 = v2.
The procedures listed below can be used to convert directed line segments to
component form or vice versa.
1. If P( p1, p2) and Q(q1, q2) are the initial and terminal points of a directed line \
segment, then the component form of the vector v represented by PQ is

〈v1, v2 〉 = 〈q1 − p1, q2 − p2 〉.
Moreover, from the Distance Formula, you can see that the length (or magnitude)
of v is
v = √(q1 − p1)2 + (q2 − p2)2 Length of a vector

= √v12 + v22.
2. If v = 〈v1, v2 〉, then v can be represented by the directed line segment, in standard

position, from P(0, 0) to Q(v1, v2).
The length of v is also called the norm of v. If v = 1, then v is a unit vector.
Moreover, v = 0 if and only if v is the zero vector 0.
y Component Form and Length of a Vector
Q (− 2, 5) 6 Find the component form and length of the vector v that has initial point (3, −7) and
terminal point (−2, 5).
4
Solution Let P(3, −7) = ( p1, p2) and Q(−2, 5) = (q1, q2 ). Then the components
of v = 〈v1, v2 〉 are
x
−6 −4 −2 2 4 6 v1 = q1 − p1 = −2 − 3 = −5
−2
v and
−4
v2 = q2 − p2 = 5 − (−7) = 12.
−6
P (3, − 7)
So, as shown in Figure 11.5, v = 〈−5, 12〉, and the length of v is
−8
v = √(−5)2 + 122
Component form of v: v = 〈−5, 12〉 = √169
Figure 11.5 = 13.
Vector Operations
Definitions of Vector Addition and Scalar Multiplication

Let u = 〈u1, u2 〉 and v = 〈v1, v2 〉 be vectors and let c be a scalar.
1. The vector sum of u and v is the vector u + v = 〈u1 + v1, u2 + v2 〉.
2. The scalar multiple of c and u is the vector
cu = 〈cu1, cu2 〉.
3. The negative of v is the vector
1 3
v − v
v 2 2v −v 2 −v = (−1)v = 〈−v1, −v2 〉.
4. The difference of u and v is
u − v = u + (−v) = 〈u1 − v1, u2 − v2 〉.
Geometrically, the scalar multiple of a vector v and a scalar c is the vector that is
The scalar multiplication of v ∣∣
c times as long as v, as shown in Figure 11.6. If c is positive, then cv has the same
Figure 11.6 direction as v. If c is negative, then cv has the opposite direction.
The sum of two vectors can be represented geometrically by positioning the
vectors (without changing their magnitudes or directions) so that the initial point of
one coincides with the terminal point of the other, as shown in Figure 11.7. The vector
u + v, called the resultant vector, is the diagonal of a parallelogram having u and v
as its adjacent sides.
u+v
u u u+v
u
v v
To find u + v, (1) move the initial point of v (2) move the initial point of u
to the terminal point of u, or to the terminal point of v.
Figure 11.7
WILLIAM ROWAN HAMILTON
(1805–1865)
Figure 11.8 shows the equivalence of the geometric and algebraic definitions
Some of the earliest work with
vectors was done by the Irish
of vector addition and scalar multiplication and presents (at far right) a geometric
mathematician William Rowan interpretation of u − v.
Hamilton. Hamilton spent many
years developing a system of (ku1, ku2)
vector-like quantities called
quaternions. It was not until the (u1 + v1, u2 + v2)
latter half of the nineteenth (u1, u2)
ku
century that the Scottish u+v ku2 −v
physicist James Maxwell u u2 u u−v
(u1, u2)
(1831–1879) restructured u u2
Hamilton’s quaternions in a (v1, v2) u + (−v) v
form useful for representing v v2
u1
physical quantities such as v1 u1
force, velocity, and acceleration. ku1
See LarsonCalculus.com to read
more of this biography. Vector addition Scalar multiplication Vector subtraction
Figure 11.8
The Granger Collection, NYC
Vector Operations
For v = 〈−2, 5〉 and w = 〈3, 4〉, find each of the vectors.
a. 12 v b. w − v c. v + 2w
Solution
a. 12 v = 〈 12 (−2), 12 (5)〉 = 〈 −1, 52〉
b. w − v = 〈w1 − v1, w2 − v2 〉
= 〈3 − (−2), 4 − 5〉
= 〈5, −1〉
c. Using 2w = 〈6, 8〉, you have
v + 2w = 〈−2, 5〉 + 〈6, 8〉
= 〈−2 + 6, 5 + 8〉
= 〈4, 13〉.
Vector addition and scalar multiplication share many properties of ordinary

arithmetic, as shown in the next theorem.
THEOREM 11.1 Properties of Vector Operations

Let u, v, and w be vectors in the plane, and let c and d be scalars.
1. u+v=v+u Commutative Property
2. (u + v) + w = u + (v + w) Associative Property
3. u+0=u Additive Identity Property
4. u + (−u) = 0 Additive Inverse Property
5. c(du) = (cd)u
6. (c + d)u = cu + du Distributive Property
EMMY NOETHER (1882–1935) 7. c(u + v) = cu + cv Distributive Property
One person who contributed
8. 1(u) = u, 0(u) = 0
to our knowledge of axiomatic
systems was the German
mathematician Emmy Noether.
Noether is generally recognized Proof The proof of the Associative Property of vector addition uses the Associative
as the leading woman Property of addition of real numbers.
mathematician in recent history.
(u + v) + w = [〈u1, u2 〉 + 〈v1, v2 〉] + 〈w1, w2 〉
= 〈u1 + v1, u2 + v2 〉 + 〈w1, w2 〉
= 〈(u1 + v1) + w1, (u2 + v2 ) + w2 〉
= 〈u1 + (v1 + w1), u2 + (v2 + w2)〉
= 〈u1, u2 〉 + 〈v1 + w1, v2 + w2 〉
FOR FURTHER INFORMATION
= u + (v + w)
For more information on Emmy
Noether, see the article “Emmy The other properties can be proved in a similar manner.
Noether, Greatest Woman
Mathematician” by Clark Any set of vectors (with an accompanying set of scalars) that satisfies the eight
Kimberling in Mathematics properties listed in Theorem 11.1 is a vector space.* The eight properties are the vector
Teacher. To view this article, space axioms. So, this theorem states that the set of vectors in the plane (with the set of
go to MathArticles.com. real numbers) forms a vector space.
* For more information about vector spaces, see Elementary Linear Algebra, Eight Edition, by Ron Larson (Boston,
Massachusetts: Cengage Learning, 2017).
Granger, NYC — All rights reserved.
THEOREM 11.2 Length of a Scalar Multiple

Let v be a vector and let c be a scalar. Then
∣∣
cv = c v. ∣c∣ is the absolute value of c.
Proof Because cv = 〈cv1, cv2 〉, it follows that

cv = 〈cv1, cv2 〉
= √(cv1)2 + (cv2)2
= √c 2v12 + c 2v22
= √c2(v12 + v22)
∣∣
= c √v12 + v22
= ∣c∣ v.
In many applications of vectors, it is useful to find a unit vector that has the same
direction as a given vector. The next theorem gives a procedure for doing this.
THEOREM 11.3 Unit Vector in the Direction of v

If v is a nonzero vector in the plane, then the vector
v 1
u= = v
v v
has length 1 and the same direction as v.
Proof Because 1v is positive and u = (1v )v, you can conclude that u has the
same direction as v. To see that u = 1, note that
u = (v1 )v = ∣v1 ∣v = v1 v = 1.

So, u has length 1 and the same direction as v.
In Theorem 11.3, u is called a unit vector in the direction of v. The process of

multiplying v by 1v to get a unit vector is called normalization of v.
Finding a Unit Vector

Find a unit vector in the direction of v = 〈−2, 5〉 and verify that it has length 1.
Solution From Theorem 11.3, the unit vector in the direction of v is
v 〈−2, 5〉
=
v √(−2)2 + (5)2
1
= 〈−2, 5〉
√29
=
−2
〈,
√29 √29
5
. 〉
This vector has length 1, because
√( ) ( ) = √294 + 2529 = √2929 = 1.

−2 2 2
5
+
√29 √29
y
Generally, the length of the sum of two vectors is not equal to the sum of their
v lengths. To see this, consider the vectors u and v as shown in Figure 11.9. With u and
v as two sides of a triangle, the length of the third side is u + v, and
u + v ≤ u + v.
u u+v Equality occurs only when the vectors u and v have the same direction. This result is
called the triangle inequality for vectors. (You are asked to prove this in Exercise 73,
Section 11.3.)
x Standard Unit Vectors

The unit vectors 〈1, 0〉 and 〈0, 1〉 are called the standard unit vectors in the plane and
Triangle inequality are denoted by
Figure 11.9
i = 〈1, 0〉 and j = 〈0, 1〉 Standard unit vectors
y
as shown in Figure 11.10. These vectors can be used to represent any vector uniquely,
as follows.
2 v = 〈v1, v2 〉 = 〈v1, 0〉 + 〈0, v2 〉 = v1 〈1, 0〉 + v2 〈0, 1〉 = v1i + v2 j
The vector v = v1i + v2 j is called a linear combination of i and j. The scalars v1 and
v2 are called the horizontal and vertical components of v.
1 j = 〈0, 1〉
Writing a Linear Combination of Unit Vectors

i = 〈1, 0〉
x
1 2 Let u be the vector with initial point (2, −5) and terminal point (−1, 3), and let
v = 2i − j. Write each vector as a linear combination of i and j.
Standard unit vectors i and j a. u
Figure 11.10 b. w = 2u − 3v
Solution
a. u = 〈q1 − p1, q2 − p2 〉 = 〈−1 − 2, 3 − (−5)〉 = 〈−3, 8〉 = −3i + 8j
b. w = 2u − 3v = 2(−3i + 8j) − 3(2i − j) = −6i + 16j − 6i + 3j = −12i + 19j
If u is a unit vector and θ is the angle (measured counterclockwise) from the

positive x-axis to u, then the terminal point of u lies on the unit circle, and you have
y
u = 〈cos θ, sin θ〉 = cos θi + sin θj Unit vector
as shown in Figure 11.11. Moreover, it follows that any other nonzero vector v making
1 (cos θ , sin θ ) an angle θ with the positive x-axis has the same direction as u, and you can write
u v = v〈cos θ, sin θ〉 = v cos θi + v sin θj.

sin θ
θ
x
−1
cos θ 1 Writing a Vector of Given Magnitude and Direction
The vector v has a magnitude of 3 and makes an angle of 30° = π6 with the positive
−1 x-axis. Write v as a linear combination of the unit vectors i and j.
Solution Because the angle between v and the positive x-axis is θ = π6, you can
write
The angle θ from the positive x-axis
to the vector u π π 3√3 3
v = v cos θi + v sin θj = 3 cos i + 3 sin j = i + j.
Figure 11.11 6 6 2 2
Vectors have many applications in physics and engineering. One example is

force. A vector can be used to represent force, because force has both magnitude and
direction. If two or more forces are acting on an object, then the resultant force on the
object is the vector sum of the vector forces.
Finding the Resultant Force

Two tugboats are pushing an ocean liner, as shown in Figure 11.12. Each boat is
exerting a force of 400 pounds. What is the resultant force on the ocean liner?
y
Solution Using Figure 11.12, you can represent the forces exerted by the first and
400 cos(− 20°) second tugboats as
F2 − 20° 400 sin(− 20°) F1 = 400〈cos 20°, sin 20°〉 = 400 cos(20°)i + 400 sin(20°)j
400
F2 = 400〈cos(−20°), sin(−20°)〉 = 400 cos(20°)i − 400 sin(20°)j.
x
F1 400
The resultant force on the ocean liner is
400 sin(20°)
20°
F = F1 + F2
400 cos(20°)
= [400 cos(20°)i + 400 sin(20°)j] + [400 cos(20°)i − 400 sin(20°)j]
The resultant force on the ocean liner = 800 cos(20°)i
that is exerted by the two tugboats ≈ 752i.
Figure 11.12
So, the resultant force on the ocean liner is approximately 752 pounds in the direction
of the positive x-axis.
In surveying and navigation, a bearing is a direction that measures the acute

angle that a path or line of sight makes with a fixed north-south line. In air navigation,
bearings are measured in degrees clockwise from north.
y
N
Finding a Velocity
W E See LarsonCalculus.com for an interactive version of this type of example.
S An airplane is traveling at a fixed altitude with a negligible wind factor. The airplane
is traveling at a speed of 500 miles per hour with a bearing of 330°, as shown in
v1 Figure 11.13(a). As the airplane reaches a certain point, it encounters wind with a
velocity of 70 miles per hour in the direction N 45° E (45° east of north), as shown in
120° Figure 11.13(b). What are the resultant speed and direction of the airplane?
x Solution Using Figure 11.13(a), represent the velocity of the airplane (alone) as
v1 = 500 cos(120°)i + 500 sin(120°)j.
(a) Direction without wind
The velocity of the wind is represented by the vector
y v2 = 70 cos(45°)i + 70 sin(45°)j.
v2 N The resultant velocity of the airplane (in the wind) is
W E v = v1 + v2
S = 500 cos(120°)i + 500 sin(120°)j + 70 cos(45°)i + 70 sin(45°)j
v ≈ −200.5i + 482.5j.
Wind v1
To find the resultant speed and direction, write v = v(cos θi + sin θj). Because
θ v ≈ √(−200.5)2 + (482.5)2 ≈ 522.5, you can write
x v ≈ 522.5 (−200.5
522.5
i+
522.5 )
482.5
j ≈ 522.5[cos(112.6°)i + sin(112.6°)j].
(b) Direction with wind The new speed of the airplane, as altered by the wind, is approximately 522.5 miles per
Figure 11.13 hour in a path that makes an angle of 112.6° with the positive x-axis.
11.1 Exercises See CalcChat.com for tutorial help and worked-out solutions to odd-numbered exercises.
Finding a Magnitude of a Vector In

CONCEPT CHECK Exercises 19–24, find the magnitude of v.
1. Scalar and Vector Describe the difference between
a scalar and a vector. Give examples of each.
19. v = 4i 20. v = −9j
2. Vector Two points and a vector are given. Determine
21. v = 〈8, 15〉 22. v = 〈−24, 7〉
which point is the initial point and which point is the
terminal point. Explain. 23. v = −i − 5j 24. v = 3i + 3j
P(2, −1), Q(−4, 6), and v = 〈6, −7〉 Sketching Scalar Multiples In Exercises 25 and 26,
sketch each scalar multiple of v.
Sketching a Vector In Exercises 3 and 4, (a) find the 25. v = 〈3, 5〉 (a) 2v (b) −3v (c) 72v (d) 23v
component form of the vector v and (b) sketch the vector with
its initial point at the origin. 26. v = 〈−2, 3〉 (a) 4v (b) − 12v (c) 0v (d) −6v
3. y 4. y Using Vector Operations In Exercises

(5, 4) 27 and 28, find (a) 23u, (b) 3v, (c) v − u, and
4 2
3 v (d) 2u + 5v.
x
2 (1, 2) −4 − 2 2 4
v 27. u = 〈4, 9〉, v = 〈2, −5〉 28. u = 〈−3, −8〉, v = 〈8, 7〉
1
x (− 4, − 3) (2, − 3)
1 2 3 4 5 Sketching a Vector In Exercises 29–34, use the figure to
−1 −6
sketch a graph of the vector. To print an enlarged copy of the
graph, go to MathGraphs.com.
Equivalent Vectors In Exercises 5–8, find the
29. −u y
vectors u and v whose initial and terminal points
are given. Show that u and v are equivalent. 30. 2u
Terminal Terminal 31. −v
Initial Point Point Initial Point Point 32. 12v u v
5. u: (3, 2) (5, 6) 6. u: (−4, 0) (1, 8) 33. u − v
x
v: (1, 4) (3, 8) v: (2, −1) (7, 7) 34. u + 2v
7. u: (0, 3) (6, −2) 8. u: (−4, −1) (11, −4)
Finding a Unit Vector In Exercises 35– 38,
v: (3, 10) (9, 5) v: (10, 13) (25, 10) find the unit vector in the direction of v and verify
that it has length 1.
Writing a Vector in Different Forms In
Exercises 9–16, the initial and terminal points of a 35. v = 〈3, 12〉 36. v = 〈−5, 15〉
vector v are given. (a) Sketch the given directed line
segment. (b) Write the vector in component form.
37. v = 〈 32, 52〉 38. v = 〈−6.2, 3.4〉
(c) Write the vector as the linear combination of the
Finding Magnitudes In Exercises 39–42, find the following.
standard unit vectors i and j. (d) Sketch the vector
with its initial point at the origin. (a) u (b) v (c) u + v
Initial Point
Terminal
Point Initial Point
Terminal
Point
(d) uu (e) vv (f ) uu ++ vv
9. (2, 0) (5, 5) 10. (4, −6) (3, 6) 39. u = 〈1, −1〉, v = 〈−1, 2〉
11. (8, 3) (6, −1) 12. (0, −4) (−5, −1) 40. u = 〈0, 1〉, v = 〈3, −3〉
13. (6, 2) (6, 6) 14. (7, −1) (−3, −1) 41. u = 〈 1, 12〉 , v = 〈2, 3〉
15. (32, 43 ) (12, 3) 16. (0.12, 0.60) (0.84, 1.25) 42. u = 〈2, −4〉, v = 〈5, 5〉
Finding a Terminal Point In Exercises 17 and 18, the Using the Triangle Inequality In Exercises 43 and 44,
vector v and its initial point are given. Find the terminal point. sketch a graph of u, v, and u + v. Then demonstrate the
triangle inequality using the vectors u and v.
17. v = 〈−1, 3〉; Initial point: (4, 2)
43. u = 〈2, 1〉, v = 〈5, 4〉
18. v = 〈4, −9〉; Initial point: (5, 3)
44. u = 〈−3, 2〉, v = 〈1, −2〉
Finding a Vector In Exercises 45 – 48, find the Finding Values In Exercises 61–66, find a and b such that
vector v with the given magnitude and the same v = au + bw, where u = 〈1, 2〉 and w = 〈1, −1〉.
direction as u.
61. v = 〈4, 5〉 62. v = 〈−7, −2〉
Magnitude Direction 63. v = 〈−6, 0〉 64. v = 〈0, 6〉
45. v = 6 u = 〈0, 3〉 65. v = 〈1, −3〉 66. v = 〈−1, 8〉
46. v = 4 u = 〈1, 1〉
Finding Unit Vectors In Exercises 67–72, find a unit
47. v = 5 u = 〈−1, 2〉
vector (a) parallel to and (b) perpendicular to the graph of f
48. v = 2 u = 〈 √3, 3〉 at the given point. Then sketch the graph of f and sketch the
vectors at the given point.
Finding a Vector In Exercises 49 – 52, find the
component form of v given its magnitude and the 67. f (x) = x2, (3, 9) 68. f (x) = −x2 + 5, (1, 4)
angle it makes with the positive x-axis. 69. f (x) = x3, (1, 1) 70. f (x) = x3, (−2, −8)
49. v = 3, θ = 0° 50. v = 5, θ = 120° 71. f (x) = √25 − x2, (3, 4)
51. v = 2, θ = 150° 52. v = 4, θ = 3.5°
72. f (x) = tan x, (π4 , 1)
Finding a Vector In Exercises 53 – 56, find the component
form of u + v given the lengths of u and v and the angles that Finding a Vector In Exercises 73 and 74, find the
u and v make with the positive x-axis. component form of v given the magnitudes of u and u + v and
the angles that u and u + v make with the positive x-axis.
53. u = 1, θ u = 0° 54. u = 4, θ u = 0°
v = 3, θ v = 45° v = 2, θ v = 60° 73. u = 1, θ = 45° 74. u = 4, θ = 30°
55. u = 2, θ u = 4 56. u = 5, θ u = −0.5 u + v = √2, θ = 90° u + v = 6, θ = 120°
v = 1, θ v = 2 v = 5, θ v = 0.5 75. Resultant Force Forces with magnitudes of 500 pounds

and 200 pounds act on a machine part at angles of 30° and
−45°, respectively, with the x-axis (see figure). Find the
EXPLORING CONCEPTS direction and magnitude of the resultant force.
Think About It In Exercises 57 and 58, consider two
y
forces of equal magnitude acting on a point.
500 lb
57. When the magnitude of the resultant is the sum of the
magnitudes of the two forces, make a conjecture about 180 N
30°
the angle between the forces. x
− 45° θ
58. When the resultant of the forces is 0, make a conjecture 275 N
x
about the angle between the forces.
200 lb
59. Triangle Consider a triangle with vertices X, Y, and
\ \ \
Z. What is XY + YZ + ZX ? Explain.
Figure for 75 Figure for 76
76. Numerical and Graphical Analysis Forces with

magnitudes of 180 newtons and 275 newtons act on a hook
60. HOW DO YOU SEE IT? Use the figure (see figure). The angle between the two forces is θ degrees.
to determine whether each statement is true or
false. Justify your answer. (a) When θ = 30°, find the direction and magnitude of the
resultant force.
(b) Write the magnitude M and direction α of the resultant
b t force as functions of θ, where 0° ≤ θ ≤ 180°.
a d w (c) Use a graphing utility to complete the table.
c s
θ 0° 30° 60° 90° 120° 150° 180°
u v
M
(a) a = −d (b) c = s α
(c) a + u = c (d) v + w = −s
(d) Use a graphing utility to graph the two functions M and α.
(e) a + d = 0 (f ) u − v = −2(b + t)
(e) Explain why one of the functions decreases for increasing
values of θ, whereas the other does not.
77. Resultant Force Three forces with magnitudes of 84. Navigation

75 pounds, 100 pounds, and 125 pounds act on an object at A plane flies at a
angles of 30°, 45°, and 120°, respectively, with the positive constant groundspeed
x-axis. Find the direction and magnitude of the resultant force. of 400 miles per hour
78. Resultant Force Three forces with magnitudes of due east and encounters
400 newtons, 280 newtons, and 350 newtons act on an object at a 50-mile-per-hour wind
angles of −30°, 45°, and 135°, respectively, with the positive from the northwest. Find
x-axis. Find the direction and magnitude of the resultant force. the airspeed and compass
direction that will allow
Cable Tension In Exercises 79 and 80, determine the the plane to maintain its
tension in the cable supporting the given load. groundspeed and eastward
direction.
79. A B
80. 10 in. 20 in.
50° 30°
A B
C True or False? In Exercises 85–94, determine whether the
statement is true or false. If it is false, explain why or give an
24 in.
example that shows it is false.
3000 lb
85. The weight of a car is a scalar.
C
86. The mass of a book is a scalar.
5000 lb 87. The temperature of your blood is a scalar.
88. The velocity of a bicycle is a vector.
81. Projectile Motion A gun with a muzzle velocity of
89. If u and v have the same magnitude and direction, then u and
1200 feet per second is fired at an angle of 6° above the
v are equivalent.
horizontal. Find the vertical and horizontal components of the
velocity. 90. If u is a unit vector in the direction of v, then v = v u.
82. Shared Load To carry a 100-pound cylindrical weight, 91. If u = ai + bj is a unit vector, then a2 + b2 = 1.
two workers lift on the ends of short ropes tied to an eyelet 92. If v = ai + bj = 0, then a = −b.
on the top center of the cylinder. One rope makes a 20° angle
away from the vertical and the other makes a 30° angle (see 93. If a = b, then ai + bj = √2 a.
figure). 94. If u and v have the same magnitude but opposite directions,
(a) Find each rope’s tension when the resultant force is vertical. then u + v = 0.
(b) Find the vertical component of each worker’s force. 95. Proof Prove that
u = (cos θ )i − (sin θ )j and v = (sin θ )i + (cos θ )j

20°
30°
are unit vectors for any angle θ.
96. Geometry Using vectors, prove that the line segment
joining the midpoints of two sides of a triangle is parallel to,
and one-half the length of, the third side.
100 lb
97. Geometry Using vectors, prove that the diagonals of a
parallelogram bisect each other.
98. Proof Prove that the vector w = u v + v u bisects the
83. Navigation A plane is flying with a bearing of 302°. angle between u and v.
Its speed with respect to the air is 900 kilometers per hour.
The wind at the plane’s altitude is from the southwest at 99. Using a Vector Consider the vector u = 〈x, y〉. Describe
100 kilometers per hour (see figure). What is the true direction the set of all points (x, y) such that u = 5.
of the plane, and what is its speed with respect to the ground?
N
PUTNAM EXAM CHALLENGE
100. A coast artillery gun can fire at any angle of elevation
W E
between 0° and 90° in a fixed vertical plane. If air
S resistance is neglected and the muzzle velocity is
constant (= v0 ), determine the set H of points in the
plane and above the horizontal which can be hit.
100 km/h This problem was composed by the Committee on the Putnam Prize Competition.
900 km/h © The Mathematical Association of America. All rights reserved.
32° 45°
Mikael Damkier/Shutterstock.com
11.2 Space Coordinates and Vectors in Space

Understand the three-dimensional rectangular coordinate system.
Analyze vectors in space.
Coordinates in Space
z Up to this point in the text, you have been primarily concerned with the two-dimensional
coordinate system. Much of the remaining part of your study of calculus will involve
the three-dimensional coordinate system.
yz-plane
Before extending the concept of a vector to three dimensions, you must be able to
xz-plane
identify points in the three-dimensional coordinate system. You can construct this
system by passing a z-axis perpendicular to both the x- and y-axes at the origin, as
shown in Figure 11.14. Taken as pairs, the axes determine three coordinate planes:
the xy-plane, the xz-plane, and the yz-plane. These three coordinate planes separate
y three-space into eight octants. The first octant is the one for which all three coordinates
x xy-plane
are positive. In this three-dimensional system, a point P in space is determined by an
ordered triple (x, y, z), where x, y, and z are as follows.
The three-dimensional coordinate x = directed distance from yz-plane to P
system y = directed distance from xz-plane to P
Figure 11.14
z = directed distance from xy-plane to P
Several points are shown in Figure 11.15.
6
(− 2, 5, 4)
5 −6
4 −5
(2, − 5, 3) −4
3 −3
2
−8 1
−4
−2
REMARK The y
three-dimensional rotatable 3 8
(1, 6, 0)
4
graphs that are available at 5
LarsonCalculus.com can help 6 (3, 3, − 2)
you visualize points or objects x
in a three-dimensional Points in the three-dimensional coordinate system are
coordinate system. represented by ordered triples.
Figure 11.15
A three-dimensional coordinate system z z
can have either a right-handed or a

left-handed orientation. To determine the
y x
orientation of a system, imagine that you
are standing at the origin, with your arms x y
pointing in the direction of the positive

x- and y-axes and with the positive z-axis
pointing up, as shown in Figure 11.16. Right-handed Left-handed
system system
The system is right-handed or left-handed
Figure 11.16
depending on which hand points along the
x-axis. In this text, you will work exclusively
with the right-handed system.
11.2 Space Coordinates and Vectors in Space 763
z
Many of the formulas established for the two-dimensional coordinate system can
(x2, y2, z2)
be extended to three dimensions. For example, to find the distance between two points
in space, you can use the Pythagorean Theorem twice, as shown in Figure 11.17. By
Q doing this, you will obtain the formula for the distance between the points (x1, y1, z1)
d and (x2, y2, z2).
P ⏐z2 − z1⏐
y
x (x1, y1, z1)
(x2, y2, z1) d = √(x2 − x1)2 + ( y2 − y1)2 + (z2 − z1)2 Distance Formula
(x2 − x1)2 + (y2 − y1)2
The distance between two points in Finding the Distance Between Two Points in Space
space
Figure 11.17 Find the distance between the points (2, −1, 3) and (1, 0, −2).
Solution
d = √(1 − 2)2 + (0 + 1)2 + (−2 − 3)2 Distance Formula
= √1 + 1 + 25
= √27
= 3√3
z A sphere with center at (x0, y0, z0) and radius r is defined to be the set of all points
(x, y, z) such that the distance between (x, y, z) and (x0, y0, z0) is r. You can use the
Distance Formula to find the standard equation of a sphere of radius r, centered at
(x, y, z) (x0, y0, z0). If (x, y, z) is an arbitrary point on the sphere, then the equation of the sphere is
r
(x0, y0, z 0 )
(x − x0)2 + ( y − y0)2 + (z − z 0)2 = r 2 Equation of sphere
y
as shown in Figure 11.18. Moreover, the midpoint of the line segment joining the points
x (x1, y1, z1) and (x2, y2, z2) has coordinates
Figure 11.18
x1 + x2 y1 + y2 z1 + z2
( 2
,
2
,
2
. ) Midpoint Formula
Finding the Equation of a Sphere

Find the standard equation of the sphere that has the points
(5, −2, 3) and (0, 4, −3)
as endpoints of a diameter.
Solution Using the Midpoint Formula, the center of the sphere is
(5 +2 0, −22+ 4, 3 −2 3) = (52, 1, 0). Midpoint Formula
By the Distance Formula, the radius is
√( ) √974 = √297.
5 2
r= 0− + (4 − 1)2 + (−3 − 0)2 =
2
Therefore, the standard equation of the sphere is
(x − 52)
2 97
+ ( y − 1)2 + z 2 = . Equation of sphere
4
z
Vectors in Space
〈v1, v2, v3〉
v In space, vectors are denoted by ordered triples v = 〈v1, v2, v3 〉. The zero vector is
denoted by 0 = 〈0, 0, 0〉. Using the unit vectors
〈0, 0, 1〉
k i = 〈1, 0, 0〉, j = 〈0, 1, 0〉, and k = 〈0, 0, 1〉
j 〈0, 1, 0〉
the standard unit vector notation for v is
i y
〈1, 0, 0〉 v = v1i + v2 j + v3k
as shown in Figure 11.19. If v is represented by the directed line segment from
x
P( p1, p2, p3) to Q(q1, q2, q3 ), as shown in Figure 11.20, then the component form of v
is written by subtracting the coordinates of the initial point from the coordinates of the
The standard unit vectors in space terminal point, as follows.
Figure 11.19
v = 〈v1, v2, v3 〉 = 〈q1 − p1, q2 − p2, q3 − p3 〉
z
Q(q1, q2, q3)

Vectors in Space
P(p1, p2, p3) v Let u = 〈u1, u2, u3 〉 and v = 〈v1, v2, v3 〉 be vectors in space and let c be a
scalar.
1. Equality of Vectors: u = v if and only if u1 = v1, u2 = v2, and u3 = v3.
y 2. Component Form: If v is represented by the directed line segment from
P( p1, p2, p3) to Q(q1, q2, q3), then
v = 〈v1, v2, v3 〉 = 〈q1 − p1, q2 − p2, q3 − p3 〉.
x 3. Length: v = √v12 + v22 + v32
v = 〈q1 − p1, q2 − p2, q3 − p3〉
Figure 11.20
4. Unit Vector in the Direction of v:
v
v
=
1
( )
〈v , v , v 〉, v ≠ 0
v 1 2 3
5. Vector Addition: v + u = 〈v1 + u1, v2 + u2, v3 + u3 〉
6. Scalar Multiplication: cv = 〈cv1, cv2, cv3 〉
Note that the properties of vector operations listed in Theorem 11.1 (see Section 11.1)
are also valid for vectors in space.
Finding the Component Form of a Vector in Space

See LarsonCalculus.com for an interactive version of this type of example.
Find the component form and magnitude of the vector v having initial point (−2, 3, 1)
and terminal point (0, −4, 4). Then find a unit vector in the direction of v.
Solution The component form of v is
v = 〈q1 − p1, q2 − p2, q3 − p3 〉 = 〈0 − (−2), −4 − 3, 4 − 1〉 = 〈2, −7, 3〉
which implies that its magnitude is
v = √22 + (−7)2 + 32 = √62.
The unit vector in the direction of v is
v
u=
v
1
= 〈2, −7, 3〉
√62
= 〈 2
,
−7
,
3
√62 √62 √62
. 〉
y
Recall from the definition of scalar multiplication that positive scalar multiples of
a nonzero vector v have the same direction as v, whereas negative multiples have the
direction opposite of v. In general, two nonzero vectors u and v are parallel when there
is some scalar c such that u = cv. For example, in Figure 11.21, the vectors u, v, and
u = 2v
w are parallel because
u
w = −v
u = 2v and w = −v.
v Definition of Parallel Vectors

w
x Two nonzero vectors u and v are parallel when there is some scalar c such
that u = cv.
Parallel vectors
Figure 11.21
Parallel Vectors
Vector w has initial point (2, −1, 3) and terminal point (−4, 7, 5). Which of the
following vectors is parallel to w?
a. u = 〈3, −4, −1〉
b. v = 〈12, −16, 4〉
Solution Begin by writing w in component form.
w = 〈−4 − 2, 7 − (−1), 5 − 3〉 = 〈−6, 8, 2〉
a. Because u = 〈3, −4, −1〉 = − 12 〈−6, 8, 2〉 = − 12 w, you can conclude that u is
parallel to w.
b. In this case, you want to find a scalar c such that
〈12, −16, 4〉 = c〈−6, 8, 2〉.
To find c, equate the corresponding components and solve as shown.
12 = − 6c c = −2
−16 = 8c c = −2
4= 2c c= 2
Note that c = −2 for the first two components and c = 2 for the third component.
This means that the equation 〈12, −16, 4〉 = c〈−6, 8, 2〉 has no solution, and the
vectors are not parallel.
z
Using Vectors to Determine Collinear Points
(1, − 2, 3)
P 4 Determine whether the points
2 P(1, −2, 3), Q(2, 1, 0), and R(4, 7, −6)
(2, 1, 0)
2 are collinear.
Q 4 \ \
8
6 6
8
Solution The component forms of PQ and PR are
x y \
PQ = 〈2 − 1, 1 − (−2), 0 − 3〉 = 〈1, 3, −3〉

and
\
(4, 7, − 6) R PR = 〈4 − 1, 7 − (−2), −6 − 3〉 = 〈3, 9, −9〉.

The points P, Q, and R lie on the same These two vectors have a common initial point. So, P, Q, and R lie on the same line
\ \ \ \
line. if and only if PQ and PR are parallel—which they are because PR = 3 PQ , as shown
Figure 11.22 in Figure 11.22.
Standard Unit Vector Notation

a. Write the vector v = 4i − 5k in component form.
b. Find the terminal point of the vector v = 7i − j + 3k, given that the initial point
is P(−2, 3, 5).
c. Find the magnitude of the vector v = −6i + 2j − 3k. Then find a unit vector in
the direction of v.
Solution
a. Because j is missing, its component is 0 and
v = 4i − 5k = 〈4, 0, −5〉.
b. You need to find Q(q1, q2, q3) such that
\
v = PQ = 7i − j + 3k.
This implies that q1 − (−2) = 7, q2 − 3 = −1, and q3 − 5 = 3. The solution of
these three equations is q1 = 5, q2 = 2, and q3 = 8. Therefore, Q is (5, 2, 8).
c. Note that v1 = −6, v2 = 2, and v3 = −3. So, the magnitude of v is
v = √(−6)2 + 22 + (−3)2 = √49 = 7.
The unit vector in the direction of v is
1
7 (−6i + 2j − 3k) = − 76i + 27 j − 73k.
Measuring Force
z A television camera weighing 120 pounds is supported by a tripod, as shown in

Figure 11.23. Represent the force exerted on each leg of the tripod as a vector.
P (0, 0, 4)
Solution Let the vectors F1, F2, and F3 represent the forces exerted on the three legs.
Q3 )−
3 1
, ,0
2 2 ) From Figure 11.23, you can determine the directions of F1, F2, and F3 to be as follows.
\
F1 = PQ 1 = 〈0 − 0, −1 − 0, 0 − 4〉 = 〈0, −1, −4〉
〈 23 − 0, 12 − 0, 0 − 4〉 = 〈 23, 12, −4〉

Q1 (0, − 1, 0) \ √ √
y F2 = PQ 2 =
Q2 ) 3 1
2 2 )
, ,0
F3 = PQ 3
\
= 〈−
√
3
− 0, − 0, 0 − 4〉 = 〈−
1
, , −4〉.
3 1 √
x 2 2 2 2
Figure 11.23 Because all three legs have the same length and the total force is distributed equally
among the three legs, you know that F1 = F2 = F3 . So, there exists a constant c
such that
F1 = c 〈0, −1, −4〉, F2 = c 〈 23, 12, −4〉,

√
and F3 = c − 〈 √3 1
2
, , −4 .
2 〉
Let the total force exerted by the object be given by F = 〈0, 0, −120〉. Then, using
the fact that
F = F1 + F2 + F3
you can conclude that F1, F2, and F3 all have a vertical component of −40. This
implies that c(−4) = −40 and c = 10. Therefore, the forces exerted on the legs can
be represented by
F1 = 〈0, −10, −40〉,
F2 = 〈 5√3, 5, −40〉,
and
F3 = 〈 −5√3, 5, −40〉.
11.2 Exercises See CalcChat.com for tutorial help and worked-out solutions to odd-numbered exercises.
Classifying a Triangle In Exercises 29–32, find the lengths

CONCEPT CHECK of the sides of the triangle with the indicated vertices, and
1. Describing Coordinates A point in the three- determine whether the triangle is a right triangle, an isosceles
dimensional coordinate system has coordinates (x0, y0, z0 ). triangle, or neither.
Describe what each coordinate measures.
29. (0, 0, 4), (2, 6, 7), (6, 4, −8)
2. Coordinates in Space What is the y-coordinate of
30. (3, 4, 1), (0, 6, 2), (3, 5, 6)
any point in the xz-plane?
31. (−1, 0, −2), (−1, 5, 2), (−3, −1, 1)
3. Comparing Graphs Describe the graph of x = 4 on
(a) the number line, (b) the two-dimensional coordinate 32. (4, −1, −1), (2, 0, −4), (3, 5, −1)
system, and (c) the three-dimensional coordinate system.
Finding the Midpoint In Exercises 33 –36,
4. Parallel Vectors Explain how to determine whether find the coordinates of the midpoint of the line
two nonzero vectors u and v are parallel. segment joining the points.
33. (4, 0, −6), (8, 8, 20)

Plotting Points In Exercises 5– 8, plot the points in the
same three-dimensional coordinate system. 34. (7, 2, 2), (−5, −2, −3)
5. (a) (2, 1, 3) (b) (−1, 2, 1) 35. (3, 4, 6), (1, 8, 0)

36. (5, −9, 7), (−2, 3, 3)
6. (a) (3, −2, 5) (b) (32, 4, −2)
7. (a) (5, −2, 2) (b) (5, −2, −2) Finding the Equation of a Sphere In
8. (a) (0, 4, −5) (b) (4, 0, 5) Exercises 37–42, find the standard equation of the
sphere with the given characteristics.
Finding Coordinates of a Point In Exercises
9–12, find the coordinates of the point. 37. Center: (7, 1, −2); Radius: 1
38. Center: (−1, −5, 8); Radius: 5
9. The point is located three units behind the yz-plane, four units 39. Endpoints of a diameter: (2, 1, 3), (1, 3, −1)
to the right of the xz-plane, and five units above the xy-plane. 40. Endpoints of a diameter: (−2, 4, −5), (−4, 0, 3)
10. The point is located seven units in front of the yz-plane, 41. Center: (−7, 7, 6), tangent to the xy-plane
two units to the left of the xz-plane, and one unit below the
42. Center: (−4, 0, 0), tangent to the yz-plane
xy-plane.
11. The point is located on the x-axis, 12 units in front of the Finding the Equation of a Sphere In Exercises 43–46,
yz-plane. complete the square to write the equation of the sphere in
12. The point is located in the yz-plane, three units to the right of standard form. Find the center and radius.
the xz-plane, and two units above the xy-plane. 43. x2 + y2 + z2 − 2x + 6y + 8z + 1 = 0
Using the Three-Dimensional Coordinate System In 44. x2 + y2 + z2 + 9x − 2y + 10z + 19 = 0
Exercises 13– 24, determine the location of a point (x, y, z) that 45. 9x2 + 9y2 + 9z2 − 6x + 18y + 1 = 0
satisfies the condition(s).
46. 4x2 + 4y2 + 4z2 − 24x − 4y + 8z − 23 = 0
13. z = 1 14. y = 6
Finding the Component Form of a Vector in Space In
15. x = −3 16. z = −5 Exercises 47 and 48, (a) find the component form of the vector v,
17. y < 0 18. x > 0 (b) write the vector using standard unit vector notation, and
(c) sketch the vector with its initial point at the origin.
∣∣
19. y ≤ 3 ∣∣
20. x > 4
z z
21. xy > 0, z = −3 22. xy < 0, z = 4 47. 48.
23. xyz < 0 24. xyz > 0 6 6
4 4
Finding the Distance Between Two Points 2 (4, 0, 3) 2
(2, 4, 3) v (0, 5, 1)
in Space In Exercises 25–28, find the distance v
(4, 2, 1) y 2 y
between the points. 6
4
4 6
6 6
25. (4, 1, 5), (8, 2, 6) 26. (−1, 1, 1), (−3, 5, −3)
x x
27. (0, 2, 4), (3, 2, 8) 28. (−3, 7, 1), (−5, 8, −4)
Writing a Vector in Different Forms In Exercises 49 65. z has initial point (1, −1, 3) and terminal point (−2, 3, 5).
and 50, the initial and terminal points of a vector v are given. (a) −6i + 8j + 4k (b) 4j + 2k
(a) Sketch the directed line segment. (b) Find the component
form of the vector. (c) Write the vector using standard unit 66. z has initial point (5, 4, 1) and terminal point (−2, −4, 4).
vector notation. (d) Sketch the vector with its initial point at (a) 〈7, 6, 2〉 (b) 〈14, 16, −6〉
the origin.
Using Vectors to Determine Collinear
49. Initial point: (−1, 2, 3) Points In Exercises 67–70, use vectors to
Terminal point: (3, 3, 4) determine whether the points are collinear.
50. Initial point: (2, −1, −2)
67. (0, −2, −5), (3, 4, 4), (2, 2, 1)
Terminal point: (−4, 3, 7)
68. (4, −2, 7), (−2, 0, 3), (7, −3, 9)
Finding the Component Form of a Vector in 69. (1, 2, 4), (2, 5, 0), (0, 1, 5)
Space In Exercises 51–54, find the component 70. (0, 0, 0), (1, 3, −2), (2, −6, 4)
form and magnitude of the vector v with the given
initial and terminal points. Then find a unit vector Verifying a Parallelogram In Exercises 71 and 72,
in the direction of v. use vectors to show that the points form the vertices of a
parallelogram.
51. Initial point: (3, 2, 0) 52. Initial point: (1, −2, 4)
Terminal point: (4, 1, 6) Terminal point: (2, 4, −2) 71. (2, 9, 1), (3, 11, 4), (0, 10, 2), (1, 12, 5)
53. Initial point: (4, 2, 0) 54. Initial point: (1, −2, 0) 72. (1, 1, 3), (9, −1, −2), (11, 2, −9), (3, 4, −4)
Terminal point: (0, 5, 2) Terminal point: (1, −2, −3) Finding the Magnitude In Exercises 73–78, find the
magnitude of v.
Finding a Terminal Point In Exercises 55 and 56, the
vector v and its initial point are given. Find the terminal point. 73. v = 〈−1, 0, 1〉 74. v = 〈−5, −3, −4〉
55. v = 〈3, −5, 6〉 75. v = 3j − 5k 76. v = 2i + 5j − k
Initial point: (0, 6, 2) 77. v = i − 2j − 3k 78. v = −4i + 3j + 7k
56. v = 〈 1, − 23, 12 〉 Finding Unit Vectors In Exercises 79–82, find
Initial point: (0, 2, 52 ) a unit vector (a) in the direction of v and (b) in the
direction opposite of v.
Finding Scalar Multiples In Exercises 57 and 58, find
each scalar multiple of v and sketch its graph. 79. v = 〈2, −1, 2〉 80. v = 〈6, 0, 8〉
57. v = 〈1, 2, 2〉 81. v = 4i − 5j + 3k 82. v = 5i + 3j − k
(a) 2v (b) −v Finding a Vector In Exercises 83–86, find the vector v with
(c) 32 v (d) 0v the given magnitude and the same direction as u.
58. v = 〈2, −2, 1〉 Magnitude Direction
(a) −v (b) 2v 83. v = 10 u = 〈0, 3, 3〉
(c) 12 v (d) 52 v 84. v = 3 u = 〈1, 1, 1〉
3
85. v = u = 〈2, −2, 1〉
Finding a Vector In Exercises 59– 62, find the vector z, 2
given that u = 〈1, 2, 3〉, v = 〈2, 2, −1〉, and w = 〈4, 0, −4〉. 86. v = 7 u = 〈−4, 6, 2〉
1
59. z = u − v + w 60. z = 5u − 3v − 2w Sketching a Vector In Exercises 87 and 88, sketch the
61.
1
3z − 3u = w 62. 2u + v − w + 3z = 0 vector v and write its component form.
87. v lies in the yz-plane, has magnitude 2, and makes an angle of

Parallel Vectors In Exercises 63– 66, determine
30° with the positive y-axis.
which of the vectors is/are parallel to z. Use a
graphing utility to confirm your results. 88. v lies in the xz-plane, has magnitude 5, and makes an angle of
45° with the positive z-axis.
63. z = 〈3, 2, −5〉 64. z = 12 i − 23 j + 43 k
(a) 〈−6, −4, 10〉 (a) 6i − 4j + 9k Finding a Point Using Vectors In Exercises 89 and 90,
use vectors to find the point that lies two-thirds of the way
(b) 〈 2, 〉
4
− 10 4 3
3, 3 (b) −i + 3j − 2k from P to Q.
(c) 〈6, 4, 10〉 (c) 12i + 9k
89. P(4, 3, 0), Q(1, −3, 3)
(d) 〈1, −4, 2〉 (d) 34i − j + 98 k
90. P(1, 2, 5), Q(6, 8, 2)
99. Auditorium Lights

EXPLORING CONCEPTS The lights in an auditorium are 24-pound discs of radius
91. Writing The initial and terminal points of the vector v 18 inches. Each disc is supported by three equally spaced
are (x1, y1, z1) and (x, y, z). Describe the set of all points cables that are L inches long (see figure).
(x, y, z) such that v = 4.
92. Writing Let r = 〈x, y, z〉 and r0 = 〈1, 1, 1〉. Describe
the set of all points (x, y, z) such that r − r0 = 2.
93. Writing Let r = 〈x, y, z〉. Describe the set of all L
points (x, y, z) such that r > 1.
18 in.
94. HOW DO YOU SEE IT? Determine (x, y, z)

for each figure. Then find the component form (a) Write the tension T in each cable as a function of L.
of the vector from the point on the x-axis to the Determine the domain of the function.
point (x, y, z). (b) Use a graphing utility and the function in part (a) to
(a) z (b) z
complete the table.
(0, 3, 3)
(4, 0, 8)
(x, y, z) L 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
(x, y, z)
T
y y
(0, 3, 0) (0, 4, 0) (c) Use a graphing utility to graph the function in part (a).
(4, 0, 0) Determine the asymptotes of the graph.
(3, 0, 0)
x x (d) Confirm the asymptotes of the graph in part (c)
analytically.
(e) Determine the minimum length of each cable when a
95. Using Vectors Consider two nonzero vectors u and v,
cable is designed to carry a maximum load of 10 pounds.
and let s and t be real numbers. Describe the geometric figure
generated by connecting the terminal points of the three
vectors tv, u + tv, and su + tv.
100. Think About It Suppose the length of each cable in
96. Using Vectors Let u = i + j, v = j + k, and Exercise 99 has a fixed length L = a and the radius of each
w = au + bv. disc is r0 inches. Make a conjecture about the limit lim− T
r0 →a
(a) Sketch u and v. and give a reason for your answer.
(b) If w = 0, show that a and b must both be zero. 101. Load Supports Find the tension in each of the
supporting cables in the figure when the weight of the crate
(c) Find a and b such that w = i + 2j + k.
is 500 newtons.
(d) Show that no choice of a and b yields w = i + 2j + 3k.
z C
97. Diagonal of a Cube Find the component form of the unit 45 cm 70 cm
D
vector v in the direction of the diagonal of the cube shown in B C
65 cm 60 cm
the figure. y
x 18 ft
z 115 cm
z
A A
D B
100 6 ft 8 ft
10 ft
v
− 50
Figure for 101 Figure for 102
y y
102. Construction A precast concrete wall is temporarily
x 75 kept in its vertical position by ropes (see figure). Find the
⏐⏐v⏐⏐= 1 x
total force exerted on the pin at position A. The tensions in
Figure for 97 Figure for 98 AB and AC are 420 pounds and 650 pounds, respectively.
98. Tower Guy Wire The guy wire supporting a 100-foot 103. Geometry Write an equation whose graph consists of the
tower has a tension of 550 pounds. Using the distance shown set of points P(x, y, z) that are twice as far from A(0, −1, 1)
in the figure, write the component form of the vector F as from B(1, 2, 0). Describe the geometric figure represented
representing the tension in the wire. by the equation.
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DANCE ON STILTS AT THE GIRLS’ UNYAGO, NIUCHI
Newala, too, suffers from the distance of its water-supply—at least

the Newala of to-day does; there was once another Newala in a lovely
valley at the foot of the plateau. I visited it and found scarcely a trace
of houses, only a Christian cemetery, with the graves of several
missionaries and their converts, remaining as a monument of its
former glories. But the surroundings are wonderfully beautiful. A
thick grove of splendid mango-trees closes in the weather-worn
crosses and headstones; behind them, combining the useful and the
agreeable, is a whole plantation of lemon-trees covered with ripe
fruit; not the small African kind, but a much larger and also juicier
imported variety, which drops into the hands of the passing traveller,
without calling for any exertion on his part. Old Newala is now under
the jurisdiction of the native pastor, Daudi, at Chingulungulu, who,
as I am on very friendly terms with him, allows me, as a matter of
course, the use of this lemon-grove during my stay at Newala.
FEET MUTILATED BY THE RAVAGES OF THE “JIGGER”
(Sarcopsylla penetrans)
The water-supply of New Newala is in the bottom of the valley,

some 1,600 feet lower down. The way is not only long and fatiguing,
but the water, when we get it, is thoroughly bad. We are suffering not
only from this, but from the fact that the arrangements at Newala are
nothing short of luxurious. We have a separate kitchen—a hut built
against the boma palisade on the right of the baraza, the interior of
which is not visible from our usual position. Our two cooks were not
long in finding this out, and they consequently do—or rather neglect
to do—what they please. In any case they do not seem to be very
particular about the boiling of our drinking-water—at least I can
attribute to no other cause certain attacks of a dysenteric nature,
from which both Knudsen and I have suffered for some time. If a
man like Omari has to be left unwatched for a moment, he is capable
of anything. Besides this complaint, we are inconvenienced by the
state of our nails, which have become as hard as glass, and crack on
the slightest provocation, and I have the additional infliction of
pimples all over me. As if all this were not enough, we have also, for
the last week been waging war against the jigger, who has found his
Eldorado in the hot sand of the Makonde plateau. Our men are seen
all day long—whenever their chronic colds and the dysentery likewise
raging among them permit—occupied in removing this scourge of
Africa from their feet and trying to prevent the disastrous
consequences of its presence. It is quite common to see natives of
this place with one or two toes missing; many have lost all their toes,
or even the whole front part of the foot, so that a well-formed leg
ends in a shapeless stump. These ravages are caused by the female of
Sarcopsylla penetrans, which bores its way under the skin and there
develops an egg-sac the size of a pea. In all books on the subject, it is
stated that one’s attention is called to the presence of this parasite by
an intolerable itching. This agrees very well with my experience, so
far as the softer parts of the sole, the spaces between and under the
toes, and the side of the foot are concerned, but if the creature
penetrates through the harder parts of the heel or ball of the foot, it
may escape even the most careful search till it has reached maturity.
Then there is no time to be lost, if the horrible ulceration, of which
we see cases by the dozen every day, is to be prevented. It is much
easier, by the way, to discover the insect on the white skin of a
European than on that of a native, on which the dark speck scarcely
shows. The four or five jiggers which, in spite of the fact that I
constantly wore high laced boots, chose my feet to settle in, were
taken out for me by the all-accomplished Knudsen, after which I
thought it advisable to wash out the cavities with corrosive
sublimate. The natives have a different sort of disinfectant—they fill
the hole with scraped roots. In a tiny Makua village on the slope of
the plateau south of Newala, we saw an old woman who had filled all
the spaces under her toe-nails with powdered roots by way of
prophylactic treatment. What will be the result, if any, who can say?
The rest of the many trifling ills which trouble our existence are
really more comic than serious. In the absence of anything else to
smoke, Knudsen and I at last opened a box of cigars procured from
the Indian store-keeper at Lindi, and tried them, with the most
distressing results. Whether they contain opium or some other
narcotic, neither of us can say, but after the tenth puff we were both
“off,” three-quarters stupefied and unspeakably wretched. Slowly we
recovered—and what happened next? Half-an-hour later we were
once more smoking these poisonous concoctions—so insatiable is the
craving for tobacco in the tropics.
Even my present attacks of fever scarcely deserve to be taken
seriously. I have had no less than three here at Newala, all of which
have run their course in an incredibly short time. In the early
afternoon, I am busy with my old natives, asking questions and
making notes. The strong midday coffee has stimulated my spirits to
an extraordinary degree, the brain is active and vigorous, and work
progresses rapidly, while a pleasant warmth pervades the whole
body. Suddenly this gives place to a violent chill, forcing me to put on
my overcoat, though it is only half-past three and the afternoon sun
is at its hottest. Now the brain no longer works with such acuteness
and logical precision; more especially does it fail me in trying to
establish the syntax of the difficult Makua language on which I have
ventured, as if I had not enough to do without it. Under the
circumstances it seems advisable to take my temperature, and I do
so, to save trouble, without leaving my seat, and while going on with
my work. On examination, I find it to be 101·48°. My tutors are
abruptly dismissed and my bed set up in the baraza; a few minutes
later I am in it and treating myself internally with hot water and
lemon-juice.
Three hours later, the thermometer marks nearly 104°, and I make
them carry me back into the tent, bed and all, as I am now perspiring
heavily, and exposure to the cold wind just beginning to blow might
mean a fatal chill. I lie still for a little while, and then find, to my
great relief, that the temperature is not rising, but rather falling. This
is about 7.30 p.m. At 8 p.m. I find, to my unbounded astonishment,
that it has fallen below 98·6°, and I feel perfectly well. I read for an
hour or two, and could very well enjoy a smoke, if I had the
wherewithal—Indian cigars being out of the question.
Having no medical training, I am at a loss to account for this state
of things. It is impossible that these transitory attacks of high fever
should be malarial; it seems more probable that they are due to a
kind of sunstroke. On consulting my note-book, I become more and
more inclined to think this is the case, for these attacks regularly
follow extreme fatigue and long exposure to strong sunshine. They at
least have the advantage of being only short interruptions to my
work, as on the following morning I am always quite fresh and fit.
My treasure of a cook is suffering from an enormous hydrocele which
makes it difficult for him to get up, and Moritz is obliged to keep in
the dark on account of his inflamed eyes. Knudsen’s cook, a raw boy
from somewhere in the bush, knows still less of cooking than Omari;
consequently Nils Knudsen himself has been promoted to the vacant
post. Finding that we had come to the end of our supplies, he began
by sending to Chingulungulu for the four sucking-pigs which we had
bought from Matola and temporarily left in his charge; and when
they came up, neatly packed in a large crate, he callously slaughtered
the biggest of them. The first joint we were thoughtless enough to
entrust for roasting to Knudsen’s mshenzi cook, and it was
consequently uneatable; but we made the rest of the animal into a
jelly which we ate with great relish after weeks of underfeeding,
consuming incredible helpings of it at both midday and evening
meals. The only drawback is a certain want of variety in the tinned
vegetables. Dr. Jäger, to whom the Geographical Commission
entrusted the provisioning of the expeditions—mine as well as his
own—because he had more time on his hands than the rest of us,
seems to have laid in a huge stock of Teltow turnips,[46] an article of
food which is all very well for occasional use, but which quickly palls
when set before one every day; and we seem to have no other tins
left. There is no help for it—we must put up with the turnips; but I
am certain that, once I am home again, I shall not touch them for ten
years to come.
Amid all these minor evils, which, after all, go to make up the
genuine flavour of Africa, there is at least one cheering touch:
Knudsen has, with the dexterity of a skilled mechanic, repaired my 9
× 12 cm. camera, at least so far that I can use it with a little care.
How, in the absence of finger-nails, he was able to accomplish such a
ticklish piece of work, having no tool but a clumsy screw-driver for
taking to pieces and putting together again the complicated
mechanism of the instantaneous shutter, is still a mystery to me; but
he did it successfully. The loss of his finger-nails shows him in a light
contrasting curiously enough with the intelligence evinced by the
above operation; though, after all, it is scarcely surprising after his
ten years’ residence in the bush. One day, at Lindi, he had occasion
to wash a dog, which must have been in need of very thorough
cleansing, for the bottle handed to our friend for the purpose had an
extremely strong smell. Having performed his task in the most
conscientious manner, he perceived with some surprise that the dog
did not appear much the better for it, and was further surprised by
finding his own nails ulcerating away in the course of the next few
days. “How was I to know that carbolic acid has to be diluted?” he
mutters indignantly, from time to time, with a troubled gaze at his
mutilated finger-tips.
Since we came to Newala we have been making excursions in all
directions through the surrounding country, in accordance with old
habit, and also because the akida Sefu did not get together the tribal
elders from whom I wanted information so speedily as he had
promised. There is, however, no harm done, as, even if seen only
from the outside, the country and people are interesting enough.
The Makonde plateau is like a large rectangular table rounded off
at the corners. Measured from the Indian Ocean to Newala, it is
about seventy-five miles long, and between the Rovuma and the
Lukuledi it averages fifty miles in breadth, so that its superficial area
is about two-thirds of that of the kingdom of Saxony. The surface,
however, is not level, but uniformly inclined from its south-western
edge to the ocean. From the upper edge, on which Newala lies, the
eye ranges for many miles east and north-east, without encountering
any obstacle, over the Makonde bush. It is a green sea, from which
here and there thick clouds of smoke rise, to show that it, too, is
inhabited by men who carry on their tillage like so many other
primitive peoples, by cutting down and burning the bush, and
manuring with the ashes. Even in the radiant light of a tropical day
such a fire is a grand sight.
Much less effective is the impression produced just now by the
great western plain as seen from the edge of the plateau. As often as
time permits, I stroll along this edge, sometimes in one direction,
sometimes in another, in the hope of finding the air clear enough to
let me enjoy the view; but I have always been disappointed.
Wherever one looks, clouds of smoke rise from the burning bush,
and the air is full of smoke and vapour. It is a pity, for under more
favourable circumstances the panorama of the whole country up to
the distant Majeje hills must be truly magnificent. It is of little use
taking photographs now, and an outline sketch gives a very poor idea
of the scenery. In one of these excursions I went out of my way to
make a personal attempt on the Makonde bush. The present edge of
the plateau is the result of a far-reaching process of destruction
through erosion and denudation. The Makonde strata are
everywhere cut into by ravines, which, though short, are hundreds of
yards in depth. In consequence of the loose stratification of these
beds, not only are the walls of these ravines nearly vertical, but their
upper end is closed by an equally steep escarpment, so that the
western edge of the Makonde plateau is hemmed in by a series of
deep, basin-like valleys. In order to get from one side of such a ravine
to the other, I cut my way through the bush with a dozen of my men.
It was a very open part, with more grass than scrub, but even so the
short stretch of less than two hundred yards was very hard work; at
the end of it the men’s calicoes were in rags and they themselves
bleeding from hundreds of scratches, while even our strong khaki
suits had not escaped scatheless.
NATIVE PATH THROUGH THE MAKONDE BUSH, NEAR

MAHUTA
I see increasing reason to believe that the view formed some time
back as to the origin of the Makonde bush is the correct one. I have
no doubt that it is not a natural product, but the result of human
occupation. Those parts of the high country where man—as a very
slight amount of practice enables the eye to perceive at once—has not
yet penetrated with axe and hoe, are still occupied by a splendid
timber forest quite able to sustain a comparison with our mixed
forests in Germany. But wherever man has once built his hut or tilled
his field, this horrible bush springs up. Every phase of this process
may be seen in the course of a couple of hours’ walk along the main
road. From the bush to right or left, one hears the sound of the axe—
not from one spot only, but from several directions at once. A few
steps further on, we can see what is taking place. The brush has been
cut down and piled up in heaps to the height of a yard or more,
between which the trunks of the large trees stand up like the last
pillars of a magnificent ruined building. These, too, present a
melancholy spectacle: the destructive Makonde have ringed them—
cut a broad strip of bark all round to ensure their dying off—and also
piled up pyramids of brush round them. Father and son, mother and
son-in-law, are chopping away perseveringly in the background—too
busy, almost, to look round at the white stranger, who usually excites
so much interest. If you pass by the same place a week later, the piles
of brushwood have disappeared and a thick layer of ashes has taken
the place of the green forest. The large trees stretch their
smouldering trunks and branches in dumb accusation to heaven—if
they have not already fallen and been more or less reduced to ashes,
perhaps only showing as a white stripe on the dark ground.
This work of destruction is carried out by the Makonde alike on the
virgin forest and on the bush which has sprung up on sites already
cultivated and deserted. In the second case they are saved the trouble
of burning the large trees, these being entirely absent in the
secondary bush.
After burning this piece of forest ground and loosening it with the
hoe, the native sows his corn and plants his vegetables. All over the
country, he goes in for bed-culture, which requires, and, in fact,
receives, the most careful attention. Weeds are nowhere tolerated in
the south of German East Africa. The crops may fail on the plains,
where droughts are frequent, but never on the plateau with its
abundant rains and heavy dews. Its fortunate inhabitants even have
the satisfaction of seeing the proud Wayao and Wamakua working
for them as labourers, driven by hunger to serve where they were
accustomed to rule.
But the light, sandy soil is soon exhausted, and would yield no
harvest the second year if cultivated twice running. This fact has
been familiar to the native for ages; consequently he provides in
time, and, while his crop is growing, prepares the next plot with axe
and firebrand. Next year he plants this with his various crops and
lets the first piece lie fallow. For a short time it remains waste and
desolate; then nature steps in to repair the destruction wrought by
man; a thousand new growths spring out of the exhausted soil, and
even the old stumps put forth fresh shoots. Next year the new growth
is up to one’s knees, and in a few years more it is that terrible,
impenetrable bush, which maintains its position till the black
occupier of the land has made the round of all the available sites and
come back to his starting point.
The Makonde are, body and soul, so to speak, one with this bush.
According to my Yao informants, indeed, their name means nothing
else but “bush people.” Their own tradition says that they have been
settled up here for a very long time, but to my surprise they laid great
stress on an original immigration. Their old homes were in the
south-east, near Mikindani and the mouth of the Rovuma, whence
their peaceful forefathers were driven by the continual raids of the
Sakalavas from Madagascar and the warlike Shirazis[47] of the coast,
to take refuge on the almost inaccessible plateau. I have studied
African ethnology for twenty years, but the fact that changes of
population in this apparently quiet and peaceable corner of the earth
could have been occasioned by outside enterprises taking place on
the high seas, was completely new to me. It is, no doubt, however,
correct.
The charming tribal legend of the Makonde—besides informing us
of other interesting matters—explains why they have to live in the
thickest of the bush and a long way from the edge of the plateau,
instead of making their permanent homes beside the purling brooks
and springs of the low country.
“The place where the tribe originated is Mahuta, on the southern
side of the plateau towards the Rovuma, where of old time there was
nothing but thick bush. Out of this bush came a man who never
washed himself or shaved his head, and who ate and drank but little.
He went out and made a human figure from the wood of a tree
growing in the open country, which he took home to his abode in the
bush and there set it upright. In the night this image came to life and
was a woman. The man and woman went down together to the
Rovuma to wash themselves. Here the woman gave birth to a still-
born child. They left that place and passed over the high land into the
valley of the Mbemkuru, where the woman had another child, which
was also born dead. Then they returned to the high bush country of
Mahuta, where the third child was born, which lived and grew up. In
course of time, the couple had many more children, and called
themselves Wamatanda. These were the ancestral stock of the
Makonde, also called Wamakonde,[48] i.e., aborigines. Their
forefather, the man from the bush, gave his children the command to
bury their dead upright, in memory of the mother of their race who
was cut out of wood and awoke to life when standing upright. He also
warned them against settling in the valleys and near large streams,
for sickness and death dwelt there. They were to make it a rule to
have their huts at least an hour’s walk from the nearest watering-
place; then their children would thrive and escape illness.”
The explanation of the name Makonde given by my informants is
somewhat different from that contained in the above legend, which I
extract from a little book (small, but packed with information), by
Pater Adams, entitled Lindi und sein Hinterland. Otherwise, my
results agree exactly with the statements of the legend. Washing?
Hapana—there is no such thing. Why should they do so? As it is, the
supply of water scarcely suffices for cooking and drinking; other
people do not wash, so why should the Makonde distinguish himself
by such needless eccentricity? As for shaving the head, the short,
woolly crop scarcely needs it,[49] so the second ancestral precept is
likewise easy enough to follow. Beyond this, however, there is
nothing ridiculous in the ancestor’s advice. I have obtained from
various local artists a fairly large number of figures carved in wood,
ranging from fifteen to twenty-three inches in height, and
representing women belonging to the great group of the Mavia,
Makonde, and Matambwe tribes. The carving is remarkably well
done and renders the female type with great accuracy, especially the
keloid ornamentation, to be described later on. As to the object and
meaning of their works the sculptors either could or (more probably)
would tell me nothing, and I was forced to content myself with the
scanty information vouchsafed by one man, who said that the figures
were merely intended to represent the nembo—the artificial
deformations of pelele, ear-discs, and keloids. The legend recorded
by Pater Adams places these figures in a new light. They must surely
be more than mere dolls; and we may even venture to assume that
they are—though the majority of present-day Makonde are probably
unaware of the fact—representations of the tribal ancestress.
The references in the legend to the descent from Mahuta to the
Rovuma, and to a journey across the highlands into the Mbekuru
valley, undoubtedly indicate the previous history of the tribe, the
travels of the ancestral pair typifying the migrations of their
descendants. The descent to the neighbouring Rovuma valley, with
its extraordinary fertility and great abundance of game, is intelligible
at a glance—but the crossing of the Lukuledi depression, the ascent
to the Rondo Plateau and the descent to the Mbemkuru, also lie
within the bounds of probability, for all these districts have exactly
the same character as the extreme south. Now, however, comes a
point of especial interest for our bacteriological age. The primitive
Makonde did not enjoy their lives in the marshy river-valleys.
Disease raged among them, and many died. It was only after they
had returned to their original home near Mahuta, that the health
conditions of these people improved. We are very apt to think of the
African as a stupid person whose ignorance of nature is only equalled
by his fear of it, and who looks on all mishaps as caused by evil
spirits and malignant natural powers. It is much more correct to
assume in this case that the people very early learnt to distinguish
districts infested with malaria from those where it is absent.
This knowledge is crystallized in the
ancestral warning against settling in the
valleys and near the great waters, the
dwelling-places of disease and death. At the
same time, for security against the hostile
Mavia south of the Rovuma, it was enacted
that every settlement must be not less than a
certain distance from the southern edge of the
plateau. Such in fact is their mode of life at the
present day. It is not such a bad one, and
certainly they are both safer and more
comfortable than the Makua, the recent
intruders from the south, who have made USUAL METHOD OF
good their footing on the western edge of the CLOSING HUT-DOOR
plateau, extending over a fairly wide belt of
country. Neither Makua nor Makonde show in their dwellings
anything of the size and comeliness of the Yao houses in the plain,
especially at Masasi, Chingulungulu and Zuza’s. Jumbe Chauro, a
Makonde hamlet not far from Newala, on the road to Mahuta, is the
most important settlement of the tribe I have yet seen, and has fairly
spacious huts. But how slovenly is their construction compared with
the palatial residences of the elephant-hunters living in the plain.
The roofs are still more untidy than in the general run of huts during
the dry season, the walls show here and there the scanty beginnings
or the lamentable remains of the mud plastering, and the interior is a
veritable dog-kennel; dirt, dust and disorder everywhere. A few huts
only show any attempt at division into rooms, and this consists
merely of very roughly-made bamboo partitions. In one point alone
have I noticed any indication of progress—in the method of fastening
the door. Houses all over the south are secured in a simple but
ingenious manner. The door consists of a set of stout pieces of wood
or bamboo, tied with bark-string to two cross-pieces, and moving in
two grooves round one of the door-posts, so as to open inwards. If
the owner wishes to leave home, he takes two logs as thick as a man’s
upper arm and about a yard long. One of these is placed obliquely
against the middle of the door from the inside, so as to form an angle
of from 60° to 75° with the ground. He then places the second piece
horizontally across the first, pressing it downward with all his might.
It is kept in place by two strong posts planted in the ground a few
inches inside the door. This fastening is absolutely safe, but of course
cannot be applied to both doors at once, otherwise how could the
owner leave or enter his house? I have not yet succeeded in finding
out how the back door is fastened.
MAKONDE LOCK AND KEY AT JUMBE CHAURO

This is the general way of closing a house. The Makonde at Jumbe
Chauro, however, have a much more complicated, solid and original
one. Here, too, the door is as already described, except that there is
only one post on the inside, standing by itself about six inches from
one side of the doorway. Opposite this post is a hole in the wall just
large enough to admit a man’s arm. The door is closed inside by a
large wooden bolt passing through a hole in this post and pressing
with its free end against the door. The other end has three holes into
which fit three pegs running in vertical grooves inside the post. The
door is opened with a wooden key about a foot long, somewhat
curved and sloped off at the butt; the other end has three pegs
corresponding to the holes, in the bolt, so that, when it is thrust
through the hole in the wall and inserted into the rectangular
opening in the post, the pegs can be lifted and the bolt drawn out.[50]
MODE OF INSERTING THE KEY
With no small pride first one householder and then a second

showed me on the spot the action of this greatest invention of the
Makonde Highlands. To both with an admiring exclamation of
“Vizuri sana!” (“Very fine!”). I expressed the wish to take back these
marvels with me to Ulaya, to show the Wazungu what clever fellows
the Makonde are. Scarcely five minutes after my return to camp at
Newala, the two men came up sweating under the weight of two
heavy logs which they laid down at my feet, handing over at the same
time the keys of the fallen fortress. Arguing, logically enough, that if
the key was wanted, the lock would be wanted with it, they had taken
their axes and chopped down the posts—as it never occurred to them
to dig them out of the ground and so bring them intact. Thus I have
two badly damaged specimens, and the owners, instead of praise,
come in for a blowing-up.
The Makua huts in the environs of Newala are especially
miserable; their more than slovenly construction reminds one of the
temporary erections of the Makua at Hatia’s, though the people here
have not been concerned in a war. It must therefore be due to
congenital idleness, or else to the absence of a powerful chief. Even
the baraza at Mlipa’s, a short hour’s walk south-east of Newala,
shares in this general neglect. While public buildings in this country
are usually looked after more or less carefully, this is in evident
danger of being blown over by the first strong easterly gale. The only
attractive object in this whole district is the grave of the late chief
Mlipa. I visited it in the morning, while the sun was still trying with
partial success to break through the rolling mists, and the circular
grove of tall euphorbias, which, with a broken pot, is all that marks
the old king’s resting-place, impressed one with a touch of pathos.
Even my very materially-minded carriers seemed to feel something
of the sort, for instead of their usual ribald songs, they chanted
solemnly, as we marched on through the dense green of the Makonde
bush:—
“We shall arrive with the great master; we stand in a row and have
no fear about getting our food and our money from the Serkali (the
Government). We are not afraid; we are going along with the great
master, the lion; we are going down to the coast and back.”
With regard to the characteristic features of the various tribes here
on the western edge of the plateau, I can arrive at no other
conclusion than the one already come to in the plain, viz., that it is
impossible for anyone but a trained anthropologist to assign any
given individual at once to his proper tribe. In fact, I think that even
an anthropological specialist, after the most careful examination,
might find it a difficult task to decide. The whole congeries of peoples
collected in the region bounded on the west by the great Central
African rift, Tanganyika and Nyasa, and on the east by the Indian
Ocean, are closely related to each other—some of their languages are
only distinguished from one another as dialects of the same speech,
and no doubt all the tribes present the same shape of skull and
structure of skeleton. Thus, surely, there can be no very striking
differences in outward appearance.
Even did such exist, I should have no time
to concern myself with them, for day after day,
I have to see or hear, as the case may be—in
any case to grasp and record—an
extraordinary number of ethnographic
phenomena. I am almost disposed to think it
fortunate that some departments of inquiry, at
least, are barred by external circumstances.
Chief among these is the subject of iron-
working. We are apt to think of Africa as a
country where iron ore is everywhere, so to
speak, to be picked up by the roadside, and
where it would be quite surprising if the
inhabitants had not learnt to smelt the
material ready to their hand. In fact, the
knowledge of this art ranges all over the
continent, from the Kabyles in the north to the
Kafirs in the south. Here between the Rovuma
and the Lukuledi the conditions are not so
favourable. According to the statements of the
Makonde, neither ironstone nor any other
form of iron ore is known to them. They have
not therefore advanced to the art of smelting
the metal, but have hitherto bought all their
THE ANCESTRESS OF
THE MAKONDE
iron implements from neighbouring tribes.
Even in the plain the inhabitants are not much
better off. Only one man now living is said to
understand the art of smelting iron. This old fundi lives close to
Huwe, that isolated, steep-sided block of granite which rises out of
the green solitude between Masasi and Chingulungulu, and whose
jagged and splintered top meets the traveller’s eye everywhere. While
still at Masasi I wished to see this man at work, but was told that,
frightened by the rising, he had retired across the Rovuma, though
he would soon return. All subsequent inquiries as to whether the
fundi had come back met with the genuine African answer, “Bado”
(“Not yet”).
BRAZIER
Some consolation was afforded me by a brassfounder, whom I

came across in the bush near Akundonde’s. This man is the favourite
of women, and therefore no doubt of the gods; he welds the glittering
brass rods purchased at the coast into those massive, heavy rings
which, on the wrists and ankles of the local fair ones, continually give
me fresh food for admiration. Like every decent master-craftsman he
had all his tools with him, consisting of a pair of bellows, three
crucibles and a hammer—nothing more, apparently. He was quite
willing to show his skill, and in a twinkling had fixed his bellows on
the ground. They are simply two goat-skins, taken off whole, the four
legs being closed by knots, while the upper opening, intended to
admit the air, is kept stretched by two pieces of wood. At the lower
end of the skin a smaller opening is left into which a wooden tube is
stuck. The fundi has quickly borrowed a heap of wood-embers from
the nearest hut; he then fixes the free ends of the two tubes into an
earthen pipe, and clamps them to the ground by means of a bent
piece of wood. Now he fills one of his small clay crucibles, the dross
on which shows that they have been long in use, with the yellow
material, places it in the midst of the embers, which, at present are
only faintly glimmering, and begins his work. In quick alternation
the smith’s two hands move up and down with the open ends of the
bellows; as he raises his hand he holds the slit wide open, so as to let
the air enter the skin bag unhindered. In pressing it down he closes
the bag, and the air puffs through the bamboo tube and clay pipe into
the fire, which quickly burns up. The smith, however, does not keep
on with this work, but beckons to another man, who relieves him at
the bellows, while he takes some more tools out of a large skin pouch
carried on his back. I look on in wonder as, with a smooth round
stick about the thickness of a finger, he bores a few vertical holes into
the clean sand of the soil. This should not be difficult, yet the man
seems to be taking great pains over it. Then he fastens down to the
ground, with a couple of wooden clamps, a neat little trough made by
splitting a joint of bamboo in half, so that the ends are closed by the
two knots. At last the yellow metal has attained the right consistency,
and the fundi lifts the crucible from the fire by means of two sticks
split at the end to serve as tongs. A short swift turn to the left—a
tilting of the crucible—and the molten brass, hissing and giving forth
clouds of smoke, flows first into the bamboo mould and then into the
holes in the ground.
The technique of this backwoods craftsman may not be very far
advanced, but it cannot be denied that he knows how to obtain an
adequate result by the simplest means. The ladies of highest rank in
this country—that is to say, those who can afford it, wear two kinds
of these massive brass rings, one cylindrical, the other semicircular
in section. The latter are cast in the most ingenious way in the
bamboo mould, the former in the circular hole in the sand. It is quite
a simple matter for the fundi to fit these bars to the limbs of his fair
customers; with a few light strokes of his hammer he bends the
pliable brass round arm or ankle without further inconvenience to
the wearer.
SHAPING THE POT
SMOOTHING WITH MAIZE-COB
CUTTING THE EDGE

FINISHING THE BOTTOM
LAST SMOOTHING BEFORE

BURNING
FIRING THE BRUSH-PILE

LIGHTING THE FARTHER SIDE OF
THE PILE
TURNING THE RED-HOT VESSEL
NYASA WOMAN MAKING POTS AT MASASI

Pottery is an art which must always and everywhere excite the
interest of the student, just because it is so intimately connected with
the development of human culture, and because its relics are one of
the principal factors in the reconstruction of our own condition in
prehistoric times. I shall always remember with pleasure the two or
three afternoons at Masasi when Salim Matola’s mother, a slightly-
built, graceful, pleasant-looking woman, explained to me with
touching patience, by means of concrete illustrations, the ceramic art
of her people. The only implements for this primitive process were a
lump of clay in her left hand, and in the right a calabash containing
the following valuables: the fragment of a maize-cob stripped of all
its grains, a smooth, oval pebble, about the size of a pigeon’s egg, a
few chips of gourd-shell, a bamboo splinter about the length of one’s
hand, a small shell, and a bunch of some herb resembling spinach.
Nothing more. The woman scraped with the
shell a round, shallow hole in the soft, fine
sand of the soil, and, when an active young
girl had filled the calabash with water for her,
she began to knead the clay. As if by magic it
gradually assumed the shape of a rough but
already well-shaped vessel, which only wanted
a little touching up with the instruments
before mentioned. I looked out with the
MAKUA WOMAN closest attention for any indication of the use
MAKING A POT. of the potter’s wheel, in however rudimentary
SHOWS THE a form, but no—hapana (there is none). The
BEGINNINGS OF THE embryo pot stood firmly in its little
POTTER’S WHEEL
depression, and the woman walked round it in
a stooping posture, whether she was removing
small stones or similar foreign bodies with the maize-cob, smoothing
the inner or outer surface with the splinter of bamboo, or later, after
letting it dry for a day, pricking in the ornamentation with a pointed
bit of gourd-shell, or working out the bottom, or cutting the edge
with a sharp bamboo knife, or giving the last touches to the finished
vessel. This occupation of the women is infinitely toilsome, but it is
without doubt an accurate reproduction of the process in use among
our ancestors of the Neolithic and Bronze ages.
There is no doubt that the invention of pottery, an item in human
progress whose importance cannot be over-estimated, is due to
women. Rough, coarse and unfeeling, the men of the horde range
over the countryside. When the united cunning of the hunters has
succeeded in killing the game; not one of them thinks of carrying
home the spoil. A bright fire, kindled by a vigorous wielding of the
drill, is crackling beside them; the animal has been cleaned and cut
up secundum artem, and, after a slight singeing, will soon disappear
under their sharp teeth; no one all this time giving a single thought
to wife or child.
To what shifts, on the other hand, the primitive wife, and still more
the primitive mother, was put! Not even prehistoric stomachs could
endure an unvarying diet of raw food. Something or other suggested
the beneficial effect of hot water on the majority of approved but
indigestible dishes. Perhaps a neighbour had tried holding the hard
roots or tubers over the fire in a calabash filled with water—or maybe
an ostrich-egg-shell, or a hastily improvised vessel of bark. They
became much softer and more palatable than they had previously
been; but, unfortunately, the vessel could not stand the fire and got
charred on the outside. That can be remedied, thought our
ancestress, and plastered a layer of wet clay round a similar vessel.
This is an improvement; the cooking utensil remains uninjured, but
the heat of the fire has shrunk it, so that it is loose in its shell. The
next step is to detach it, so, with a firm grip and a jerk, shell and
kernel are separated, and pottery is invented. Perhaps, however, the
discovery which led to an intelligent use of the burnt-clay shell, was
made in a slightly different way. Ostrich-eggs and calabashes are not
to be found in every part of the world, but everywhere mankind has
arrived at the art of making baskets out of pliant materials, such as
bark, bast, strips of palm-leaf, supple twigs, etc. Our inventor has no
water-tight vessel provided by nature. “Never mind, let us line the
basket with clay.” This answers the purpose, but alas! the basket gets
burnt over the blazing fire, the woman watches the process of
cooking with increasing uneasiness, fearing a leak, but no leak
appears. The food, done to a turn, is eaten with peculiar relish; and
the cooking-vessel is examined, half in curiosity, half in satisfaction
at the result. The plastic clay is now hard as stone, and at the same
time looks exceedingly well, for the neat plaiting of the burnt basket
is traced all over it in a pretty pattern. Thus, simultaneously with
pottery, its ornamentation was invented.
Primitive woman has another claim to respect. It was the man,
roving abroad, who invented the art of producing fire at will, but the
woman, unable to imitate him in this, has been a Vestal from the
earliest times. Nothing gives so much trouble as the keeping alight of
the smouldering brand, and, above all, when all the men are absent
from the camp. Heavy rain-clouds gather, already the first large
drops are falling, the first gusts of the storm rage over the plain. The
little flame, a greater anxiety to the woman than her own children,
flickers unsteadily in the blast. What is to be done? A sudden thought
occurs to her, and in an instant she has constructed a primitive hut
out of strips of bark, to protect the flame against rain and wind.
This, or something very like it, was the way in which the principle
of the house was discovered; and even the most hardened misogynist
cannot fairly refuse a woman the credit of it. The protection of the
hearth-fire from the weather is the germ from which the human
dwelling was evolved. Men had little, if any share, in this forward
step, and that only at a late stage. Even at the present day, the
plastering of the housewall with clay and the manufacture of pottery
are exclusively the women’s business. These are two very significant
survivals. Our European kitchen-garden, too, is originally a woman’s
invention, and the hoe, the primitive instrument of agriculture, is,
characteristically enough, still used in this department. But the
noblest achievement which we owe to the other sex is unquestionably
the art of cookery. Roasting alone—the oldest process—is one for
which men took the hint (a very obvious one) from nature. It must
have been suggested by the scorched carcase of some animal
overtaken by the destructive forest-fires. But boiling—the process of
improving organic substances by the help of water heated to boiling-
point—is a much later discovery. It is so recent that it has not even
yet penetrated to all parts of the world. The Polynesians understand
how to steam food, that is, to cook it, neatly wrapped in leaves, in a
hole in the earth between hot stones, the air being excluded, and
(sometimes) a few drops of water sprinkled on the stones; but they
do not understand boiling.
To come back from this digression, we find that the slender Nyasa
woman has, after once more carefully examining the finished pot,
put it aside in the shade to dry. On the following day she sends me
word by her son, Salim Matola, who is always on hand, that she is
going to do the burning, and, on coming out of my house, I find her
already hard at work. She has spread on the ground a layer of very
dry sticks, about as thick as one’s thumb, has laid the pot (now of a
yellowish-grey colour) on them, and is piling brushwood round it.
My faithful Pesa mbili, the mnyampara, who has been standing by,
most obligingly, with a lighted stick, now hands it to her. Both of
them, blowing steadily, light the pile on the lee side, and, when the
flame begins to catch, on the weather side also. Soon the whole is in a
blaze, but the dry fuel is quickly consumed and the fire dies down, so
that we see the red-hot vessel rising from the ashes. The woman
turns it continually with a long stick, sometimes one way and
sometimes another, so that it may be evenly heated all over. In
twenty minutes she rolls it out of the ash-heap, takes up the bundle
of spinach, which has been lying for two days in a jar of water, and
sprinkles the red-hot clay with it. The places where the drops fall are
marked by black spots on the uniform reddish-brown surface. With a
sigh of relief, and with visible satisfaction, the woman rises to an
erect position; she is standing just in a line between me and the fire,
from which a cloud of smoke is just rising: I press the ball of my
camera, the shutter clicks—the apotheosis is achieved! Like a
priestess, representative of her inventive sex, the graceful woman
stands: at her feet the hearth-fire she has given us beside her the
invention she has devised for us, in the background the home she has
built for us.
At Newala, also, I have had the manufacture of pottery carried on
in my presence. Technically the process is better than that already
described, for here we find the beginnings of the potter’s wheel,
which does not seem to exist in the plains; at least I have seen
nothing of the sort. The artist, a frightfully stupid Makua woman, did
not make a depression in the ground to receive the pot she was about
to shape, but used instead a large potsherd. Otherwise, she went to
work in much the same way as Salim’s mother, except that she saved
herself the trouble of walking round and round her work by squatting
at her ease and letting the pot and potsherd rotate round her; this is
surely the first step towards a machine. But it does not follow that
the pot was improved by the process. It is true that it was beautifully
rounded and presented a very creditable appearance when finished,
but the numerous large and small vessels which I have seen, and, in
part, collected, in the “less advanced” districts, are no less so. We
moderns imagine that instruments of precision are necessary to
produce excellent results. Go to the prehistoric collections of our
museums and look at the pots, urns and bowls of our ancestors in the
dim ages of the past, and you will at once perceive your error.
MAKING LONGITUDINAL CUT IN
BARK
DRAWING THE BARK OFF THE LOG
REMOVING THE OUTER BARK

BEATING THE BARK
WORKING THE BARK-CLOTH AFTER BEATING, TO MAKE IT

SOFT
MANUFACTURE OF BARK-CLOTH AT NEWALA

To-day, nearly the whole population of German East Africa is
clothed in imported calico. This was not always the case; even now in
some parts of the north dressed skins are still the prevailing wear,
and in the north-western districts—east and north of Lake
Tanganyika—lies a zone where bark-cloth has not yet been
superseded. Probably not many generations have passed since such
bark fabrics and kilts of skins were the only clothing even in the
south. Even to-day, large quantities of this bright-red or drab
material are still to be found; but if we wish to see it, we must look in
the granaries and on the drying stages inside the native huts, where
it serves less ambitious uses as wrappings for those seeds and fruits
which require to be packed with special care. The salt produced at
Masasi, too, is packed for transport to a distance in large sheets of
bark-cloth. Wherever I found it in any degree possible, I studied the
process of making this cloth. The native requisitioned for the
purpose arrived, carrying a log between two and three yards long and
as thick as his thigh, and nothing else except a curiously-shaped
mallet and the usual long, sharp and pointed knife which all men and
boys wear in a belt at their backs without a sheath—horribile dictu!
[51]
Silently he squats down before me, and with two rapid cuts has
drawn a couple of circles round the log some two yards apart, and
slits the bark lengthwise between them with the point of his knife.
With evident care, he then scrapes off the outer rind all round the
log, so that in a quarter of an hour the inner red layer of the bark
shows up brightly-coloured between the two untouched ends. With
some trouble and much caution, he now loosens the bark at one end,
and opens the cylinder. He then stands up, takes hold of the free
edge with both hands, and turning it inside out, slowly but steadily
pulls it off in one piece. Now comes the troublesome work of
scraping all superfluous particles of outer bark from the outside of
the long, narrow piece of material, while the inner side is carefully
scrutinised for defective spots. At last it is ready for beating. Having
signalled to a friend, who immediately places a bowl of water beside
him, the artificer damps his sheet of bark all over, seizes his mallet,
lays one end of the stuff on the smoothest spot of the log, and
hammers away slowly but continuously. “Very simple!” I think to
myself. “Why, I could do that, too!”—but I am forced to change my
opinions a little later on; for the beating is quite an art, if the fabric is
not to be beaten to pieces. To prevent the breaking of the fibres, the
stuff is several times folded across, so as to interpose several
thicknesses between the mallet and the block. At last the required
state is reached, and the fundi seizes the sheet, still folded, by both
ends, and wrings it out, or calls an assistant to take one end while he
holds the other. The cloth produced in this way is not nearly so fine
and uniform in texture as the famous Uganda bark-cloth, but it is
quite soft, and, above all, cheap.
Now, too, I examine the mallet. My craftsman has been using the
simpler but better form of this implement, a conical block of some
hard wood, its base—the striking surface—being scored across and
across with more or less deeply-cut grooves, and the handle stuck
into a hole in the middle. The other and earlier form of mallet is
shaped in the same way, but the head is fastened by an ingenious
network of bark strips into the split bamboo serving as a handle. The
observation so often made, that ancient customs persist longest in
connection with religious ceremonies and in the life of children, here
finds confirmation. As we shall soon see, bark-cloth is still worn
during the unyago,[52] having been prepared with special solemn
ceremonies; and many a mother, if she has no other garment handy,
will still put her little one into a kilt of bark-cloth, which, after all,
looks better, besides being more in keeping with its African
surroundings, than the ridiculous bit of print from Ulaya.
MAKUA WOMEN

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14 Multiple Integration 969

16 Additional Topics in Differential Equations 1129

Answers to All Odd-Numbered Exercises A89

*Available at the text-specific website www.cengagebrain.com

• CalcView.com––video solutions to selected exercises

NEW Conceptual Exercises

REVISED Exercise Sets

REVISED Section Projects

How Do You See It? Exercise

applications used in the examples and exercises. 3.1 Extrema on an Interval

Theorems provide the conceptual framework 5 (2, 5) Maximum Definition of Extrema

(b) f is continuous, (−1, 2) is open.

study concepts that have not yet been formally 3

(c) g is not continuous, [−1, 2] is closed.

address special cases, or show alternative or

Historical Notes and Biographies

Putnam Exam Challenges

MindTap for Mathematics

Instructor’s Resource Guide (on instructor companion site)

Cengage Learning Testing Powered by Cognero (login.cengage.com)

Instructor Companion Site

Test Bank (on instructor companion site)

MindTap for Mathematics

Geography (Exercise 47, p. 807)

Work (Exercise 62, p. 778)

Navigation (Exercise 84, p. 761)

11.1 Vectors in the Plane

Component Form of a Vector

Vector Representation: Directed Line Segments

PQ  = √(3 − 0)2 + (2 − 0)2 = √13

RS  = √(4 − 1)2 + (4 − 2)2 = √13

Because PQ and RS have the same length P (0, 0) 1

segment, then the component form of the vector v represented by PQ is

v = √(q1 − p1)2 + (q2 − p2)2 Length of a vector

2. If v = 〈v1, v2 〉, then v can be represented by the directed line segment, in standard

y Component Form and Length of a Vector

Definitions of Vector Addition and Scalar Multiplication

The Granger Collection, NYC

Vector addition and scalar multiplication share many properties of ordinary

THEOREM 11.1 Properties of Vector Operations

Granger, NYC — All rights reserved.

THEOREM 11.2 Length of a Scalar Multiple

Proof Because cv = 〈cv1, cv2 〉, it follows that

THEOREM 11.3 Unit Vector in the Direction of v

u =  (v1 )v  = ∣v1 ∣v = v1 v = 1.

In Theorem 11.3, u is called a unit vector in the direction of v. The process of

Finding a Unit Vector

√( ) ( ) = √294 + 2529 = √2929 = 1.

x Standard Unit Vectors

i = 〈1, 0〉 and j = 〈0, 1〉 Standard unit vectors

Writing a Linear Combination of Unit Vectors

If u is a unit vector and θ is the angle (measured counterclockwise) from the

u v = v〈cos θ, sin θ〉 = v cos θi + v sin θj.

Vectors have many applications in physics and engineering. One example is

Finding the Resultant Force

In surveying and navigation, a bearing is a direction that measures the acute

Finding a Magnitude of a Vector In

3. y 4. y Using Vector Operations In Exercises

55.  u  = 2, θ u = 4 56.  u  = 5, θ u = −0.5  u + v  = √2, θ = 90°  u + v  = 6, θ = 120°

 v  = 1, θ v = 2  v  = 5, θ v = 0.5 75. Resultant Force Forces with magnitudes of 500 pounds

76. Numerical and Graphical Analysis Forces with

77. Resultant Force Three forces with magnitudes of 84. Navigation

u = (cos θ )i − (sin θ )j and v = (sin θ )i + (cos θ )j

PQ = √(3 − 0)2 + (2 − 0)2 = √13

RS = √(4 − 1)2 + (4 − 2)2 = √13

v = √(q1 − p1)2 + (q2 − p2)2 Length of a vector

u = (v1 )v = ∣v1 ∣v = v1 v = 1.

u v = v〈cos θ, sin θ〉 = v cos θi + v sin θj.

55. u = 2, θ u = 4 56. u = 5, θ u = −0.5 u + v = √2, θ = 90° u + v = 6, θ = 120°

v = 1, θ v = 2 v = 5, θ v = 0.5 75. Resultant Force Forces with magnitudes of 500 pounds