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 Textbook of
BIOCHEMISTRY
WITH CLINICAL CORRELATIONS

Thomas M. Devi in
Editor
Part I Part IV
STRUCTURE OF MACROMOLECULES METABOLIC PATHWAYS AND THEIR
CONTROL
1 Eukaryotic Cell Structure l
14 Bioenergetics,Mitochondria,
2 DNA and RNA:
and Oxidative Metabolism 541
Composition and Structure 25
15 Carbohydrate Metabolism I: Major Metabolic
3 Proteins I: Composition and Structure 75
Pathways and Their Control 591
16 Carbohydrate Metabolism II: Special Pathways and
Part II
Glycoconjugates 647
TRANSMISSION OF INFORMATION
17 Lipid Metabolism I: Synthesis, Storage,
4 DNA Replication, Recombination,
and Utilization of Fatry Acids
and Repair 139
and Triacylglycerols 673
5 RNA: Transcription and RNA Processing 181
18 Lipid Metabolism II: Pathways of Metabolism
6 Protein Synthesis:Translation and Posnranslational of Special Lipids 707
Modifications 209
19 Amino Acid and Heme Metabolism 751
7 Recombinant DNA and Biotechnology 255
20 Purine and Pyrimidine
8 Regulation of Gene Expression 303 Nucleotide Metabolism 807
21 Metabolic Interrelationships 839
Part Ill
22 Biochemistry of Hormo nes 883
FUNCTIONS OF PROTE INS
9 Proteins II: Structure-Function Relationships
Part V
in Protein Families 333
PHYSIOLOGICAL PROCESSES
10 Enzymes: Classification,Kinetics,
23 Molecular Cell Biology 939
and Control 377
24 Cell Cycle, Programmed Cell Death,
11 The Cytochromes P450 and Nitric
and Cancer 1003
Oxide Synthases 425
25 Digestion and Absorption of Basic
12 BiologicalMembranes: Structure, Receptors,
Nutritional Constituents 1029
and Solute Transport 457
26 Vitamins and Minerals:
13 Fundamentals of Signal Transduction 503
Requirements and Function 1063
27 Macronutrients: Metabolic Effects
and Health Implications 1101

Appendix: Review of Organic Chemistry 1123

Glossary 1135
Index 1159
This page intentionally left blank
Part I
STRUCTUREOF MACROMOLECULES

1 Eukaryotic Cell Structure 1 2 .2 STRUCTURAL COMPONENTS OF NUCLE IC

ACIDS: NUCLEOBASES, NUCLEOSIDES ,
Thomas M. Devlin AND NUC LEOTIDES 27
Physical Properties of Nucleosides and Nucleotides 28
KEYCONCEPTS
Structural Properties of Nucleosides and Nucleotides 29
1.1 CELLSARE THE BASISOF LMNG
2 .3 STRUCTURE OF DNA 30
ORGANISMS 2 Polynucleotide Structure and Properties 30
Classification of Living Cells 2
Double-Helical DNA 32
1.2 THE ENVIRONMENTOF CELLS: Noncanonical DNA Structures 41
WATERAND SOLUTES 4 2 .4 HIGHER-ORDER STRUCTURE OF DNA 48
Hydrogen Bonds Form between Water Molecules 4 Genomic DNA May Be Linear or Circular 49
Water Has Unique Solvent Properties 5 DNA Is Superhelical 49
Electrolytes: Dissociation of Molecules in Water 5 Topoisomerases 51
Water Is a Weak Electrolyte 6 Packaging of Prokaryotic DNA 53
1.3 pH, WEAK ACIDS, AND THEIR CONJUGATE Organization of Eukaryotic Chromatin 54
BASES 6 2 .5 SEQUENCE AND FUNCTION OF DNA 58
Henderson-Hasse lbalch Equation Defines the Relationship Restriction Endonucleases and Palindromes 58
between pH and Concentrations of Conjugate Acid Most Prokaryotic DNA Codes for Specific Proteins 58
and Base 9 Only a Small Percentage of Eukaryotic DNA Consists
Buffering Is Important to Control pH 10 of Functional Genes 59
1 .4 EUKARYOTES: MAMMALIAN CELLS AND TISSUES 11 Repeated Sequences 61
Mammalian Cells 13 2 .6 STRUCTURE OF RNA 62
Chemical Composition of Mammalian Cells 13 RNA Is a Polymer of Ribonucleoside 5' -Monophosphates 62
1.5 FUNCTIONSOF SUBCELLULAR ORGANELLES AND Secondary Structure of RNA Involves lntramolecular
MEMBRANE SYSTEMS IN EUKARYOTE CELLS 14 Base-Pairing 62
Plasma Membrane Is Limiting Boundary of a Cell 14 RNAMolecules Have Tertiary Structures 63
Nucleus Is Site of DNA and RNA Synthesis 15 2. 7 TYPES OF RNA 65
Endoplasmic Reticulum Has a Role in Protein Synthesis Transfer RNA Has Two Roles: Activating Amino Acids
and Many Synthetic Pathways 16 and Recognizing Codons in mRNA 65
Golgi Apparatus Is Involved in Secretion of Proteins 17 Ribosomal RNA Is Part of the Protein Synthesis
Mitochondria Supply Most of the Cellular Need for ATP 17 Apparatus 65
Lysosomes Are Required for Intracellular Digestion 18 Messenger RNAs Carry the Information for the Primary
Peroxisomes Have an Important Role in Lipid Structure of Proteins 67
Metabolism 20 Mitochondria Contain Unique RNA Species 68
Cytoskeleton Organizes the Intracellular Contents 21 RNA in Ribonucleoprotein Particles 68
Cytosol Contains Soluble Cellular Components 21 Catalytic RNA: Ribozymes 68
1.6 INTEGRATIONAND CONTROLOF CELLULAR RNAs Can Bind Other Molecules 69
FUNCTIONS 21 RNAs Control Translation 69

2 DNA and RNA: Composition and Structure 25 3 Proteins I: Composition and Strucntre 75
Stephen A. Woski and Francis J. Schmid t Richard M. Schult2

KEY CONCEPTS KEY CONCEPTS

2. 1 NUCLEIC ACIDS AND BIOWGICAL 3 .1 FUNCTIONAL ROLES OF PROTEINS IN
INFORMATION 26 HUMANS 76
Central Dogma of Molecular Biology 26 3 .2 AMINO ACID COMPOSITION OF PROTEINS 76
DNA Can Transform Cells 26 Common Amino Acids 77
Information Capacity of DNA Is Enormous 27 Amino Acids Are Joined into Peptides and Proteins 80
X • CONTENTS

3.3 CHARGE AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES Part II

OF AMINO ACIDS AND PROTEINS 82
lonizable Groups of Amino Acids and Proteins Are Critical TRANSMISSION OF INFORMATION
for Biological Function 82
General Relationship between Charge Properties
of Amino Acids and Proteins, and pH 85 4 DNA Replication , Recombin ation,
Amino Acids and Proteins Can Be Separated on the and Repair 139
Basis of their Differences in pl 85
Amino Acid Side Chains Have Polar and Apolar Howard J. Eden berg
Properties 86
Amino Acids Undergo a Variety of Chemical KEYCONCEPTS
Reactions 89 4.1 COMMON FEATURESOF REPLICATION,
3.4 PRIMARY STRUCTURE OF PROTEINS 90 RECOMBINATION , AND REPAIR 140
3.5 HIGHER LEVELS OF PROTEIN 4 .2 DNA REPLICATION:FUNDAMENTALMECHANICS 140
ORGANIZATION 92 The Basics 140
Secondary Structure 92 Chemistry of Chain Elongation 141
Tertiary Structure 96 DNAPolymerases 142
Quaternary Structure 97 Separating Parental Strands: The Replication Fork 144
Unstructured Proteins 98 Solving the Polarity Problem: Semi-discontinuous
Protein Complexes, Networks , and lnteractomes 99 DNASynthesis 145
Bioinformatics Relates Structure and Function Replication Fork Movement 145
of Protein Gene Products 101 Choreography in Three Dimensions: The Replisome 150
Homologous Fold Structures Are Often Fanned Termination of Replication in Circular Genomes 150
from Nonhomologous Amino Acid Sequences 101 Termination of Replication in Linear Genomes:
3.6 NONGLOBUIARSTRUCTURED PROTEINS 103 Telomeres 150
Collagen 103 Epigenetics 151
Elastin Is a Fibrous Protein with Allysine-Generated 4.3 DNA REPLICATION:
EN2YMES
Cross-Links I 06 AND REGUI.ATION 151
Keratin and Tropomyosin 106 Prokaryotic Enzymes of Replication 151
Plasma Upoproteins Are Complexes of Lipids with Eukaryotic Enzymes of Replication 153
Proteins 107 Cell Cycle 157
Glycoproteins Contain Covalently Bound Replication of RNA Genomes 158
Carbohydrate 112
4.4 RECOMBINATION 158
3.7 FOLDING OF PROTEINS FROM RANDOMIZED Homologous Recombination 159
TO UNIQUE STRUCTURES: PROTEIN Key Proteins of Recombination in E. Coli 162
STABILITY 112 Nonhomologous Recombination 163
The Protein Folding Problem 112 Pseudogenes 164
Chaperone Proteins Assist the Protein Folding 4.5 DNA DAMAGE AND MUTATIONS 164
Process 116 Mutations 164
Noncovalent Forces Lead to Protein Folding and Contribute
to a Protein's Stability 116
4.6 DNA REPAIR 167
Excision Repair 167
Denaturation Leads to Loss of Native Structure 120
Direct Demethylation 172
3.8 DYNAMICASPECTSOF PROTEIN Photoreactivation 173
STRUCTURE 120 Lesions Can Block Replication 174
3.9 CHARACTERIZATION, PURIFICATION , Double-Strand Break Repair 175
AND DETERMINATIONOF PROTEIN Regulation of DNA Repair: The SOS Regulon 175
STRUCTUREAND ORGANIZATION 121
Separation of Proteins on Basis of Charge 121
Separation of Proteins Based on Molecular Mass or
5 RNA: T ranscriprion and RNA Processing 181
Size 123 Frank J. Schmidt and David R. Serzer
Polyacrylamide Gel Electrophoresis in the Presence
of a Detergent 124 KEYCONCEPTS
HPLC Techniques Separate Amino Acids, Peptides,
5.1 INTRODUCTION 182
and Proteins 124
Affinity Chromatography 124 5.2 MECHANISMS OF TRANSCRIPTION 182
General Approach to Protein Purification 124 Initial Process of RNA Synthesis Is Transcription 182
Proteomic Techniques Detennine All the Proteins Expressed DNASequence lnfonnation Signals RNA
in a Cell or Tissue in a Single Assay 125 Synthesis 182
Determination of Amino Acid Composition of a RNAPolymerase Catalyzes the Transcription
Protein 127 Process 183
X-Ray Diffraction Techniques Are Used to Determine Steps of Transcription in Prokaryotes 185
the Three-Dimensional Structure of Proteins 129 5.3 TRANSCRIPTIONIN EUKARYOTES 187
Spectroscopic Methods for Evaluating Protein Structure Nature of Active Chromatin 188
and Function 131 Transcription Activation Operates by Recruitment
Nuclear Magnetic Resonance 133 of RNA Polymerase 188
Transcription by RNA Polymerase II 189
 CONTENTS • Xi
Transcription by RNA Polymerase I 190 6.6 FURTHERPOSTIRANSLATIONAL
Transcription by RNA Polymerase Ill 191 MODIFICATIONS 240
The Common Enzymatic Basis for RNA Polymerase Partial Proteolysis Releases Insulin and Activates
Action 192 Zymogens 240
5.4 RNA PROCESSING 193 Amino Acids Can Be Modified after Incorporation
Transfer RNA Is Modified by Cleavage, Addition , into Proteins 240
and Base Modification 193 Collagen Biosynthesis Requires Many Posttranslational
Ribosomal RNA Processing Releases Several RNAs Modifications 243
from a Longer Precursor 195 6.7 REGULATIONOF TRANSLATION 245
Messenger RNA Processing Ensures the Correct
6.8 PROTEINDEGRADATIONAND TURNOVER 248
Coding Sequence 196
ATP-Dependent Proteolysis Occurs in Proteasomes 248
RNA Polymerase II Recruits Processing Enzymes during
Intracellular Digestion of Some Proteins Occurs
Transcription in Eukaryotes 196
in Lysosomes 249
Mutations in Splicing Signals Cause Human Diseases 198
Other Proteolytic Systems 249
Alternate Pre-mRNA Splicing Can Lead to the Synthesis
of Multiple Protein lsoforms from a Single DNA
Coding Sequence I 99
5.5 RNA EXPORTAND QUALITYCONTROL 199 7 Recombinant DNA and Biotechnology 255
5.6 RNA INTERFERENCE 201 Gerald Soslau
5 .7 TRANSCRIPTION-COUPLEDDNA REPAIR 201
5.8 NUCLEASESAND RNATURNOVER 202 KEY CONCEPTS
Cytoplasmic Messenger RNA Turnover Is Coupled 7.1 INTRODUCTION 256
to Translation 203 7.2 POLYMERASECHAIN REACTION 256
Nested PCR 257
Quantitative Real-Time PCR 257
6 Protein Synthesis: Translation and 7.3 RESTRICTIONENDONUCLEASE,
RESTRICTIONMAPS,
AND DNA SEQUENCING 258
Posmanslational Modifications 209 Restriction Endonucleases Selectively Hydrolyze
Dohn Glitz DNA 258
Restriction Maps Permit Routine Preparation of Defined
KEYCONCEPTS Segments of DNA 259
Interrupted Enzymatic Cleavage Method: Sanger
6 .1 INTRODUCTION 210
Procedure 260
6.2 COMPONENTSOFTHE TRANSLATIONAL Dye-Terminator Sequencing 262
APPARATUS 210 7.4 RECOMBINANTDNA, CLONING,AND SELECTION
Messenger RNA Transmits Information Encoded
in DNA 210
OF CLONES 262
DNA from Different Sources Can Be Ligated to Form a New
Transfer RNA Is a Bilingual Translator Molecule 210
DNA Species: Recombinant DNA 262
The Genetic Code Uses a Four-Letter Alphabet
Recombinant DNA Vectors Are Produced
of Nucleotides 211
by Cloning 264
Codon-Anticodon Interactions Permit Reading of mRNA 212
Directional Cloning: DNA Inserted into Vector DNA
Aminoacylation of Transfer RNA Activates Amino Acids
in a Specific Direction 265
for Protein Synthesis 216
Bacteria Transformed with Recombinant DNA and the Need
Ribosomes Are Machines for Protein Biosynthesis 217
for a Selection Process 265
6 .3 PROTEINBIOSYNTHESIS 221 Recombinant DNA Molecules in a Gene Library 266
Translation Is Directional and Colinear with mRNA 221 Selection of Transformed Bacteria by Loss of Antibiotic
Initiation of Protein Synthesis Is a Complex Process 221 Resistance 266
Elongation Is the Stepwise Formation of Peptide Bonds 223 a-Complementation for Selecting Bacteria Carrying
Termination of Polypeptide Synthesis Requires Recombinant Plasmids 268
a Stop Codon 226 PCR Circumvents the Need to Clone DNA 268
Translation Has Significant Energy Cost 229
Protein Synthesis in Mitochondria Differs Slightly 229
7 .5 DETECTION AND IDENTIFICATION OF NUCLEIC
Many Antibiotics and Toxins Target Protein ACIDS AND DNA-BINDING PROTEINS 268
Biosynthesis 229 Nucleic Acids as Probes tor Specific DNA or RNA
Sequences 268
6.4 PROTEINMATURATION
: FOLDING,MODIFICATION, Southern Blot Technique tor Identifying DNA
SECRETION, AND TARGETING 230 Fragments 271
Chaperones Aid in Protein Folding 231 Single-Strand Conformation Polymorphism 271
Proteins for Export Follow the Secretory Pathway 231 Detection of mRNA 272
Glycosylation of Proteins Occurs in the Endoplasmic Detection of Sequence-Specific DNA-Binding
Reticulum and Golgl Apparatus 232 Proteins 272
6.5 MEMBRANEAND ORGANELLE
TARGETING 235 7.6 COMPLEMENTARY DNA AND COMPLEMENTARY
Sorting of Proteins In the Secretory Pathway 235 DNA LIBRARIES 275
Import of Proteins by Mitochondria Is Complex 237 mRNA as Template for DNA Synthesis Using Reverse
Targeting Signals Direct Proteins to Specific Organelles 239 Transcriptase 275
Xii • CONTENTS

7.7 BACTERIOPHAGE,
COSMID,AND YEASTCLONING 8.8 PREINITIA
TION COMPLEXIN EUKARYOTES:
VECTORSAND ANALYSISOF LONG STRETCHES TRANSCRIPTIONFACTORS,RNAPOLYMERASE TI,
OFDNA 277 ANDDNA 320
Bacteriophage as Cloning Vectors 277 Eukaryotic Promoters and Other Sequences
Cloning DNA Fragments into Cosmid and Artificial That Influence Transcription 321
Chromosome Vectors 278 Modular Design of Eukaryotic Transcription Factors 322
Subcloning Permits Definition of Large Segments of DNA 279 Common Motifs in Proteins That Bind DNA and Regulate
Chromosome Walking Defines Gene Arrangement in Long Transcription 322
Stretches of DNA 279 8.9 REGUIATION OF EUKARYOTIC GENE
7.8 EXPRESSIONVECTORSAND FUSION PROTEINS 281 EXPRESSION 325
Foreign Genes Expressed in Bacteria Allow Synthesis Regulating the Regulators 326
of Their Encoded Proteins 281 Activation of Transcription of the LDL Receptor Gene
Expression Vectors in Eukaryotic Cells 282 Illustrates Many Features Found in Eukaryotic Gene
7.9 SITE-DIRECTED MUTAGENESIS 284 Regulation 326
Role of DNA Flanking Regions Evaluated by Deletion Epigenetic Control of Gene Expression 328
and Insertion Mutations 284
Site-Directed Mutagenesis of a Single Nucleotide 284 Part Ill
7.10 APPLICATIONS OF RECOMBINANT DNA
TECHNOLOGIES 288 FUNCTIONS OF PROTEINS
Antisense Nucleic Acids in Research and Therapy 289
Molecular Techniques Applied to the Whole Animal 290
Recombinant DNA in Agriculture Has Commercial 9 Proteins II: Structure-Function
Impact 294 Relationships in Protein Families 333
7.11 GENOMICS,PROTEOMICS,AND MICROARRAY
ANALYS
IS 295 Richard M. Schultz.
Microarray Analysis 296
Human Genome 298 KEYCONCEPTS
9.1 INTRODUCTION 334
9 .2 ANTIBODY MOLECULES: THE IMMUNOGLOBULIN
8 Regulation of Gene Expression 303 SUPERFAMILYOF PROTEINS 334
Antibody Molecules Contain Four Polypeptide Chains 335
Daniel L. Weeks and John E. Donelson lmmunoglobullns in a Class Contain Homologous
CH Regions 338
KEYCONCEPTS There Are Two Antigen-Binding Sites per Antibody
8.1 INTRODUCTION 304 Molecule 340
8.2 UNIT OF TRANSCRIPTION IN BACTERIA: Genetics of the lmmunoglobulins 342
THE OPERON 304 lmmunoglobulin Fold Is Found In a Large Family of Proteins
with Different Functional Roles 343
8.3 IACTOSE OPERON OF E. COLI 305
Repressor of Lactose Operon Is a Diffusible Protein 306 9.3 PROTEINS WITH A COMMON CATALYTIC
Operator Sequence of Lactose Operon Is Contiguous MECHANISM: SERINE PROTEASES 343
with a Promoter and Three Structural Genes 307 Proteolytic Enzymes Are Classified by Their Catalytic
RNAPolymerase and a Regulator Protein Recognize Mechanism 343
Promoter Sequence of Lactose Operon 309 Serine Proteases Are Synthesized as Zymogens and in
Catabolite Activator Protein Binds Lactose Multiple Domain Proteins 347
Promoter 309 Tertiary Structures of the Catalytic Domains of Serine
Proteases Are Similar 348
8.4 TRYPTOPHANOPERONOF E. COLI 310
Serine Proteases Have Similar Structure-Function
Tryptophan Operon Is Controlled by a Repressor
Relationships 350
Protein 310
Sequence Homology in Serine Proteases 351
Attenuator Region of Tryptophan Operon 312
Mechanism of Serine Protease Catalysis 352
Transcription Attenuation Controls Other Operons for Amino
Specific Protein Inhibitors of Serine Proteases 352
Acid Biosynthesis 313
9.4 HEMOGLOBIN AND MYOGLOBIN 353
8.5 OTHERBACTERIAL
OPERONS 314
Human Hemoglobin Occurs in Several Forms 353
Synthesis of Ribosomal Proteins Is Regulated
Myoglobin: A Single Polypeptide with One 0 2 -Binding
in a Coordinated Manner 314
Site 354
Stringent Response Controls Synthesis of rRNAs
The Heme Prosthetic Group Is Site of 0 2 Binding 355
and tRNAs 3 I 5
X-Ray Crystallography Has Defined the Structures
8.6 BACTERIALTRANSPOSONS 316 of Hemoglobin and Myoglobin 355
Transposons Are Mobile Segments of DNA 316 A Simple Equilibrium Defines 0 2 Binding to Myoglobin 357
Transposon Tn3 Contains Three Structural Binding of 0 2 to Hemoglobin Involves Cooperalivity
Genes 316 between Subunits 358
8.7 GENE EXPRESSION IN EUKARYOTES 317 Hemoglobin Facilitates Transport of CO2 and NO 360
Eukaryotic DNA Is Bound by Histones to Form Decrease in pK8 of Acid Groups with Change from T to R
Chromatin 317 Conformation Releases Protons 360
Methylation of DNA Correlates with Gene Hemoglobin Delivers Nitric Oxide (NO) to the Capillary Wall
Inactivation 319 of Tissues Where It Promotes 0 2 Delivery 366
 CONTENTS • xiii
9.5 THE BASAL LAMINA PROTEIN COMPLEX 367 10.11 REGULATIONOF METABOLICPATHWAYS 417
Protein Composition of the Basal Lamina 368 10.12 CLINICALAPPLICATIONS
OFEN2YMES 418
The Molecular Structure of Basal Lamina Is Formed Measurement of Plasma Enzymes 418
from Networks of Laminin and Type IV Collagen 369 Metabolomics and Proteomics 420
Focal Contact in Cell Membrane Interconnects Extracellular
Matrix with Cytoskeleton 373
11 The Cytochromes P450 and Nitric
10 Enzymes: Classification, Kinetics, Oxide Synthases 425
and Control 377
Linda). Roman and Bertie Sue Siler Masrers
Henry Weiner
KEYCONCEPTS
KEYCONCEPTS 11.1 INTRODUCTION 426
10.1 INTRODUCTION 378 11.2 CYTOCHROMES P4S0:PROPERTIES
AND FUNCTION 426
10.2 CLASSIFICATIONS
OF EN2YMES 378 11.3 CYTOCHROMEP4S0 ELECTRON TRANSPORT
Class 1: Oxidoreductases 379
SYSTEMS 427
Class 2: Transferases 380
NADPH-Cytochrome P450 Reductase Is the Obligatory
Class 3: Hydrolases 380
FlavoproteinElectronDonor in the EndoplasmicReticulum 428
Class 4: Lyases 380
NADPH-Adrenodoxin Reductase ls the Flavoprotein Electron
Class 5: lsomerases 381
Donor in Mitochondria 430
Class 6: ligases 382
11.4 CYTOCHROMESP4S0:
10.3 GENERAL CONCEPTS OF EN2YME
NOMENCLATURE AND ISOFORMS 430
MECHANISMS 382
Thermodynamic Considerations 382 11.5 CYTOCHROME$ P4S0: SUBSTRATES AND
Binding of Substrate by an Enzyme 383 PHYSIOLOGICAL FUNCTIONS 431
Transition State 383 Cytochromes P450 Participate in the Synthesis of
Covalent Binding of Substrate to Enzyme 386 Steroid Hormones and Oxygenation of Endogenous
pH Alters a Reaction by Affecting General Acids and Bases 387 Compounds 432
10.4 ACTIVESITEOFANEN2YME 387 Cytochromes P450 Oxidize Exogenous Upophilic
Stereochemistry of Active Site 388 Substrates 436
Influence of Groups on the Substrate Distal to the Bond 11.6 CYTOCHROMEP450: INDUCTION AND
Being Modified 388 INHIBITION 440
10.5 COEN2YMES, CO-SUBSTRATES, AND COFACTORS 390 Drug-Drug Interactions 440
Coenzymes 390 Cytochrome P450 Genetic Polymorphisms 442
Adenosine Triphosphate May Be a Second Substrate Therapeutic Inhibition of Cytochrome P450 444
or a Modulator of Activity 393 11.7 NITRIC OXIDE SYNTHASES: PROPERTIES AND
Metal Ion Cofactors 393 EN2YMA TIC FUNCTION 444
10.6 KINETICS OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS 395 11.8 NITRICOXIDESYNTHASEISOFORMS
Rate of Product Formation 395 AND PHYSIOLOGICAL FUNCTIONS 447
Rate of Substrate Disappearance 396 NOSI 447
Reversible Reactions 397 NOSII 448
10.7 EN2YME KINETICS OF ONE-SUBSTRATE NOSIII 450
REACTIONS 397
Michaelis-Menten Equation 400
Significance of f<cat
in the Michaelis-Menten Equation 402 12 Biological Membranes: Structure,
Low Km versus High f<ca
1 403 Receptors, and Solute Transport 457
Calculating the Constants 404
Effect of Assay Conditions 404 Thomas M. Devlin
10.8 KINETICS OF TWO-SUBSTRATE REACTIONS 405
Sequential Mechanism 405 KEYCONCEPTS
Ping-Pong Mechanism 405 12.1 INTRODUCTION 458
Kmaw 407 12.2 CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF MEMBRANES 458
10.9 INHIBITORS 407 Lipids Are Major Components of Membranes 458
Competitive Inhibition 407 Glycerophospholipids Are the Most Abundant lipids
Uncompetitive Inhibition 408 of Membranes 458
Noncompetitive Inhibition 408 Sphingolipids Are Present in Membranes 460
Lineweaver-Burk Plots in the Presence of Inhibitors 409 Cholesterol Is an Important Component of Plasma
Other Inhibitors 410 Membranes 462
Enzyme Inhibitors as Drugs 41 l Lipid Composition Varies between Membranes 462
Membrane Proteins 463
10.10 REGUIATIONOFEN2YMEACTMTY 413
Membrane Carbohydrates Are Part of Glycoproteins
Covalent Modification 413
Allosteric Control of Enzyme Activity 413 or Glycolipids 463
Multi-subunit Enzymes: Cooperativity 414 12.3 MICELLES, LIPID BILAYERS,AND LIPOSOMES 463
Regulatory Subunits Modulate the Activity of Catalytic Lipids Form Vesicular Structures 463
Subunits 417 General Properties of Lipid Bilayers 465
xiv • CONTENTS
12.4 STRUCTURE OF BIOLOG fCAL MEMBRANES 466
Mosaic Model of Biological Membranes 466
Lipids Are Asymmetrically Distributed in
Membranes 467
Integral Membrane Proteins 468
Peripheral Membrane Proteins: Lipid Anchors 470
Lipids and Proteins Diffuse in Membrane Leaflets 472
Microdomains of Lipid-Protein Complexes Are Present
in Membranes 473
Dynamic Environment of Membranes 474
12 .5 MEMBRANERECEPTORS 474
12.6 TRANSLOCATION OF MOLECULES THROUGH
MEMBRANES 475
Some Molecules Diffuse through Cell Membranes 475
Protein-Based Mechanisms for Translocation 476
12.7 MEMBRANE CHANNELS AND PORES 477
Structures of Membrane Channels 477
Control and Selectivity of Membrane Channels 478
Representative Membrane Channels and Pores 479
12 .8 MEMBRANE TRANSPORT PROTEINS 485
Energetics of Membrane Transport Systems 486
Mammalian Membrane Transporters 487
12 .9 ELECTROCHEMICAL-POTENTIAL-DRfVEN
TRANSPORTERS 487
Representative Electrochemical-Potential-Driven
Transporters 488
12 .10 PRIMARYACTIVE TRANSPORTERS 491
Representative Primary Active Transporters 491
12.11 PORE-FORMINGTOXINSAND IONOPHORES 496
13 Fundamentals of Signal T ransduction
George R. Dubyak
KEYCONCEPTS
13.1 SIGNALTRANSDUCTIONBETWEENCELLS 504
13.2 INTERCELLUIARSIGNAL
TRANSDUCTION 504
Two Fundamental Modes of lntercellular Signal
Transduction 504
Secreted Signaling Molecules 507
13.3 RECEPTORSFOR SECRETEDMOLECULES 507
13.4 INTRACELLUIARSIGNALTRANSDUCTION
BYCELLSURFACERECEPTORS 509
Ligands, Receptors , and Receptor-Ligand
Interact ions 509
Relationships between Receptors, Effectors, and Second
Messengers 509
Protein Phosphorylation in Signal Transduction 510
GTP-Binding Regulatory Proteins In Signal Transduction 511
Other Components of Receptor-Mediated Signaling
Complexes and Cascades 511
Ligand-Receptor Interaction and Downstream Signaling
Events 512
Terminat ion of Signal Transduction by Cell Surface
Receptors 513
13.5 LIGAND-GATED IONCHANNELRECEPTORS 514
Ion Channel Receptors 515
Terminat ion of Signaling by Ion Channel Receptors 516
Other Ligands of Ion Channel Receptors 516
13 .6 ENZVME-LINKED RECEPTORS 516
Physiological Roles and Extracellular Ligands 516
Receptor Tyrosine Klnases (RTK) 517
Receptor Serine/Threonine Kinases 519
13.7 CYTOKINERECEPTORS 520
Cytokine Receptors: Structure and Function 521
13.8 G PROTEfN -COUP LED RECEPTORS 522
Physiological Roles and Extracellular Ligands 522
Structure of G Protein-Coupled Receptors 523
Heterotrimeric G Proteins 525
The G Protein Cycle 526
13.9 CYCLICAMP-BASEDSIGNALTRANSDUCTION 528
Regulation of Cyclic AMP Synthesis and Degradation 528
Intracellular Signaling Mechanisms of Cyclic AMP 529
13.10 CYCUC GMP -BASED SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION 530
Regulation of Cyclic GMP Synthesis and Degradation 530
Intracellular Signaling Mechanisms of Cyclic GMP 531
13.11 CALCIUM-BASED
SIGNALTRANSDUCTION 532
Regulation of Cytosolic Ca 2 + Concentration 532
Calcium Activation of Calmodulin-Dependent Protein
Kinases and Phosphatases 534
13.12 PHOSPHOLIPID-BASED
SIGNALTRANSDUCTION 534
Regulated Phospholipid Metabolism as a Component
of Intracellular Signaling Pathways 534
Regulation of Phospholipase C and Phospholipase D 535
Diacylglycerol and Protein Kinase C 535
PIP3, Phosphatidylinositol 3-Kinases, and Protein
Kinase B 535
Phospholipase A2 and Generation of Arachidonic Acid
Metabolites 536
13.13 INTEGRATIONOF SIGNALTRANSDUCTION
PATHWAYSINTO SIGNALTRANSDUCTION
NE1WORKS 537
Part IV
503
METABOLICPATHWAYSAND THEIR CONTROL
14 Bioenergetics, Mitochondria,
and Oxidative Metabolism 541
Diana S. Beattie
KEYCONCEPTS
14.1 ENERGY-PRODUCING AND ENERGY-UTILIZING
SYSTEMS 542
ATP Links Energy-Producing and Energy-Utilizing
Systems 542
NAD+ and NADPH in Catabolism and Anabolism 543
14.2 THERMODYNAMIC RELATIONSHIPS
AND ENERGY-RICH COMPONENTS 543
Free Energy Is Energy Available for Useful Work 544
Caloric Value of Dietary Components 545
Compounds Are Classified on the Basis of Energy Released
on Hydrolysis of Specific Groups 546
Free-Energy Changes Can Be Determined from Coupled
Enzyme Reactions 547
High-Energy Bond Energies of Various Groups
Can Be Transferred from One Compound to Another 547
14.3 SOURCES AND FATES OF ACETYL COENZVME A 548
Metabolic Sources and Fates of Pyruvate 549
Pyruvate Dehydrogenase Is a Multienzyme Complex 550
Acetyl CoA Is Used in Several Different Pathways 552
14.4 THE TRICARBOXYLIC ACID CYCLE 552
Reactions of the Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle 553
Conversion of the Acetyl Group of Acetyl CoA to CO2
and H20 Conserves Energy 555

Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle Is a Source of Biosynthetic
Intermediates 555
Anaplerotic Reactions Replenish Intermediates
of the Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle 557
ActivityofTricarboxylic Acid Cycle Is Carefully Regulated
14.5 STRUCTUREAND COMPARTMENTATION
BY MITOCHONDRIAL MEMBRANES 559
Inner and Outer Mitochondrial Membranes Have Different
Compositions and Functions 560
14.6 ELECTRONTRANSPORTCHAIN 561
Oxidation-Reduction Reactions 561
Mitochondrial Electron Transport Is a Multi-component
System 563
Complex I: NADH-Ubiquinone Oxidoreductase 564
Complex II: Succinate-Ub iquinone Oxidoreductase 565
Complex Ill: Ubiquinol-Cytochrome cOxidoreductase 566
Complex IV: Cytochrome c Oxidase 569
Electron Transport Chain Inhibitors 570
14.7 OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION 572
Coupling of ATP Synthesis and Electron Transport 573
ATP Synthase 575
14.8 MITOCHONDRIALINNER MEMBRANE
CONTAINSSUBSTRATETRANSPORTSYSTEMS 577
Transport of Adenine Nucleotides and Phosphate 577
Substrate Shuttles Transport Reducing Equivalents across
the Inner Mitochondrial Membrane 579
Acetyl Units Are Transported as Citrate 579
Mitochondria Have a Specific Calcium Transporter 581
Uncoupling Proteins 581
14.9 MITOCHONDRIAL GENES AND DISEASES 582
14.10 REACTIVE OXYGEN SPECIES (ROS) 583
Production of Reactive Oxygen Species 584
Damage Caused by Reactive Oxygen Species 586
Cellular Defenses against Reactive Oxygen Species 587
15 Carbohydrate Metabolism I: Major Metabolic
Pathways and Their Contro l 591
Robert A. Harris
KEYCONCEPTS
15.1 INTRODUCTION 592
15.2 GLYCOLYSIS 592
Glycolysis Occurs in All Human Cells 592
Glucose Is Metabolized Differently in Various Cells 595
15.3 GLYCOLYSIS
PATHWAY 596
Glycolysis Occurs in Three Stages 596
ATP Yield and Balanced Equation for Anaerobic
Glycolysis 601
NADH Generated by Glyco lysis Has to Be Oxidized Back
to NAO•: Role of Lactate Dehydrogenase and Substrate
Shuttles 601
Shuttles Are Important in Other Oxidoreduction
Pathways 602
Sulfhydryl Reagents and Fluoride Inhibit Glycolysis 603
Hyperglycemia Inhibits Glycolysis 603
Arsenate Prevents Net Synthesis of ATP without Inhibiting
Glycolysis 604
15.4 REGULATION OF GLYCOLYSIS 604
Hexokinase and Glucokinase Have Different
Properties 606
6-Phosphofructo-1-k inase Is a Regulatory Enzyme
of Glycolysis 608
CONTENTS • XV
Hormonal Control of 6-Phosphofructo-1-kinase by cAMP
and Fructose 2,6-bisphosphate 612
The Bifunctional Enzyme 6-Phosphofructo-2-kinase/Fructose
2,6-bisphosphatase Is Regulated by Phosphorylation 614
557 Heart Contains a Different lsoenzyme
of 6-Phosphofructo-2-kinase/Fructose 2,6-
bisphosphate 616
Pyruvate Kinase Is Also a Regulatory Enzyme
of Glycolysis 617
15.5 GLUCONEOGENES
JS 619
Glucose Synthesis Is Required for Survival 619
Glucose Synthesis from Lactate 621
Glucose Is Synthesized from Most Amino Acids 622
Glucose Can Be Synthesized from Fatty Acids
with an Odd but Not an Even Number of Carbons 625
Glucose Is Also Synthesized from Fructose 625
Gluconeogenesis Requires Expenditure of ATP 626
Gluconeogenesis Has Several Sites of Regulation 626
Hormonal Control of Gluconeogenesis Is Critical
for Homeostasis 627
Alcoho l Oxidation Inhibits Gluconeogenesis 628
15.6 GLYCOGENOLYSISAND GLYCOGENESIS 629
Glycogen Is the Storage Form of Glucose 629
Glycogen Phosphorylase Initiates Glycogenolys is 630
Debranching Enzyme Is Required for Glycogenotysis 631
Glycogenesis Requires Unique Enzymes 632
Special Features of Glycogenolysls and Glycogenesis 633
Glycogen Synthesis and Degradation Are Highly
Regulated 635
Effector Control of Glycogen Metabolism 638
Phosphorylase a is a "Glucose Receptor" in Liver 639
Hormonal and Neural Control of Glycogen Synthesis
and Degradat ion 640
16 Carbohydrate Metabolism II:
Special Pathways and Glycoconjugates 647
Nancy B Schwart1.
KEYCONCEPTS
16.1 PENTOSE PHOSPHA TE PATHWAY 648
Pentose Phosphate Pathway Has Two Phases 648
Glucose 6-Phosphate Oxidization Conserves Redox
Equivalents as NADPH and Decarboxylatlon Supplies
Pentose Phosphates 648
lnterconversions of Pentose Phosphates Lead
to Intermediates of Glycolysis 649
Glucose 6-Phosphate Can Be Completely Oxidized
to CO2 651
Pentose Phosphate Pathway Serves as a NADPH
Regenerating System and Supplier of Pentose
Phosphates 651
16.2 SUGAR INTERCONVERSIONS AND
NUCLEOTIDE-LINKED SUGAR FORMATION 652
lsomerization and Phosphorylation Are Common Reactions
for lnterconverting Carbohydrates 652
Nucleotide-Linked Sugars Are Intermediates in Many Sugar
Transformations 653
Epimerizalion lnterconverts Nucleotide-Linked Glucose
and Galactose 654
Glucuronic Acid Is Formed by Oxidation
of UDP-Glucose 654
Decarboxylation, Oxidoreduction, and Transam idalion
of Sugars Yield Necessary Products 655
Sialic Acids Are Derived from N-Acety lglucosamine 657
xvi • CONTENTS

16 .3 BIOSYNTHESIS OP COMPLEX POLYSACCHARIDES 658 Regulation in the Fasted State 701

16.4 GLYCOPROTEINS 659 Regulation of Fatty Acid Oxidation 702
Glycoproteins Contain Variable Amounts of Carbohydrate 659 Fatty Acids as Regulatory Molecules 702
Synthesis of N-Linked Glycoprote ins Involves Dolichol
Phosphate 660
Glycan Function 663 18 Lipid Metabolism II:
16.5 PROTEOGLYCANS664 Pathways of Metabolism of Special Lipids 707
There Are Six Classes of Proteoglycans 664
Biosynthesis of Chondroitin Sulfate Is Typical Robert H. Glew
of Glycosaminoglycan Formation 666
KEY CONCEPTS
18 .1 INTRODUCTION 708
17 Lipid Metabo lism I: Synthesis, Storage, 18 .2 PHOSPHOLIPIDS 708
and Utilization of Fatty Acids Phospholipids Contain Phosphatidic Acid Linked
to a Base 708
and T riacylglycerols 673 Phospholipids in Membranes Serve a Variety of Roles 709
Martin D . Snider, J. Denis McGarry (deceased) Biosynthesis of Phospholipids 712
Asymmetric Distribution of Fatty Acids in Phospholipids
and Richard W. Hanson
Is due to Remodeling Reactions 716
KEYCONCEPTS Plasmalogens Are Synthesized from Fatty Alcohols 716
17 .1 INTRODUCTION 674 18.3 CHOLESTEROL 718
Cholesterol ls Widely Distributed in Free
17 .2 CHEMICAL NATURE OF FATTY ACIDS and Esterified Forms 718
AND ACYLGLYCEROLS 674 Cholesterol ls Synthes ized from Acetyl CoA 719
Fatty Acids Are Alkyl Chains Terminating Plasma Llpoprote ins 722
in a Carboxyl Group 674 Cholesterol Synthesis Is Regulated 726
Most Fatty Acids in Humans Occur as Tr iacylglycerols 675 Cholesterol Is Excreted Primarily as Bile Acids 728
The Hydrophobic ity of Tr iacylglycerols Is Important for Their
18.4 SPHINGOLIPIDS 729
Functions 676
Synthesis of Sphingos ine 729
17 .3 INTERORGAN TRANSPORT OF FATTY ACIDS Ceramides Are Fatty Acid Amide Derivatives of
AND THEIR PRIMARY PRODUCTS 678 Sphingosine 730
Lipid Transport in the Fed State 678 Sphingomyelin Is a Phosphorus-Contain ing Sphingolip id 730
Lipid Transport in the Fasted State 679 Glycosphingo lipids Usually Contain Galactose or
17.4 SYNTHESIS OF FATTY ACIDS: LIPOGENESIS 680 Glucose 732
Glucose Is the Major Precursor for Fatty Acid Sphingolipidoses Are Lysosomal Storage Diseases 734
Synthes is 680 18.5 PROSTAGLANDINS
AND THROMBOXANES 737
Pathway of Fatty Acid Biosynthesis 680 Prostaglandins and Thromboxanes Are Derivatives of
The Citrate Cleavage Pathway Provides Acetyl CoA Monocarboxylic Acids 737
and NADPH for Lipogenesis in the Cytosol 684 Synthesis of Prostaglandins Involves a Cyciooxygenase 739
Modificat ion of Fatty Acids 685 Prostaglandins Exhibit Many Physiological Effects 741
Fatty Acid Synthase Can Produce Fatty Acids
18.6 LIPOXYGENASE
AND OXY-EICOSATETRAENOIC
other than Palmitate 686
ACIDS 742
Fatty Acyl CoAs May Be Reduced to Fatty Alcohols 687
Monohydroperoxyeicosatetraenoic Acids Are Products
17 .5 STORAGE OF FATTY ACIDS of Lipoxygenase Act ion 742
AS TRIACYLGLYCEROL 687 Leukotrienes, Hydroxyeicosatetraenoic Acids, and Lipoxins
Triacylglycerols Are Synthesized from Fatty Acyl CoAs Are Hormones Derived from HPETEs 743
and Glycerol 3-Phosphate 688 Leukotrienes and HETEs Affect Several Physiolog ical
Mobilization of Triacylglycerols Requires Hydrolys is 689 Processes 744
Triacylglycerol Synthesis Occurs during Fasting
as Part of a Tr iacylglyce rol-Fatty Acid Cycle
Involving Glyceroneogenesis 689
19 Amino Acid and H eme Metabolism 751
17 .6 UTILIZATION OF FATTY ACIDS FOR ENERGY
PRODUCTION 691 Marguerite W. Coomes
/3-Oxidation of Straight-Chain Fatty Acids Is a Major
Energy-Producing Process 691 KEY CONCEPTS
Energy Yield from the /3-Oxidation of Fatty Acids 693 19 .1 INCORPORATION OF NITROGEN INTO
Comparison of Fatty Acid Synthesis and Oxidation 694 AMINO ACIDS 752
p-Oxidation of Some Fatty Acids Requires Additional Most Amino Acids Are Obtained from the Diet 752
Steps 694 Amino Groups Are Transferred from One Amino Acid
Ketone Bodies Are Formed from Acetyl CoA 697 to Form Another 752
Utilization of Ketone Bodies by Nonhepatic Tissues Requires Pyridoxal Phosphate Is Cofactor for Aminotransferases 755
Formation of Acetoacetyl CoA 700 Glutamate Dehydrogenase Incorporates and Produces
Peroxisomal Oxidation of Fatty Acids Serves Many Ammonia 755
Functions 701 Free Ammonia Is Incorporated into and Produced
17 .7 REGUIATIONOF LIPID METABOLISM 701 from Glutamine 756
Regulation in the Fed State 701 Amino Acid Oxidases Remove Amino Groups 757
 CONTENTS • xvii
19.2 TRANSPORTOF NITROGENTO LIVER 20.8 DEOXYRIBONUCLEOTIDE
FORMATION 824
AND KIDNEY 757 Deoxyribonucleotides Are Formed by Reduction
Protein Is Degraded Constantly 757 of Ribonucleoside 5' -Di phosphates 824
Ammonia Is Released in Liver and Kidney 758 Deoxythymidylate Synthesis Requires N 5, N 10 -Methylene
19.3 UREA CYCLE 759 H4 Folate 825
Nitrogen Atoms of Urea Come from Ammonia Pyrimidine lnterconversions : Deoxyribopyrimidine
and Aspartate 759 Nucleosides and Nucleotides 825
Synthesis of Urea Requires Five Enzymes 759 20.9 DEGRADATIONOF PYRIMIDINENUCLEOTIDES 826
Urea Synthesis Is Regulated by an Allosteric Effector 20 .10 NUCLEOSIDEAND NUCLEOTIDEKINASE$ 827
and by Enzyme Induction 760
Metabo lic Disorders of Urea Synthesis Have Serious 20.11 NUCLEOTIDE METABOLIZINGEN2YMES
Consequences 761 AS A FUNCTIONOF THE CELL CYCLE 828
19.4 BIOSYNTHESIS OF NONESSENTIAL 20.12 NUCLEOTIDECOENZVMESYNTHESIS 829
AMINO ACIDS 763 20.13 CHEMOTHERAPEUTIC AGENTSTHAT INTERFERE
19.5 DEGRADATION OF AMINO ACIDS 764 WITH PURINEAND PYRIMIDINENUCLEOTIDE
Nonessential Amino Acids 764 METABOLISM 831
Essential Amino Acids 767 Inhibitors of Purine and Pyrimid ine Nucleotide
Branched-C hain Amino Acids 775 Metabolism 832
Biochemical Basis for Responses to Chemotherapeutic
19.6 IMPORTANT METABOLITES DERIVED
Agents 835
FROMAMINOACIDS 778
Metabolites Made from More than One Amino Acid 787
Glutathione 789
19.7 HEMEBIOSYNTHESIS 791 21 Metabolic Interrelationsh ips 839
Enzymes Involved in Heme Biosynthesis 791
Robert A. Harris and David W. Crabb
ALA Synthase Cata lyzes Rate-Lim iting Step of Heme
Biosynthesis 796 KEY CONCEPTS
Porphyrias 797
21.1 INTRODUCTION 840
19.8 HEMECATABOLISM 797
Bilirubin Is Conjugated to Form Bilirubin Diglucuron ide 21.2 STARVE-FEED CYCLE 842
in Liver 797 In the Well-Fed State the Diet Supplies the Energy
lntravascular Hemolysis Requires Scavenging of Requirements 842
Iron 801 In the Early Fasting State Hepatic Glycogenolysis Maintains
Blood Glucose 844
The Fasting State Requires Gluconeogenesis from Amino
Acids and Glycerol 845
20 Purine and Pyrimid ine In the Early Refed State Glycogen Is Formed
Nucleotide Metabolism 807 by the Indirect Pathway 847
Important lnterorgan Metabolic Interactions 847
Joseph G . Cory and Ann H. Cory Energy Requirements , ReseNes , and Caloric
Homeostasis 849
KEY CONCEPTS The Five Phases of Glucose Homeostas is 850
20 .1 INTRODUCTION 808 21.3 MECHANISMSINVOLVEDIN SWITCHINGLIVER
20 .2 METABOLICFUNCTIONSOF NUCLEOTIDES 808 METABOLISMBETWEENTHE WELL-FED
Distribution of Nucleotides Varies with Cell Type 808 AND STARVEDSTATES 852
Substrate Availability Controls Many Metabolic
20.3 5' -PHOSPHORIBOSYL-1-PYROPHOSPHATE Pathways 852
AND GLUTAMINEIN DE NOVO SYNTHESIS Allosteric Effectors Regulate Key Enzymes 853
OF NUCLEOTIDES 809 Covalent Modification Regulates Key Enzymes 855
20 .4 SYNTHESISOF PURINENUCLEOTIDES 810 Changes in the Amounts of Key Enzymes Provide
Formation of IMP 811 Long-Term Adaptation 859
Purine Nucleotide Synthesis Is Highly Regulated 813 21.4 INTERRELATIONSHIP
OF TISSUESIN NUTRITIONAL
Purine Bases and Nucleosides Are Salvaged ANDHORMONALSTATES 863
to Reform Nucleotides 815 Obesity 863
Purine Nucleotides Are lnterconverted to Balance Cellular Dieting 864
Levels of Adenine and Guanine Nucleot ides 817 Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus 865
20.5 GTP IS THE PRECURSOR Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus 866
OFTETRAHYDROBIOPTERIN 817 Cancer 868
Aerobic and Anaerobic Exercise 869
20.6 URICACID IS THE END PRODUCTOF PURINE
Pregnancy 871
DEGRADATION IN HUMANS 820 Lactation 871
20 .7 METABOLISM OF PYRIMIDINE NUCLEOTIDES 821 Stress and Injury 872
Synthesis of Pyrimidine Nucleotides 821 Liver Disease 873
Pyrimidine Nucleotide Synthesis Is Regulated at the Level Renal Disease 874
of Carbamoyl Phosphate Synthetase II 823 Consumption of Alcohol 875
Pyrimidine Bases Are Salvaged to Reform Acid-Base Balance 876
Nucleot ides 824 Colon 877
xviii • CONTENTS

22 Biochemistry of Hormones 883 23 .2 THE EYE: METABOLISM AND VISION 953

Thomas J. Schmidt
KEYCONCEPTS
22 .1 INTRODUCTION 884
22.2 HORMONESAND THE HORMONAL
CASCADE SYSTEM 885
Hormonal Cascade Systems Amplify Specific Signals
Major Polypeptide Hormones and Their Actions 887
22 .3 SYNTHESISOF POLYPEPTIDE
AND AMINO-ACID-
DERIVEDHORMONES 892
Polypeptide Hormones: Gene Coding 892
Amino-Acid-Derived Hormones 895
Inactivation and Degradation of Amino-Acid-Derived
Hormones 896
22 .4 PROTEINHORMONESIGNALING 897
Overview of Signaling 897
Cyclic Hormonal Systems 90 l
Ovarian Cycle Is Controlled by Pulsatile and Cyclic
Secretion of Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone 901
22 .5 MEMBRANEHORMONERECEPTORS 905
Some Hormone-Receptor Interactions Involve Multiple
Hormone Subunits 905
Internalization of Receptors 906
22 .6 INTRACELLULARHORMONECASCADES:
PROTEINKINASES 909
Insulin Receptor: Transduction through Tyrosine Kinase 910
Activity of Vasopressin: Protein Kinase A 912
Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone (GnRH):
Protein Klnase C 912
Activity of Atrial Natriuretic Factor (ANF): Protein Kinase G 913
22 .7 STEROIDHORMONES 916
Structures and Functions of Steroid Hormones 916
Biosynthesis of Steroid Hormones 919
Metabolism of Steroid Hormones 921
Regulation of Steroid Hormone Synthesis 922
Vitamin D3 926
Transport of Steroid Hormones:
Plasma-Binding Proteins 928
22 .8 STEROIDHORMONERECEPTORS 929
Steroid Hormones Bind Intracellular Receptor Proteins
Orphan Receptors 934
Down-regulation of Steroid Receptor by Ligand 934
Nuclear Hormone Receptors , Coactivators,
and Corepressors 935
Nongenomic Steroid Effects 935
Cornea Derives ATP from Aerobic Metabolism 953
Lens Consists Mostly of Water and Protein 954
Retina Derives ATP from Anaerobic Glycolysis 956
Visual Transduction Involves Photochemical, Biochemical ,
and Electrical Events 957
Rods and Cones are Photoreceptor Cells 958
Color Vision Originates in Cones 963
23 .3 MOLECULAR MOTORS AND ASSOCIATED
885
PROTEINS 967
Muscle Contraction 967
Skeletal Muscle: Structural Organization of its Components 967
Skeletal Muscle Contraction 974
Cardiac Muscle: Structure and Contraction 977
Smooth Muscle Contraction : Calcium Regulation 978
Energy Reservoirs for Muscle Contraction 979
Other Classes of Myosins and Molecular Motors 979
23.4 MECHANISMOF BLOODCOAGUIATION 982
Biochemical Processes of Hemostasis 982
Procoagulation Phase of Hemostasis (Phase 1) 983
Some Properties of Proteins Involved in Clot Formation 985
Anticoagulation Phase of Hemostasis (Phase 2) 989
Fibrinolysis Phase of Hemostasis (Phase 3) 994
Role of Gia Residues in Blood Coagulation Factors 994
24 Cell Cycle, Programmed Cell
Death and Cancer 1003
Richard M. Schultz
KEYCONCEPTS
24 .1 INTRODUCTION 1004
24. 2 CELL DIVISION CYCLE 1004
Regulation of Cell Cycle 1005
Growth Factor Signal Transduction Pathway 1008
24 .3 APOPTOSIS: PROGRAMMED CELL DEATH 1010
Major Pathways of Apoptosis 1011
p53 Induction of Apoptosis 1014
MAPK Pathways Regulate Both Cell Death and Cell
Survival 1015
929
24.4 CANCER 1016
Oncogenes and Tumor Suppressor Genes 1016
Properties of Cancer Cells 10 17
Multiple Mutations Are Required to Form a Cancer 1020
Genetic and Biochemical Heterogeneity of Cancers l 023
Mutagens and Promoters Cause Cancers 1023
Biochemical Analysis of Individual Cancers 1023

Part V
PHYSIOLOGICALPROCESSES
25 Digestion and Absorption
of Basic Nutritional Consrimenrs 1029
23 Molecular Cell Biology 939 Ulr ich Hopfer

Thomas E. Smith
KEYCONCEPTS
25.1 INTRODUCTION 1030
KEYCONCEPTS Nutrient Types 1030
23 .1 NERVOUS TISSUE: Several Gastrointestinal Organs Contribute to Food
Digestion 1030
METABOLISM AND FUNCTION 940
Essential Concepts 940 25.2 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 1032
ATP and Transmembrane Electrical Potential In Neurons 942 Different Sites of Digestion 1032
Neuron-Neuron Interaction Occurs through Synapses 943 Digestive Enzymes Are Secreted as Proenzymes 1033
Synthesis, Storage, and Release of Neurotransmitters 945 Secretion Is Regulated by Many Secretagogues 1033
Termination of Signals at Synaptic Junctions 948 25 .3 EPITHELIAL TRANSPORT 1036
Neuropeptides Are Derived from Precursor Proteins 951 Solute Transport May Be Transcellular or Paracellular 1036
 CONTENTS • xix
NaCl Absorption Depends on Na+tK+-exchanging ATPase, Iodine Is Incorporated Into Thyroid Hormones 1091
Membrane Transporters, and Channels 1037 Zinc Is Required by Many Proteins 1091
NaCl Secretion Depends on Na+fK +-exchanging ATPase , Copper Is a Cofactor for Important Enzymes 1092
Membrane Transporters, and Channels 1039 Chromium Is a Component of Chromodulin 1093
Ion Concentration Gradients and Electrical Potentials Selenium Is Found in Selenoprote ins 1093
Energize Transport of Nutrients 1041 Manganese , Molybdenum , Fluoride , and Boron Are Essential
Gastric Parietal Cells Secrete HCI 1042 Trace Elements 1094
25.4 DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION OF PROTEINS 1043 26.11 THE AMERICANDIET:FACTAND FALLACY 1094
Peptidases Assure Efficient Protein Digestion 1043 26 .12 ASSESSMENTOF NUTRITIONALSTATUS
Amino Acid and Di- and Tripeptide Transporters 1046 IN CLINICALPRACTICE 1094
25.5 DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION 26 .13 NUTRIGENOMICS-THEFUTUREOFNUTRITION 1095
OF CARBOHYDRATES 1049
Disaccharides and Polysaccharides Require Hydrolysis 1049
Monosaccharide Transporters 1051
25.6 DIGESTIONAND ABSORPTIONOF LIPIDS 1051
27 Macronutrienrs: Metabolic Effects
Digestion of Lipids Requires Overcoming Their Limited and Health Implications 1101
Water Solubility 1051 Stephen G. Chaney
Lipids Are Digested by Gastric and Pancreatic Lipases 1052
Bile Acid Micelles Solubilize Lipids during Digestion 1053 KEYCONCEPTS
Most Absorbed Lipids Are Incorporated into Chylomicrons 1057
27.1 INTRODUCTION 1102
25.7 BILE ACID METABOLISM 1058
Bile Acid Chemistry and Synthesis 1058 27.2 ENERGYMETABOLISM 1102
Bile Acid Transport 1058 Energy Content of Food Is Measured Primarily
in Kilocalories 1102
Energy Expenditure Is Influenced by Four Factors 1102
26 Vitamins and Minerals: 27.3 PROTEINMETABOLISM 1103
Dietary Protein Serves Many Roles Including Energy
Requirements and Function 1063 Production 1103
Nitrogen Balance Relates Intake to Excretion of Nitrogen 1103
Stephen G. Chaney Essential Amino Acids Must Be Present in the Diet 1103
Protein Sparing Is Related to Dietary Content
KEYCONCEPTS
of Carbohydrate and Fat 1104
26 .1 INTRODUCTION 1064 Normal Adult Protein Requirements 1104
26.2 ASSESSMENTOF MALNUTRITION 1064 Protein Requirements Are Increased during Growth
26.3 DIETARYREFERENCEINTAKES 1065 and Illness 1106

26 .4 FAT-SOLUBLE
VITAMINS 1065
Vitamin A Is Derived from Plant Carotenoids 1065
Vitam in D Synthesis Requires Sunlight 1067
Vitamin E Is a Mixture of Tocopherols and Tocotrienols
Vitamin K Is a Quinone Derivative 1073
26.5 WATER-SOLUBLE VITAMINS 1075
27.4 PROTEIN-ENERGY MALNUTRITION 1107
27.5 EXCESS PROTEIN-ENERGY INTAKE 1107
Obesity Has Dietary and Genetic Components 1107
1072 Obesity , Insulin Resistance, Metabolic Syndrome ,
and Type 2 Diabetes 1108
Obesity Has Significant Health Implications 1110

26.6 ENERGY-RELFASINGWATER-SOLUBLEVITAMINS 1075 27.6 CARBOHYDRATES 1111

Thiamine Forms the Coenzyme Thiamine 27.7 FATS 1112
Pyrophosphate 1075 27.8 FIBER 1113
Riboflavin Forms the Coenzymes FAD and FMN 1077
27.9 COMPOSITIONOF MACRONUTRIENTS
Niacin Forms the Coenzymes NAO and NADP 1077
Pyridoxine (Vitamin 8 6) Forms the Coenzyme Pyridoxal IN THE DIET 1114
Phosphate 1078 Composition of the Diet Affects Serum Cholesterol 1114
Carbohydrates, Glycemic Index, and Glycemic Load 1115
Pantothenic Acid and Biotin Form Coenzymes
Nutritional Protein Requirements Are Achleved by Mixing
Involved in Energy Metabolism 1077
a-Lipoic Acid Plays Multiple Roles in the Body 1079 Vegetable and Animal Proteins 1115
Fiber from Varied Sources Is Desirable 1116
26.7 HEMATOPOIETICWATER-SOLUBLEVITAMINS
1079 Dietary Recommendations 1116
Folic Acid Functions as Tetrahydrofolate in One-Carbon
Metabolism 1079 27.10 NUTRIGENET ICS AND DIET COMPOSITION 1118
Vitamin 812 (Cobalamin) Contains Cobalt in a Tetrapyrrole
Ring 1082 Appendix: Review of Organic Chemistry 1123
26.8 OTHERWATER-SOLUBLE
VITAMINS 1084
Ascorbic Acid Functions in Reduction and Hydroxylation Carol N. Angstadt
Reactions 1084
Choline and Camitine Perform Several Functions 1085
26.9 MACROMINERALS1085 Glossary 1135
Calcium Has Many Physiological Roles 1085
Francis Vella
Magnesium Is Required by Many Enzymes 1086
26.10 TRACEMINERALS 1087
Iron Deficiency Causes Anemia and Decreased Index 1159
lmmunocompetence 1087
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 5.3 Involvement of Transcr iptional Factors in Carcinoge nesis 191
1 Eukaryotic Cell Structure 5.4 Thalassemia d ue to Defects in Messenger RNA Synthesis 197
1.1 Abnorma l Medical Cond itions as Reflected in the pH 5.5 Autoimmunity in Connective Tissue Disease 198
of Blood 7 5.6 Nucle ic Ac id Editing Enzymes: An Antiviral Defense as well as
1.2 Importance of Blood HC0 3- in Metabo lic Ac idosis 11 a Way of Altering Genes Expression 201
1.3 Acce lerated Ag ing and the Cell Nucleus 16 5.7 Involvement of MicroRNAs in Oncogenes is 202
1.4 Mitochondr ial Diseases 18 5.8 Cockayne Syndrome 203
1.5 Lysosomal Enzymes and Gout 19
1.6 Lysosoma l Ac id Lipase Deficiency 20
1.7 Peroxisome Biogenes is Disorders (PBD) 21
6 Protein Synthesis: Trans lat ion and
Posccranslational Modifications
2 DNA and RNA: Com position and Structure 6.1 Silent Mutations May Not Be Silent: ( 1) Hutch inson-Gilford
2.1 DNA Vacc ines 28 Progeria Syndrome and (2) Multidrug Resistance 1 Gene 214
2.2 Diagnostic Use of DNA Arrays in Medicine and Genetics 39 6.2 Missense Mutations: Hemog lob inopath ies 214
2.3 Antitumor Antib iotics That Change the Shape of DNA 42 6.3 Mutations to Form a Terminator Codon 214
2.4 Hered itary Persistence of Fetal Hemog lob in 46 6.4 a-Thalassemia 215
2.5 Telomerase as a Target for Anticancer Agents 46 6.5 Programmed Frameshifting in Biosynthes is of HIV Proteins 216
2.6 Expa nsion of DNA Triple Repeats and Human Disease 48 6.6 Mutations in Mitochondr ial rRNA and tRNA Results in
2.7 Topoisomerases in the Treatment of Disease 52 Antibiotic-Induced Deafness 229
2.8 Epigenet ic Treatments for Cancer 57 6.7 Deletion of a Codon, Incorrect Folding , and Premature
2.9 Staphy lococca l Resistance to Erythromycin 66 Degradat ion: Cystic Fibrosis 231
6.8 Diseases of Lysosome Targeting : I-Cell Disease 238
6.9 Enzyme Replacement Therapy for Lysosoma l Storage
3 Prote ins I: Compos ition and Structure Diseases 238
6.10 Defective Mitocho ndr ial Protein Import and Disease 239
3.1 Plasma Proteins in Diag nosis of Disease 87 6.11 Familial Hyperpro insulinemia 241
3.2 Differences in Insulins Used in Treatment of Diabetes 6.12 Absence of Posttranslational Modificat ion:
Mellitus 92 Multip le Sulfatase Deficiency 243
3.3 Hyperlipop roteinemias 109 6.13 Defects in Collagen Synthesis 246
3.4 Hypo lipoprote inemias 110 6.14 Protein Misfolding and Aggrega tion : Huntington Disease
3.5 Glycosy lated Hemog lobin, HbA 1c 113 and Alzheimer Disease 250
3.6 Prion Diseases and Proteins as Infect ious Agents : 6.15 Defects in the Ubiq uitin-Proteasome System 250
Human Transmissible Spong iform Encepha lopath ies
(TSEs) 114
3.7 Use of Amino Ac id Analysis in Diag nosis of Disease 127
7 Recombi nant DNA and Biotechnology
7 .1 The Polymerase Chain Reaction 258
4 DNA Replication, Recombina tion, and Repair 7 .2 Quantitative Real-Time PCR (qRT-PCR) in the Analysis
of a Gene Assoc iated with Prostate Cancer 259
4.1 Chemotherapy Can Target Precursors of DNA Synthesis 142 7.3 Restrict ion Mappi ng and Evolution 260
4.2 Nucleoside Analogs and Drug Resistance in HIV Therapy 144 7.4 Direct Sequenci ng of DNA for Diagnosis of Bloom Syndrome:
4.3 Topoisomerases as Antib iotics 152 A Genetic Disorder 262
4.4 Cancer and the Cell Cyc le 158 7 .5 Multip lex PCR Analysis of HGPTase Gene Defects
4.5 Recomb ination and Cancer 159 in the Lesch- Nyhan Syndrome 268
4.6 Recomb ination and Gene Therapy 164 7.6 Restriction Fragment Length Polymorph isms Determine
4.7 Cisplatin and the Tour de France 165 the Clonal Origin of Tumors 273
4.8 Thiopur ine Base Analogs as Drugs 166 7.7 Single-Strand Conformat ional Polymorphism for Detection
4.9 Personalized Medic ine 167 of Sponta neous Mutations that May Lead to SIDS 274
4.10 Xeroderma Pigmentosum 170 7.8 The Use of Yeast Artificial Chromosome (YAC) Transgenic
4.11 Mismatch Repair and Cancer 172 Mice to Study Huntington Disease 279
7.9 The Use of Chromosome Walking and J umping to Identify
the Cystic Fibrosis Gene 281
5 RNA: Transc ription and RNA Processing 7.10 Site-Directed Mutagenesis of Type VIII Collagen (C7) 286
7.11 siRNA-Mediated Regulation of Gene Expression 290
5.1 Antib iotics and Toxins That Target RNA Polymerase 185 7.12 Gene Therapy: Normal Genes Can Be Introduced into Cells
5.2 Fragile X Syndrome: A Chromatin Disease? 189 with Defect ive Genes 291
xxii • CLINICALCORRELATIONS

7.13 Transgenic Animal Models 292
7. 14 Knockout Mice to Define a Role for the P2Y1
Purinoceptor 293
7.15 Microarray Techniques to Detect and Treat Diseases
8 Regulation of Gene Expression
8.1 Transmissible Multiple-Drug Resistance 316
8.2 The Bacterial Pathogen of the Stomach: Helicobacter
pylori 317
8.3 Rubinstein-Taybi Syndrome 319
8.4 Tamoxifen and Targeting of Estrogen Receptor 326
8.5 Transcription Factors and Cardiovascular Disease 326
8.6 Cancer Treatment Using Drugs That Target Histone and DNA
Modification: Epigenetic Therapy 328
9 Proteins II : Structure-F unct ion
Relationships in Protein Families
11.7 Genetic Polymorphisms of NADPH-Cytochrome P450
Reductase: Antley-Bix ler Syndrome 443
11.8 Mechanism of Action of Sildenafil 449
296 11.9 Nitric Oxide Overproduct ion in Septic Shock 450
11.10 History and Biological Effects of Nitroglycerin 451
11.11 Therapeutic Uses of Inhaled Nitric Oxide 452
11. 12 The Role of eNOS in Endothelial Dysfunction 452
12 Biological Membranes : Structu re,
Recepcors, and Solute Transport
12.1 Liposomes as Carriers of Drugs, Proteins, and Nucleic
Acids 466
12.2 Abnormalities of Cell Membrane Fluidity in Disease 472
12.3 The Mammalian Kidney and Aquapor ins 480
12.4 Diseases due to Loss of Membrane Transport Systems 488
12.5 Cystic Fibrosis and the c 1- Channel 496
12.6 Diseases Involving the Superfamily of ABC
Transporters 497

9.1 The Complement Proteins 336

9.2
9.3
Functions of Different Antibody Classes 338
Immunization 338
13 Fundamentals of Signal Tra nsduct ion
9.4 Fibrin Formation in a Myocardial Infarct and Use of 13.1 ErbB/HER-Receptor Tyrosine Kinases as Targets for Cancer
Recombinant Tissue Plasminogen Activator (rt-PA) 344 Chemotherapy 518
9.5 Involvement of Serine Proteases in Tumor Cell Metastasis 345 13.2 Endogenous Antagonists of lnterleukin-1 Receptors as Therapy
9.6 Hemoglobinopathies 354 for Inflammatory Diseases 521
13.3 G Protein-Coupled Chemokine Receptors as Targets for the
Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) 523
13.4 G Protein Mutations in Pituitary Gland Tumors and Endocrine
10 Enzymes: Classification, Kinetics, and Contro l Diseases 525
13.5 Alterations in ,8-Adrenergic Receptor Signaling Proteins
10 .1 Hydrolysis of Asparaginase and Leukemia 381
in Congestive Heart Failure 528
10.2 Mutation of a Coenzyme-Binding Site Results in Clinical
13.6 Nitric Oxide/cGMP Signaling as Therapeutic Targets in Cardiac
Disease 390
and Vascular Disorders 531
10.3 A Case of Gout Demonstrates Two Phases in the Mechanism
of Enzyme Action 400
10.4 Physiological Effect of Changes in Enzyme KmValues 402
10.5 Thermal Lability of Glucose-6-Phosphate Dehydrogenase 14 Bioenergetics, M itocho ndr ia,
Results in Hemolytic Anemia 404
10.6 Alcohol Dehydrogenase lsoenzymes with Different
and Oxi dative Metabol ism
pH Optima 405 14.1 Pyruvate Dehydrogenase Deficiency 552
10.7 Inhibitors of Xanthine Oxidase Isolated from Plants 407 14.2 Fumarase Deficiency 555
10.8 Design of a Selective Inhibitor 408 14.3 Cyanide Poisoning 572
10.9 A Case of Poisoning 411 14.4 Leber Hereditary Optic Neuropathy 583
10.10 Mushrooms and Alcohol Metabolism 412 14.5 Mitochondrial Myopathies from Mutations in Mitochondrial
10.11 Testosterone and Prostate Cancer 412 tRNA genes 583
10.12 Natural Products as Inhibitors of Enzymes 413 14.6 Exercise Intolerance in Patients with Mutations in
10.13 A Case of Gout Demonstrates the Difference between an Cytochrome b 584
A llosteric- and Substrate-Binding Site 414 14.7 NADPH Oxidase (NOX) in Health and Disease 585
10.14 Ambiguity in the Assay of Mutated Enzymes 415 14.8 Myocardial Reperfusion Injury 586
10.15 Identification and Treatment of an Enzyme Deficiency 419

15 Carbo hydrate Metabol ism I: Major Metabolic

11 The Cytoc hromes P450 and Nitric Pathways and Their Contro l
Oxide Synchases
15.1 Alcohol and Barbiturates 603
11.1 Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia: Deficiency 15.2 Arsenic Poisoning 605
of CYP21A2 435 15.3 Fructose Intolerance 607
11.2 Steroid Hormone Production during Pregnancy 435 15.4 Diabetes Mellitus 609
11.3 Cytochrome P450 Inhibition: Drug-Drug Interactions and 15.5 Lactic Acidosis 6 I 1
Adverse Effects 438 15.6 Pickled Pigs and Malignant Hyperthermia 612
11.4 Role of Cytochrome P450 2E1 in Acetaminophen-Induced 15.7 Ang ina Pectoris and Myocardial Infarction 613
Liver Toxicity 440 15.8 Pyruvate Kinase Deficiency and Hemolytic Anemia 618
11.5 Cytochrome P450 Induct ion: Drug-Drug Interactions and 15.9 Hypoglycemia and Premature Infants 620
Adverse Effects 441 15.10 Hypoglycemia and Alcohol Intoxication 628
11.6 Genetic Polymorphisms of P450 Enzymes 443 15.11 Glycogen Storage Diseases 633
 CLINICAL CORREIATIONS • xxj jj

19.14 Histidinemia and Formiminotransferase Deficiency 777

16 Carbohydrate Metabolism II: 19.15 Maple Syrup Urine Disease and Other Diseases in the
Special Pathways and Glycoconjugates Branched-Chain Amino Acid Degradative Pathways 778
19.16 Propionic Acidemia and Methylmalonic Aciduria 780
16.1 Glucose 6-Phosphate Dehydrogenase Deficiency 648 19.17 Primary Hyperoxaluria 781
16.2 Wernicke-Korsakoff Syndrome: Associated Anomalies
19.18 Methionine Adenosyltransferase (MAT) Deficiency 782
in Transketolase Activity 651 19.19 Parkinson Disease 785
16.3 Essential Fructosuria and Fructose Intolerance: Deficiency
19.20 Tetrahydrobiopterin 786
of Fructokinase and Fructose 1-Phosphate Aldolase 653 19.21 Albinism 786
16.4 Galactosemia: Inability to Transform Galactose 19.22 Tryptophan Hydroxylase Deficiency 787
into Glucose 654 19.23 Acute Intermittent Porphyria 794
16.5 Pentosuria: Deficiency of Xylitol Dehyd rogenase; L-Xylulose 19.24 Cytoprotective Role of Heme Oxygenase 798
Reductase 656 19.25 Neonatal lsoimmune Hemolysis 798
16.6 Ascorbic Acid (Vitamin C) Is Derived from Glucuronic 19.26 Bilirubin UDP-Glucuronosyltransferase Deficiency 799
Acid 656 19.27 Elevation of Serum-Conjugated Bilirubin 800
16.7 Glucuronic Acid: Physiological Significance of Glucuronide
Formation 656
16.8 Blood Group Substances 658
16.9 Congenital Disorders of Glycosylation (CDGs) 662 20 Purine and Pyrimidine Nucleotide Metabolism
16.10 Defects in Catabolism of Glycoproteins 663
20.1 Loss-of-Function Mutations in Phosphoribosylpyrophosphate
16.11 Glycolipid Disorders 664
Synthetase1(PRPS1): Arts Syndrome 810
16.12 Heparin Is an Anticoagulant 665
20.2 Gout 811
16.13 Chondrodystrophies due to Sulfation Defects 667
20.3 Lesch-Nyhan Syndrome 816
16.14 Mucopolysaccharidoses 668
20.4 Increased Cytosolic 5'-Nucleotidase Activity 819
20.5 Immunodeficiency Diseases Associated with Defects in Purine
Nucleoside Degradation 820
17 Lipid Metabolism I: Synthesis, Storage, 20.6 Tumor Lysis Syndrome (TLS) 821
and Utilizat ion of Fatty Acids 20.7 Hereditary Orotic Acidur ia 823
20.8 Mitochondrial Neurogastrointestinal Encephalopathy
and Triacylglycerols Syndrome (MNGIE) 828
17.1 Obesity 676
17.2 The Key Role of Fatty Acid Metabolism in Type 2 Diabetes:
A Tribute to J . Denis McGarry 677 21 Metabolic Interrelation sh ips
17.3 Triacylglycerol/Fatty Acid Cycle 690
17.4 Genetic Defic iencies in Carnitine Transport or Carnitine 21.1 Obesity and the Metabolic Syndrome 840
Palmitoyltransferase 693 21.2 Protein-Calorie Malnutrition 841
17.5 Genetic Deficiencies in the Acyl CoA Dehydrogenases 694 21.3 Starvation 842
17.6 Refsum Disease 697 21.4 Hyperglycemic, Hyperosmolar Coma 850
17.7 Ketone Bodies as a Fuel: The Atkins Diet 699 21.5 Hyperglycemia and Protein Glycation 852
17.8 Fatty Acids as Regulatory Molecules 703 21.6 Diabetes Mellitus, Type 2 866
21.7 Hypoglycemia and Diabetes 867
21.8 Diabetes Mellitus, Type 1 868
21.9 Cancer Cachexia 869
18 Lipid Metabolism II:
Pathways of Metabolism of Special Lipids
18.1 Clearance of Red Blood Cells: Role of Phosphatidylserine 710 22 Biochemistry of Hormones
18.2 Respiratory Distress Syndrome 71 I 22.1 Hypopituitarism 891
18.3 Treatmentof Hypercholesterolemia 727 22.2 Precocious Puberty 901
18.4 Atherosclerosis 728 22.3 Decreased Insulin Receptor Kinase Activity in Gestational
18.5 Diagnosis of Gaucher Disease in an Adult 737 Diabetes Mellitus 911
22.4 Oral Contraception 926
22.5 Apparent Mineralocorticoid Excess Syndrome 931
19 Amino Acid and Heme Metabolism 22.6 Mineralocorticoid Receptor Mutation Results in Hypertension
and Toxemia of Pregnancy 933
19.1 Carbamoyl Phosphate Synthetase and N-Acetylglutamate
Synthetase Deficiencies 762
19.2
19.3
Deficiencies of Urea Cycle Enzymes 762
Selenoproteins 765
23 Molecular Cell Biology
19.4 Nonketotic Hyperglyc inemia: Glycine Encephalopathy 766 23.1 The Blood-Brain Barrier and Defects in Glucose Transport 94 I
19.5 Proline Dehydrogenase Deficiency 766 23.2 Lambert-Eaton Myasthenic Syndrome 948
19.6 Deficiencies in the Glutamic Semialdehyde Pathway 767 23.3 Myasthenia Gravis: A Neuromuscular Disorder 949
19.7 Phenylketonuria 769 23.4 Macula Degeneration and Loss of Vision 956
19.8 Tyrosinemias 769 23.5 Niemann-Pick Disease and Retinitis Pigmentosa 958
19.9 Alkaptonuria 771 23.6 Retinitis Pigmentosa from a Mu1ation in the Gene for
19.10 Homocysteinemia and Homocysteinuria 771 Peripherin 960
19.11 Diseases Involving Cystine 774 23.7 Leber Congenital Amaurosis: Retinal Dystrophy Leading to
19.12 Diseases of Glutaric Acid Metabolism 774 Blindness 965
19.13 Hyperlysinemia and Lysinuric Protein Intolerance 776 23.8 Voltage-Gated Ion Channelopathies 971
xxiv • CLINICALCORRELATIONS
23.9 Familial Hypertropic Cardiomyopath ies and Mutations in
Muscle Proteins 971
23.10 Dilated Card iomyopathy and Mutations in Actin 972
23.11 Troponin Subunits as Markers for Myocardial Infarction 974
23.12 Ion Channels and Cardiac Muscle Disease 978
23.13 Mutations Affecting Pigmentation: Is There a Molecular
Motor Connection? 980
23.14 Intrinsic Pathway Defects: Prekallikrein Deficiency 985
23.15 Classic Hemophilia 990
23.16 Use of Recombinant Factor VIia to Control Bleeding 990
23.17 Thrombosis: Defects of the Protein C Pathway and Increased
Levels of Coagulation Factors 993
24 Cell Cycle, Program med Ce ll
Death and Cance r
24.1 Oncogen ic DNA Viruses IO 17
24.2 Molecularly Targeted Anticancer Drug 1021
24.3 Environmental Cause of Human Cancers 1022
25 Digestion and Abso rption
of Basic N urritional Const ituents
25.1 Familial Chloridorrhea Causes Metabolic Alkalosis 1039
25.2 Cystic Fibrosis of the Pancreas 1040
25.3 Bacterial Toxigenic Diarrheas and Electrolyte Replacement
Therapy 1041
25.4 Trypsin and Pancreatic Autodigestion 1045
25.5 Gluten Enteropathy 1046
25.6 Neutral Amino Acidur ia: Hartnup Disease 1049
25.7 Disacc haridase Deficiency 1051
25.8 Pharmacolog ical Interventions to Prevent Fat Absorpt ion
and Obesity 1053
25.9 Cholesterol Stones 1056
25.10 Cholesterol Absorption 1057
25.11 A-/3-Upoproteinemia 1058
26 Vitamins and Minerals:
Requirements and Func tion
26.1 Nutritional Considerations in Cystic Fibrosis 1068
26.2 Renal Osteodystrophy 1070
26.3 Nutritional Considerations in Newborn Infants 1074
26.4 Anticonvulsant Drugs and Vitamin Requirements 1075
26.5 Nutritional Considerations in Alcoholics 1076
26.6 Gene Polymorphisms and Folic Acid Requirement 1082
26.7 Nutritional Needs of Elderly Persons 1083
26.8 Diet and Osteoporosis 1086
26.9 Ceruloplasmin and Iron Metabolism 1089
26.10 Hemochromatosis 1090
26.11 Clinical Tests for Iron-Deficiency Anemia
and Hemochromatosis 1091
26.12 Diseases of Copper Metabolism 1093
27 Macronut rients: Metabol ic Effects
and H ealth Imp lications
27.1 Vegetarian Diets and Protein-Energy Requirements
for Child ren 1105
27.2 Dietary Protein Intake and Renal Disease 1105
27.3 Providing Adequate Protein and Calories for Hospitalized
Patients 1106
27.4 Carbohyd rate Loading and Athletic Endurance 1111
27.5 High-Carbohydrate versus High-Fat Diet for Diabetics 1112
27.6 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids and Risk Factors for Heart
Disease 1114
27.7 Metabolic Adaptation : Relationship between Carbohydrate
Intake and Serum Triacylglyce rols 1118
1 Eukaryotic Cell Structure
1.1 Carbonic acid (H2CO3 ) Is a Weak Acid Important
in the Homeostasis of Animals 9
1.2 pH and Buffering Problems I 0
3 Proteins I: Composit ion and Structure
3.1 Proteolytic Cleavage of Proinsulin 90
3.2 Ultraviolet and Visible Light Absorbance Show a Linear
Dependency on Concentration and Path Length 131
15 Carbohydrate Metabolism I: Major Metabolic
Pathways and Their Control
15.1 2,3-Bisphosphoglycerate and High Altitude 601
15.2 Glyceraldehyde 3-Phosphate Dehydrogenase
and Hyperglycemia 604
15.3 Hexokinase II and Cancer 607
15.4 6-Phosphofructo-2-kinase/fructose-2,6-bisphosphatase
and Cancer 618
15.5 TIGAR and Cancer 618
15.6 Pyruvate Kinase M2 and Cancer 6 19
15.7 Phosphorylated Glycogen and Lafera Disease 635

6 Prote in Synthesis: Transla tion and 19 Amino Acid and Heme Metabolism
Posttranslational Modifications 19.1 Blood Urea Nitrogen and Measurementof Nitrogen Balance 753
6.1 Aminoacyl-tRNA Synthetases 212 19.2 Mechanism of Aminotransferases 754
6.2 Ribosome Structure and Function 218 19.3 lntercellular Glutamine Cycle 759
6.3 Chaperones of the Endoplasmic Reticulum 232 19.4 Pyruvoyl Enzymes 765
6.4 Ubiquitin and SUMO 251 19.5 Tryptophan, Carbohydrates, and Sleep 775
19.6 Lysine and Pipecolate 778
19.7 Urochrome 800

10 Enzymes: Classification, Kinetics, and Control

10.1 Units of Energy 382 23 Molecular Cell Biology
10.2 Stereochemistry Helps Explain the Mechanism of Enzyme- 23.1 Structure of Acetylcholine Esterase 949
Catalyzed Reactions 389 23.2 LeuT-Desimpramine Structure: A Clue to the Mechanism
10.3 Abbreviations for NAO and NADP 391 of Neuronal Reuptake of Dopamine, Epinephrine.
10.4 Complex Reactions 398 and Serotonin 950
10.5 Derivation of the Michaelis-Menten Equation 399 23.3 Conformation Changes during Formation
10.6 High-Throughput Screening to Find Inhibitors and Activators of "Active Rhodopsin" 964
of Enzymes 413 23.4 Sequence Homology of Visual Pigments 966
10.7 Clinical Laboratory Assays Employing Enzymes 42 1 23.5 Diagnosis of John Dalton's Color Blindness 967
10.8 Enzyme-Linked lmmunoassays Employ Enzymes as 23.6 Other Differences between Rods and Cones 967
Indicators 421 23.7 Experimental Evidence for Hinge Regions and for the Section
of the Molecule That Promotes Aggregation 970
23.8 Homology among Myosin from Different Sources 972
12 Biological Membranes: Structure, 23.9 Evidence for Conformation Changes on P; and ADP
Release 977
Receptor s, and Solut e Transport 23.10 Thrombomodulin 993
12.1 Phosphatidylinositols Have Many Functions 461 23.11 Structural Arrangement of Tissue Plasminogen Activator 994
12.2 Group Translocation and the -y-Glutamyl Cycle 477 23.12 Activation of Zymogens Involved in Blood Coagulation 995
23.13 Possible Mechanism of Vitamin K Action in Protein
Carboxylation 995
14 Bioenergetics, Mitochondria ,
and Oxidative Metabol ism 24 Cell Cycle, Programmed Cell Death and Cancer
14.1 The Q Cycle, for Electron Transfer and Proton Pumping 24.1 The Bcl-2 Protein Family 1013
in Complex Ill 568
14.2 Pathways of Electron Transfer through Complex IV 570
14.3 Synthesis of ATP on F1 576
14.4 Experimental Evidence for Rotation of the -y-andc-Subunits
25 Digestion and Absorption
by ATP Synthase 578 of Basic Nutr itional Constituems
25.1 Amidation of Peptide Hormones and Neuropeptides 1035
This page intentionally left blank
In the early 1980s, we were motivated to prepare the First Edition
of the T exthook of Biochemistry with Clinical Correlations
because at that time no biochemistry text emphasized the astonishing
advances in the second half of the twentieth century regarding our
knowledge about normal and abnormal mammalian cell biochem-
istry, specifically that of humans. Thus the decision was made that
in this textbook the focus of the presentation would be on the basic
cellular biochemistry of eukaryotes, with an emphasis on mammalian
cells and tissues. The depth and scope of the presentation is srill that
of a basic biochemistry text. In the preparation of the First Edition we
also wanted studenrs to catch a glimpse of how biochemical research
has lead to an undersranding of the causes of many human diseases.
This was accomplished by presenting descriptions of the biochemis-
try of selected diseases in separate Clinical Correlation boxes. These
correlations provide significance to the biochemistry, thus facilitating
the learning process. The popularity of the correlations with studenrs
encouraged us to add new ones in all subsequent editions.
Why a Seventh Edition?
The ever-increasing depth of our knowledge of the biochemistry
and control mechanisms of normal cells and tissues has been the
primary incentive to update the content of the textbook.
Results of recent research have lead to an undersranding of
the molecular evenrs of many cellular and physiological processes,
which until now were poorly understood , such as the extracellular
matrix proteins , programmed cell death, molecular motors, and cell
signaling. Thus, it is appropriate to include these and other such
topics in this textbook. In addition , many of these topics are now
presented in biochemistry courses.
Finally it was also deemed necessary to reorganize some topics
as research has uncovered the complex:relationships between many
cellular and tissue processes. Along with these changes the scope
and number of Clinical Correlations has increased, covering top-
ics as diverse as H IV infections, hypercholesteremia, diabetes, and
Parkinson disease.
Objectivesand Scope of Presentation
for the Seventh Edition
The following objectives were established for the First Edition and
have been retained in all subsequent editions. They are
To present a clear and precise discussion of the biochemistry
of eukaryotic cells, with an emphasis on those of mammalian
tissues
To have the scope and depth of presentation meet the require-
ments of upper-level undergraduate, graduate level, and profes-
sional school courses in biochemistry
To relate biochemical evenrs at the cellular level to
physiological processes in the whole animal;
To cite examples of abnormal biochemical processes in
human disease
The textbook is organized and written such that any sequence of
topics considered most appropriate by an instructor can be pre-
sented. Throughout this text, results from research of nonmam-
malian organisms are presented if the information is more advanced
than that of similar stud ies with mammalian cells. Thus the book
presents a current picture of our biochemical knowledge of eukary-
otic cells.
SignificantChanges in the Seventh Edition
Every chapter was updated with inclusion of new information and
condensation of some material. Some of the changes are
An expanded discussion of microRNAs
An in-depth presentat ion of the basal lamina protein complex,
molecular motors, programmed cell death , and cancer
A presentation of membrane transport mechanisms that con-
forms to current nomenclature and research directions
• A discussion of unstructured proteins
A reorganized discussion of amino acid metabolism that sepa-
rates the synthesis, degradation, and roles of amino acids;
A discussion of heme metabolism included with the amino
acids, which is the more usual placement in a teaching program
A comprehensive presentation of the absorption and
transport of iron
An inclusive discussion of the function of vitamins
concentrated in one chapter
An updating of chapter bibliographies, with selection of refer-
ences from readily available sources, many accessible on the
Web . References are generally to review articles and seminal
publications; carefully selected websites are also listed
Approximately one half of the questions and annotated answers
are new to this edition; they are similar to those used in gradu-
ate and professional school admission examinations, some are
based on data presented in a clinical vignette, and each set of
questions has several problem-solving questions.
In addition , in response to reviewer recommendations, sec-
tions in many chapters have been reorganized for a better flow
of informat ion. Related content that in previous editions was
presented in several different chapters has been consolidated
into single presentations. Illustrations were updated and new
figures added. The adage "A picture is worth a thousand words"
is appropriate, and the reader is encouraged to study the illus-
trations because they are meant to clarify confusing aspects of a
xxviii • PREFACE
topic. As in previous editions, there is frequent cross-referencing
between chapters .
New Features in the Seventh Edition
To facilitate the students' learning, we have added several new features
to the text.
Key Concepts: A list of Key Concepcs appears at the beginning
of each chapter for srudencs to use as a guide while srudying
the chapter and as a reference for self-evaluation at completion
of study.
A Closer Look: These boxes contain supplementary information
on the topic under discussion.
Key Terms:A list of Key T errns appears at the end of each
chapter;
Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man (OMIM):
Accession numbers associated with a disease or enzyme in the
Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man (OMIM) database are
indicated at appropriate places in the text. The OMIM database
(www.ncbi.nlm .nih.gov/Omim) catalogues known diseases with
a genetic component .
Content and Organization of the Seventh Edition
The content of the seventh edition is divided into five major pares.
Part I, Structureof Macromolecules, contains an introduc-
tory chapter on eukaryotic cell structure (Chapter 1), followed
by two chapters on the chemistry and structure of nucleic acids
(Chapter 2) and protein (Chapter 3).
Part II, Transmission of Information, begins with separate chap-
ters on the synthesis of the major cellular macromolecules, that is,
DNA (Chapter 4), RNA (Chapter 5), and proteins (Chapter 6).
A chapter on recombinant DNA and biotechnology is included
because the knowledge and techniques in this area have had and
continue to have a profound impact on research in nearly all facets
of biochemistry (Chapter 7). Part II concludes with a chapter on
the Regulation of Gene Expression in which mechanisms of both
prokaryotes and eukaryotes are presented (Chapter 8).
Part III, Functions of Proteins, opens with a presentation of
the structure-function relationship of four major families of
proteins, that is, antibody molecules, serine proteases, hemo-
globin, and basal lamina proteins (Chapter 9). This is fol-
lowed by a detailed discussion of enzyme function and kinetics
(Chapter 10) and a separate chapter on the cytochromes P450,
a unique and important family of enzymes (Chapter 11). A
chapter on membrane structure and the essentials of transmem-
brane transport mechanisms (Chapter 12), and a chapter on
the basic mechanisms of cellular signal transduction conclude
Part III (Chapter 14). These chapters present the fundamentals
of these topics and subsequent chapters present their role in
specific cellular processes.
Part IV, Metabolic Pathways and Their Control, opens with
a chapter on bioenergetics and oxidative metabolism (Chapter
14). Separate chapters describe the major metabolic pathways of
carbohydrates (Chapter 15), and special pathways of carbohy-
drates and glycoconjugates (Chapter 16). This is followed by a
chapter covering the synthesis, storage, and utilization of energy
in lipid form (Chapter 17), then one describing the metabolism
of phospholipids , sphingolipids, cholesterol, and prostaglandins
(Chapter 18). Amino acid and heme metabolism are covered in
Chapter 19, followed by the synthesis and degradation of the
purine and pyrimidine nucleotides (Chapter 20). A chapter on
the integration of these metabolic pathways in humans completes
this part (Chapter 21). A major emphasis throughout Part N is
on the controls of each pathway or process.
Part V, Physiological Processes, covers those areas unique
to mammalian cells and tissues beginning with a chapter on
hormones that emphasizes their biochemical functions as mes-
sengers (Chapter 22) and a chapter on molecular cell biology
containing discussions of four major physiological signal-trans-
ducing systems: the nervous system, the eye, muscle contraction
and molecular motors, and blood coagulation (Chapter 23) . A
discussion of the cell cycle, programmed cell death , and cancer,
three closely related topics, is presented (Chapter 24). A chapter
on the complex and integrated biochemistry of digestion and
absorption of basic nutritional constituents (Chapter 25) is
followed by one on the functions and nutritional requirements
of vitamins and minerals in metabolism (Chapter 26) . The last
chapter covers the general principles of human nutrition for
proteins , carbohydrates, and fats (Chapter 27).
A Glossary with precise definitions serves as a ready reference to
the most common words in the ever-expanding language of the
biochemical sciences. New terms have been added to enrich this
section.
A Review of Organic Chemistry, as an Appendix , is designed
as a ready reference for the nomenclature and structures of important
organic molecules encountered in biochemistry; it is not intended
as a comprehensive review. The reader should become familiar with
the content of the Appendix so that it can be used when necessary
while reading the main text.
Clinical Correlations boxes in every chapter describe examples
of human diseases where the ramifications of deviant biochemical
processes are well established. There are 260 Clinical Correlations
presenting the aberrant biochemistry of very common to relatively
rare medical conditions, and in some cases their treatment based on
the biochemical knowledge of the condition. The presentations are
discussions of the altered biochemistry rather than a medical case
study. In some instances, the same clinical condition is presented
in different chapters, but each time it is based on the biochemistry
being presented . In the case of several major diseases, as example
diabetes, a single Clinical Correlation is designated as the primary
discussion and other Correlations on the same disease cite the pri-
mary one for general background information. An understanding
of the material in the main text does not require a reading of the
Clinical Correlations . References are included in the Correlations
to facilitate exploration of the topic in more detail. In a few cases,
clinical conditions are discussed as part of the primary text because
studies of the medical condition have lead to an understanding of a
basic biochemical process.

Supplements
The Textbookof Biochemistrywith Clinical Corre/4tions,7e offers
a variety of innovative resources to support both students and
instruct0rs:
For students
Guided Explorations . 50 self-contained presentations, many with
narration, employing extensive animated computer graphics t0
enhance student understanding of key t0pics.
Interactive Exercises. 22 molecular structures that have been ren-
dered in J mol, a browser-independent interface for manipulating
structures in three dimensions, and paired with questions to facili-
tate comprehension of concepts.
Animated Figures. 25 figures illustrating various concepts , tech-
niques, and processes; presented as brief animations that serve as
helpful learning tools.
For instructors
PowerPoint Slides: Includes all of the figures in the text.
Image Gallery:All of the figures in the text in JPEG format.
Test Bank: Over 2,700 multiple choice questions, many derived
from question banks compiled by the Association of Medical and
Graduate Departments of Biochemistry.
In Conclusion
As in previous editions, this work is a multiconrributor textbook.
Each contributor holds a senior academic rank, and they are all
members of the faculties of different universities. All of the contribu-
tors have been involved actively in teaching biochemistry in a gradu-
ate and/or medical program and each has an active research interest
PREFACE • xxix
in the subject presented in the chapter that he or she has written.
They prepared their chapters from the perspective of the classroom
instructor , with the experience to select the topics and determine the
emphasis required for students in a general biochemisrry course.
Every contributor brings to the book an individual approach ,
leading co some differences in presentation. Every chapter, however,
was edited to have a consistent writing sryle and to eliminate unnec-
essary repetitions and redundancies. A few t0pics are discussed in
two different places in the book in order to make the individual
discussions complete and self-contained. This repetition should
facilitate the learning process.
The textbook is not intended as a compendium of biochemical
facts or a review of the current literature, but each chapter con-
tains sufficient detail on the subject co make it useful as a resource.
Conrribut0rs were requested not to reference individual researchers
and not to dwell on the historical aspeccs of their topic; our apolo-
gies to the many scientists who deserve recognition for their out-
standing research contributions that have made chis book possible.
One person must accept the responsibility for the final product
in any project. The decisions concerning the selection of topics and
format and reviewing the drafts and the responsibility for the final
checking of the book were entirely mine. I accept full responsibility for
these decisions. I welcome comments , criticisms, and suggestions from
students, faculty, and professionals. It is our hope that chis work will
be of value to those embarking on the exciting experience oflearning
about the chemistry oflife for the first time, as well as to those return-
ing to a topic in which the information is expanding so rapidly.
THOMAS M. DEVLIN
Berwyn, Pennsylvania
September2009
This page intentionally left blank
CAROL N. ANGSTADT, PH.D.
ProfessorEmerita
School of Nursing and Health Professions
Drexel University
490 S. Old Middletown Road
Media, PA 19063
Email: cnang@veriztm.net
DIANAs.BEATIIE, PH.D.
Professorand Former Chair
Department of Biochemistry
West Virginia University School of Medicine
PO Box 9142
Morgantown, WV 26506
wvu. edtt
E-mail: dbeattie@hsc.
STEPHEN G. CHANEY, PH.D.
Professor
Deparcmencsof Biochemistryand Biophysics
and of Nutrition
Genetic Medicine Building
School of Medicine CB# 7260
University of North Carolina ac Chapel Hill
Chapel Hill, NC 27599-7260
Email: stephen_chaney@med .ttnc.edtt
MARGUERITE W. COOMES, PH.D.
AssociateProfessor
Department of Biochemistryand Molecular
Biology
Howard Universiry College of Medicine
3411 Murdock Road,
Kensington, MD 20895-1630
Email: mcoomes@howardedu
ANNH. CoRY,M.S.
ResearchAssociate
Deparcment of Biochemistryand Molecular
Biology
Brody School of Medicine
EaseCarolina Universiry
Greenville, NC 27834-4354
Email: corya@ecu.edu
JOSEPH G. CORY,PH.D.
Professorand Former Chair
Department of Biochemistryand Molecular
Biology
Brody School of Medicine
EaseCarolina Universiry
Greenville, NC 27858-4354
Email· coryjo@ecu.edu
DAVID w. CRABB, M.D.
John B. Hickam Professor
and Chair
Deparcmencsof Medicine
Professor, Department of Biochemistry
and Molecular Biology
Emerson Hall 317
Indiana University School
of Medicine
545 Barnhill Drive
Indianapolis, IN 46202-5124
Email:dcrabb@iupui.edu
THOMAS M. DEVLIN, PH.D.
ProfessorEmeritus and Former Chair
Department of Biochemistry
and Molecular Biology
Drexel University College of Medicine
159 Greenville Court
Berwyn, PA 19312-2071
Email: tdevlin@drexelmededu
JOHNE. DONELSON, PH.D.
Professorand Former Chair
Department of Biochemistry
Carver College of Medicine
University ofiowa
Bowen ScienceBuilding
Iowa City, IA 52242-0001
EmaiL·john-donelson@uiowa .edu
GEORGE R. DUBYAK, PH.D.
Professor
Department of Physiology
and Biophysics
Case School of Medicine
Case Western ReserveUniversity
2109 Adelbert Road
Cleveland, OH 44106
Email:george.dubyak@case.edu
HOWARD J. EDENBERG, PH.D.
Chancellor's Professor, Professorof
Biochemistryand Molecular Biology
and of Medical and Molecular
Genetics
Department ofBiochemistty and Molecular
Biology
Indiana University School of Medicine
635 Barnhill Drive, Med. Sci. 4063
Indianapolis, IN 46202-5122
Email: edenberg@iupui .edu
ROBERT H. GLEW,PH.D.
Professor Emeritus
Department of Biochemistry
and Molecular Biology
MSC08 4670
University of New Mexico
Albuquerque, NM 87131
Email: rglew@saludunm.edu
DOHNG. GLITZ,PH.D.
ProfessorEmeritus
Department of BiologicalChemistry
UCLA School of Medicine
11260 Barnett Valley Road
Sebastopol, CA 95472
E-mail: dglitz@mednet.ucla.edu
RICHARDW. HANSON, PH.D.
Leonard & Jean SkeggsProfessor
of Biochemistry
Department of Biochemistry
Room W414
Case School of Medicine
Case Western ReserveUniversity
Cleveland, OH 44106-4935
E-mail: rwh@cwru.edu
ROBERT A. HARRIS, PH.D.
Distinguished ProfessorEmeritus
and Showalter Professor
of Biochemistry Emerirus
Deparcment of Biochemistry
and Molecular Biology
Indiana University School
of Medicine
Richard Roudebush VA
Medical Center
Research 151; Room D-3034
1481 West Tench Street
Indianapolis, IN 46202
Email· raharris@iupui.ed1,
ULRICH HOPFER, M.D., PH.D.
Professorof Physiology and Biophysics
and Medicine
Deparcment of Physiology
and Biophysics
Case School of Medicine
Case Western ReserveUniversity
l 09000 Euclid Ave.
Cleveland, OH 44106-4970
Email· ulrich.hopfer@case
.ed1,
xxxii • CONTRIBUTORS

BETnESuESn.ERMAsTIRs,PH.D. D., Sc., NANCY B. SCHWARTZ, PH.D. FRANCIS VEUA,PH.D.

M.D . (HON.) Professor Professor (Recired)
The Robert A. Welch Distinguished Professor Deparrmenrs of Pediatrics and of Biochemistry Department of Biochemistry
of Chemistry and Molecular Biology University of Saskatchewan
Deparrmenc of Biochemistry,MSC 7760 Universiryof Chicago, MC 5058 18 Leyden Crescent
Universiry ofTexas Health Science Cencer 5841 S. Maryland Ave. Saskatoon, Saskatchewan
at San Anronio Chicago, IL 60637- 1463 SK S7J 2S4, Canada
7703 Floyd Curl Drive Email: n-schwartz@uchicago.edu Email:f vella@sasktel.net
San Antonio, TX 78229-3900
Email: masters@uthscsa.edu DAVTD R. SETZER, PH.D. DANIELL.WEEKS,PH.D.
Professor Professor
LINDA]. ROMAN, PH.D. Division of BiologicalSciences Department of Biochemisccy
Associate Professor 410 Tucker Hall Bowen Science Building
Department of Biochemistry-MSC 7760 Universiry of Missouri Carver College of Medicine
Universiry of Texas Health Science Center Columbia, MO 65211 Universiryoflowa
ar San Anronio Email: setzerd@missouri.edu Iowa City, IA 52242
7703 Floyd Curl Dr. Email:daniel_weeks@uiowa.edu
San Antonio, TX 78229-3900 THOMAS E. SMITH, PH.D.
Email: roman@uthscsa .edu Professor and Former Chair HENRY WEINER, PH.D.
Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Professor
FRANCIS J. SCHMIDT, PH.D. Biology Department of Biochemistry
Professor College of Medicine Purdue University
Department of Biochemistry Howard University 175 S. University Street
117 Schweitzer Hall 520 W Street, N .W. West Lafayette IN 47907-2063
Universiry of Missouri Washington, DC 20059 Email:hweiner@purdue.edu
Columbia, MO 65211 Email: tsmith@howard.edu
Email: schmidtf@missouri.edu STEPHEN A. WosKI, PH.D.
MARTIN D. SNIDER, PH.D. Associate Professor
THOMAS J. SCHMIDT,PH.D. AssociateProfessor Department of Chemistry
Professor Depamnent of Biochemistry, Room W433 Box 870336
Department of Molecular Physiology Case School of Medicine University of Alabama
and Biophysics Case Western Reserve University Tuscaloosa, AL 35487-0336
6-452 Bowen Science Building 109000 Euclid Ave Email:swoski@bama .ua.edu
Carver College of Medicine Cleveland, Ohio 44106-4935
Universiry oflowa Email: martin.snider@case.edu
Iowa City, IA 52242-1109
Email: thomas-schmidt@uiowa.edu GERAwSosLAu, PH.D.
Professor and Senior Associate Dean
RICHARD M. SCHULTZ, PH.D. Department of Biochemistry and Molecular
Professor Biology
Programs in Biochemistry and Molecular M.S. 344, Room 4104 NCB
Biology Drexel Universiry College of Medicine
Department of Microbiology and Immunology, 245 North 15th Street
Room l 02-6652 Philadelphia, PA 19102-1192
Srritch School of Medicine Email:gerald.soslau@drexelmed .edu
Loyola Universiry of Chicago
2160 South First Avenue,
Maywood, IL 60153
Email: rschult@lumc.edu
The seventh edition of the Textbookof Biochemistrywith Clinical
Correlations was made possible by the effons and encouragement of
many people, and I extend to everyone my most sincere thank you.
I am very indebted to each of the contributors for accepting the
challenge of preparing the chapters, sharing their ideas to improve
the book, readily accepting suggestions to modify their contri-
butions , and cooperating throughout the preparation . To each I
extend my deepest appreciation for a job well done. The contribu-
tors and I extend a special acknowledgement to our former teachers,
colleagues, and students for their support and inspiration that made
this text possible.
In the preparation of this edition , chapters from the 6th edition
were critically reviewed by the following: Dr. David J. Edwards,
University of Pinsburgh , Dr. Kevin Gaston, University of Bristol,
UK, Professor James J.A. Heffron, University College Cork, Ireland,
Dr. Thomas E. Smith , Howard University, Dr. Frank Vella, Univer-
sity of Saskatchewan, and Dr. Edward J .Wood , University of Leeds,
UK. We, the contributors and I, are deeply indebted to them; their
excellent comments and suggestions were the basis for major changes
in the seventh edition . With regrets I note the death of Dr. Edward
J. Wood in December, 2008; we have lost a dedicated and inspiring
colleague. Our gratitude is extended to Dr. Emmanuel Skordalakes,
The Wistar Institute, Philadelphia, PA, for supplying a model of a
partial telomerase elongation complex for the cover.
I extend my sincerest appreciation and thanks to the members
of the staff of the Higher Education Division of John Wiley & Sons
for their participation in the production of this edition. It has been
a pleasure to work with an extremely intelligent , professional, and
encouraging group of individuals. My deepest gratitude is extended
to Joan Kalkut, Biochemiscry Editor , who patiently and conscien-
tiously guided me during the production of this edition, and coor-
dinated my activities. Joan made many valuable suggescions and
was always available to answer my queries. I extend my appreciation
to Kaye Pace, Vice President, and Executive Publisher for Sciences,
for her commitment to the project. I am in debt to Petra Reeter,
Associate Publisher of Chemistry and Physics, Micheline Freder-
ick, Production Manager and Kerry Weinstein, Senior Production
Editor, for their effons; each demonstrated the highest standards
of professionalism. A special acknowledgement to Hilary Newman ,
Manager , Photo Department and many thanks to Yelena Zolotor-
evskaya, Editorial Program Assistant, who handled efficiently the
administrative details. I extend my deepest appreciation to Marc
Wezdecki, Media Editor , and Kevin Murphy , Senior Designer, and
Hope Miller, designer, who created the cover. The attractive design
of the pages was created by Laura Ireardi, to whom I offer special
thanks. Marketing had an important role in the design of the book
and I extend my deepest appreciation to Kristine Ruff for her very
valuable input .
The copyediting and compositing of this edition were the
responsibility of MPS Content Services, Macmillan Publishing
Solutions . I want to express my special thanks to John Sollami,
Vice President, Onshore Content Services, for his support and
counsel. John and I worked together on the fourth edition, and
it was my good fortune to be able to interact with him again. We
wish to acknowledge Pat O'Maley, Operations Director, who was
responsible for overseeing this phase of the project. The person
responsible for the day by day activities of production was Edward
Dionne , Project Manager, who patiently and meticulously oversaw
the transformation of our manuscripts to pages. Ed kept me well
informed, managed the many details involved, acted promptly to
my suggestions and concerns, and kept us on schedule. It has been
a pleasure to work with an efficient, knowledgeable, and conscien-
tious professional, as well as a very pleasant individual; I extend my
heartfelt thanks to him . The excellent copy-editing of the manu-
scripts was completed by Carol A. Loomis, and the Index was pre-
pared by Diana Witt; to both my sincerest thank you.
I would be amiss if I did not acknowledge the members of
the STM Division of John Wiley who guided the preparation of
the manuscripts and gave me invaluable assistance and support.
My special thanks to Michael Forster, Vice President and Associ-
ate Publishing Director , Physical Sciences, Wiley-Blackwell, for his
continuing support , and Darla P. Henderson, Senior Acquisitions
Editor , Anita Lekhwani Senior Acquisitions Editor, and Rebekah
Amos, Senior Editorial Assistant, who were a constant support and
had an important and valuable role in the completion of the seventh
edition.
Finally, a very special note of gratitude to my wife, Marjorie,
who had the foresight many years ago to encourage me to under-
take the preparation of a textbook, who supported me during the
days of intensive work, and who created an environment in which
I could devote the many hours required for the preparation of this
textbook. To Marjorie, my deepest and sincerest thank you.
THOMAS M. DEVLIN
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 DANCE ON STILTS AT THE GIRLS’ UNYAGO, NIUCHI

Newala, too, suffers from the distance of its water-supply—at least

the Newala of to-day does; there was once another Newala in a lovely
valley at the foot of the plateau. I visited it and found scarcely a trace
of houses, only a Christian cemetery, with the graves of several
missionaries and their converts, remaining as a monument of its
former glories. But the surroundings are wonderfully beautiful. A
thick grove of splendid mango-trees closes in the weather-worn
crosses and headstones; behind them, combining the useful and the
agreeable, is a whole plantation of lemon-trees covered with ripe
fruit; not the small African kind, but a much larger and also juicier
imported variety, which drops into the hands of the passing traveller,
without calling for any exertion on his part. Old Newala is now under
the jurisdiction of the native pastor, Daudi, at Chingulungulu, who,
as I am on very friendly terms with him, allows me, as a matter of
course, the use of this lemon-grove during my stay at Newala.
 FEET MUTILATED BY THE RAVAGES OF THE “JIGGER”
(Sarcopsylla penetrans)

The water-supply of New Newala is in the bottom of the valley,

some 1,600 feet lower down. The way is not only long and fatiguing,
but the water, when we get it, is thoroughly bad. We are suffering not
only from this, but from the fact that the arrangements at Newala are
nothing short of luxurious. We have a separate kitchen—a hut built
against the boma palisade on the right of the baraza, the interior of
which is not visible from our usual position. Our two cooks were not
long in finding this out, and they consequently do—or rather neglect
to do—what they please. In any case they do not seem to be very
particular about the boiling of our drinking-water—at least I can
attribute to no other cause certain attacks of a dysenteric nature,
from which both Knudsen and I have suffered for some time. If a
man like Omari has to be left unwatched for a moment, he is capable
of anything. Besides this complaint, we are inconvenienced by the
state of our nails, which have become as hard as glass, and crack on
the slightest provocation, and I have the additional infliction of
pimples all over me. As if all this were not enough, we have also, for
the last week been waging war against the jigger, who has found his
Eldorado in the hot sand of the Makonde plateau. Our men are seen
all day long—whenever their chronic colds and the dysentery likewise
raging among them permit—occupied in removing this scourge of
Africa from their feet and trying to prevent the disastrous
consequences of its presence. It is quite common to see natives of
this place with one or two toes missing; many have lost all their toes,
or even the whole front part of the foot, so that a well-formed leg
ends in a shapeless stump. These ravages are caused by the female of
Sarcopsylla penetrans, which bores its way under the skin and there
develops an egg-sac the size of a pea. In all books on the subject, it is
stated that one’s attention is called to the presence of this parasite by
an intolerable itching. This agrees very well with my experience, so
far as the softer parts of the sole, the spaces between and under the
toes, and the side of the foot are concerned, but if the creature
penetrates through the harder parts of the heel or ball of the foot, it
may escape even the most careful search till it has reached maturity.
Then there is no time to be lost, if the horrible ulceration, of which
we see cases by the dozen every day, is to be prevented. It is much
easier, by the way, to discover the insect on the white skin of a
European than on that of a native, on which the dark speck scarcely
shows. The four or five jiggers which, in spite of the fact that I
constantly wore high laced boots, chose my feet to settle in, were
taken out for me by the all-accomplished Knudsen, after which I
thought it advisable to wash out the cavities with corrosive
sublimate. The natives have a different sort of disinfectant—they fill
the hole with scraped roots. In a tiny Makua village on the slope of
the plateau south of Newala, we saw an old woman who had filled all
the spaces under her toe-nails with powdered roots by way of
prophylactic treatment. What will be the result, if any, who can say?
The rest of the many trifling ills which trouble our existence are
really more comic than serious. In the absence of anything else to
smoke, Knudsen and I at last opened a box of cigars procured from
the Indian store-keeper at Lindi, and tried them, with the most
distressing results. Whether they contain opium or some other
narcotic, neither of us can say, but after the tenth puff we were both
“off,” three-quarters stupefied and unspeakably wretched. Slowly we
recovered—and what happened next? Half-an-hour later we were
once more smoking these poisonous concoctions—so insatiable is the
craving for tobacco in the tropics.
Even my present attacks of fever scarcely deserve to be taken
seriously. I have had no less than three here at Newala, all of which
have run their course in an incredibly short time. In the early
afternoon, I am busy with my old natives, asking questions and
making notes. The strong midday coffee has stimulated my spirits to
an extraordinary degree, the brain is active and vigorous, and work
progresses rapidly, while a pleasant warmth pervades the whole
body. Suddenly this gives place to a violent chill, forcing me to put on
my overcoat, though it is only half-past three and the afternoon sun
is at its hottest. Now the brain no longer works with such acuteness
and logical precision; more especially does it fail me in trying to
establish the syntax of the difficult Makua language on which I have
ventured, as if I had not enough to do without it. Under the
circumstances it seems advisable to take my temperature, and I do
so, to save trouble, without leaving my seat, and while going on with
my work. On examination, I find it to be 101·48°. My tutors are
abruptly dismissed and my bed set up in the baraza; a few minutes
later I am in it and treating myself internally with hot water and
lemon-juice.
Three hours later, the thermometer marks nearly 104°, and I make
them carry me back into the tent, bed and all, as I am now perspiring
heavily, and exposure to the cold wind just beginning to blow might
mean a fatal chill. I lie still for a little while, and then find, to my
great relief, that the temperature is not rising, but rather falling. This
is about 7.30 p.m. At 8 p.m. I find, to my unbounded astonishment,
that it has fallen below 98·6°, and I feel perfectly well. I read for an
hour or two, and could very well enjoy a smoke, if I had the
wherewithal—Indian cigars being out of the question.
Having no medical training, I am at a loss to account for this state
of things. It is impossible that these transitory attacks of high fever
should be malarial; it seems more probable that they are due to a
kind of sunstroke. On consulting my note-book, I become more and
more inclined to think this is the case, for these attacks regularly
follow extreme fatigue and long exposure to strong sunshine. They at
least have the advantage of being only short interruptions to my
work, as on the following morning I am always quite fresh and fit.
My treasure of a cook is suffering from an enormous hydrocele which
makes it difficult for him to get up, and Moritz is obliged to keep in
the dark on account of his inflamed eyes. Knudsen’s cook, a raw boy
from somewhere in the bush, knows still less of cooking than Omari;
consequently Nils Knudsen himself has been promoted to the vacant
post. Finding that we had come to the end of our supplies, he began
by sending to Chingulungulu for the four sucking-pigs which we had
bought from Matola and temporarily left in his charge; and when
they came up, neatly packed in a large crate, he callously slaughtered
the biggest of them. The first joint we were thoughtless enough to
entrust for roasting to Knudsen’s mshenzi cook, and it was
consequently uneatable; but we made the rest of the animal into a
jelly which we ate with great relish after weeks of underfeeding,
consuming incredible helpings of it at both midday and evening
meals. The only drawback is a certain want of variety in the tinned
vegetables. Dr. Jäger, to whom the Geographical Commission
entrusted the provisioning of the expeditions—mine as well as his
own—because he had more time on his hands than the rest of us,
seems to have laid in a huge stock of Teltow turnips,[46] an article of
food which is all very well for occasional use, but which quickly palls
when set before one every day; and we seem to have no other tins
left. There is no help for it—we must put up with the turnips; but I
am certain that, once I am home again, I shall not touch them for ten
years to come.
Amid all these minor evils, which, after all, go to make up the
genuine flavour of Africa, there is at least one cheering touch:
Knudsen has, with the dexterity of a skilled mechanic, repaired my 9
× 12 cm. camera, at least so far that I can use it with a little care.
How, in the absence of finger-nails, he was able to accomplish such a
ticklish piece of work, having no tool but a clumsy screw-driver for
taking to pieces and putting together again the complicated
mechanism of the instantaneous shutter, is still a mystery to me; but
he did it successfully. The loss of his finger-nails shows him in a light
contrasting curiously enough with the intelligence evinced by the
above operation; though, after all, it is scarcely surprising after his
ten years’ residence in the bush. One day, at Lindi, he had occasion
to wash a dog, which must have been in need of very thorough
cleansing, for the bottle handed to our friend for the purpose had an
extremely strong smell. Having performed his task in the most
conscientious manner, he perceived with some surprise that the dog
did not appear much the better for it, and was further surprised by
finding his own nails ulcerating away in the course of the next few
days. “How was I to know that carbolic acid has to be diluted?” he
mutters indignantly, from time to time, with a troubled gaze at his
mutilated finger-tips.
 Since we came to Newala we have been making excursions in all
directions through the surrounding country, in accordance with old
habit, and also because the akida Sefu did not get together the tribal
elders from whom I wanted information so speedily as he had
promised. There is, however, no harm done, as, even if seen only
from the outside, the country and people are interesting enough.
The Makonde plateau is like a large rectangular table rounded off
at the corners. Measured from the Indian Ocean to Newala, it is
about seventy-five miles long, and between the Rovuma and the
Lukuledi it averages fifty miles in breadth, so that its superficial area
is about two-thirds of that of the kingdom of Saxony. The surface,
however, is not level, but uniformly inclined from its south-western
edge to the ocean. From the upper edge, on which Newala lies, the
eye ranges for many miles east and north-east, without encountering
any obstacle, over the Makonde bush. It is a green sea, from which
here and there thick clouds of smoke rise, to show that it, too, is
inhabited by men who carry on their tillage like so many other
primitive peoples, by cutting down and burning the bush, and
manuring with the ashes. Even in the radiant light of a tropical day
such a fire is a grand sight.
Much less effective is the impression produced just now by the
great western plain as seen from the edge of the plateau. As often as
time permits, I stroll along this edge, sometimes in one direction,
sometimes in another, in the hope of finding the air clear enough to
let me enjoy the view; but I have always been disappointed.
Wherever one looks, clouds of smoke rise from the burning bush,
and the air is full of smoke and vapour. It is a pity, for under more
favourable circumstances the panorama of the whole country up to
the distant Majeje hills must be truly magnificent. It is of little use
taking photographs now, and an outline sketch gives a very poor idea
of the scenery. In one of these excursions I went out of my way to
make a personal attempt on the Makonde bush. The present edge of
the plateau is the result of a far-reaching process of destruction
through erosion and denudation. The Makonde strata are
everywhere cut into by ravines, which, though short, are hundreds of
yards in depth. In consequence of the loose stratification of these
beds, not only are the walls of these ravines nearly vertical, but their
upper end is closed by an equally steep escarpment, so that the
western edge of the Makonde plateau is hemmed in by a series of
deep, basin-like valleys. In order to get from one side of such a ravine
to the other, I cut my way through the bush with a dozen of my men.
It was a very open part, with more grass than scrub, but even so the
short stretch of less than two hundred yards was very hard work; at
the end of it the men’s calicoes were in rags and they themselves
bleeding from hundreds of scratches, while even our strong khaki
suits had not escaped scatheless.

NATIVE PATH THROUGH THE MAKONDE BUSH, NEAR

MAHUTA

I see increasing reason to believe that the view formed some time
back as to the origin of the Makonde bush is the correct one. I have
no doubt that it is not a natural product, but the result of human
occupation. Those parts of the high country where man—as a very
slight amount of practice enables the eye to perceive at once—has not
yet penetrated with axe and hoe, are still occupied by a splendid
timber forest quite able to sustain a comparison with our mixed
forests in Germany. But wherever man has once built his hut or tilled
his field, this horrible bush springs up. Every phase of this process
may be seen in the course of a couple of hours’ walk along the main
road. From the bush to right or left, one hears the sound of the axe—
not from one spot only, but from several directions at once. A few
steps further on, we can see what is taking place. The brush has been
cut down and piled up in heaps to the height of a yard or more,
between which the trunks of the large trees stand up like the last
pillars of a magnificent ruined building. These, too, present a
melancholy spectacle: the destructive Makonde have ringed them—
cut a broad strip of bark all round to ensure their dying off—and also
piled up pyramids of brush round them. Father and son, mother and
son-in-law, are chopping away perseveringly in the background—too
busy, almost, to look round at the white stranger, who usually excites
so much interest. If you pass by the same place a week later, the piles
of brushwood have disappeared and a thick layer of ashes has taken
the place of the green forest. The large trees stretch their
smouldering trunks and branches in dumb accusation to heaven—if
they have not already fallen and been more or less reduced to ashes,
perhaps only showing as a white stripe on the dark ground.
This work of destruction is carried out by the Makonde alike on the
virgin forest and on the bush which has sprung up on sites already
cultivated and deserted. In the second case they are saved the trouble
of burning the large trees, these being entirely absent in the
secondary bush.
After burning this piece of forest ground and loosening it with the
hoe, the native sows his corn and plants his vegetables. All over the
country, he goes in for bed-culture, which requires, and, in fact,
receives, the most careful attention. Weeds are nowhere tolerated in
the south of German East Africa. The crops may fail on the plains,
where droughts are frequent, but never on the plateau with its
abundant rains and heavy dews. Its fortunate inhabitants even have
the satisfaction of seeing the proud Wayao and Wamakua working
for them as labourers, driven by hunger to serve where they were
accustomed to rule.
But the light, sandy soil is soon exhausted, and would yield no
harvest the second year if cultivated twice running. This fact has
been familiar to the native for ages; consequently he provides in
time, and, while his crop is growing, prepares the next plot with axe
and firebrand. Next year he plants this with his various crops and
lets the first piece lie fallow. For a short time it remains waste and
desolate; then nature steps in to repair the destruction wrought by
man; a thousand new growths spring out of the exhausted soil, and
even the old stumps put forth fresh shoots. Next year the new growth
is up to one’s knees, and in a few years more it is that terrible,
impenetrable bush, which maintains its position till the black
occupier of the land has made the round of all the available sites and
come back to his starting point.
The Makonde are, body and soul, so to speak, one with this bush.
According to my Yao informants, indeed, their name means nothing
else but “bush people.” Their own tradition says that they have been
settled up here for a very long time, but to my surprise they laid great
stress on an original immigration. Their old homes were in the
south-east, near Mikindani and the mouth of the Rovuma, whence
their peaceful forefathers were driven by the continual raids of the
Sakalavas from Madagascar and the warlike Shirazis[47] of the coast,
to take refuge on the almost inaccessible plateau. I have studied
African ethnology for twenty years, but the fact that changes of
population in this apparently quiet and peaceable corner of the earth
could have been occasioned by outside enterprises taking place on
the high seas, was completely new to me. It is, no doubt, however,
correct.
The charming tribal legend of the Makonde—besides informing us
of other interesting matters—explains why they have to live in the
thickest of the bush and a long way from the edge of the plateau,
instead of making their permanent homes beside the purling brooks
and springs of the low country.
“The place where the tribe originated is Mahuta, on the southern
side of the plateau towards the Rovuma, where of old time there was
nothing but thick bush. Out of this bush came a man who never
washed himself or shaved his head, and who ate and drank but little.
He went out and made a human figure from the wood of a tree
growing in the open country, which he took home to his abode in the
bush and there set it upright. In the night this image came to life and
was a woman. The man and woman went down together to the
Rovuma to wash themselves. Here the woman gave birth to a still-
born child. They left that place and passed over the high land into the
valley of the Mbemkuru, where the woman had another child, which
was also born dead. Then they returned to the high bush country of
Mahuta, where the third child was born, which lived and grew up. In
course of time, the couple had many more children, and called
themselves Wamatanda. These were the ancestral stock of the
Makonde, also called Wamakonde,[48] i.e., aborigines. Their
forefather, the man from the bush, gave his children the command to
bury their dead upright, in memory of the mother of their race who
was cut out of wood and awoke to life when standing upright. He also
warned them against settling in the valleys and near large streams,
for sickness and death dwelt there. They were to make it a rule to
have their huts at least an hour’s walk from the nearest watering-
place; then their children would thrive and escape illness.”
The explanation of the name Makonde given by my informants is
somewhat different from that contained in the above legend, which I
extract from a little book (small, but packed with information), by
Pater Adams, entitled Lindi und sein Hinterland. Otherwise, my
results agree exactly with the statements of the legend. Washing?
Hapana—there is no such thing. Why should they do so? As it is, the
supply of water scarcely suffices for cooking and drinking; other
people do not wash, so why should the Makonde distinguish himself
by such needless eccentricity? As for shaving the head, the short,
woolly crop scarcely needs it,[49] so the second ancestral precept is
likewise easy enough to follow. Beyond this, however, there is
nothing ridiculous in the ancestor’s advice. I have obtained from
various local artists a fairly large number of figures carved in wood,
ranging from fifteen to twenty-three inches in height, and
representing women belonging to the great group of the Mavia,
Makonde, and Matambwe tribes. The carving is remarkably well
done and renders the female type with great accuracy, especially the
keloid ornamentation, to be described later on. As to the object and
meaning of their works the sculptors either could or (more probably)
would tell me nothing, and I was forced to content myself with the
scanty information vouchsafed by one man, who said that the figures
were merely intended to represent the nembo—the artificial
deformations of pelele, ear-discs, and keloids. The legend recorded
by Pater Adams places these figures in a new light. They must surely
be more than mere dolls; and we may even venture to assume that
they are—though the majority of present-day Makonde are probably
unaware of the fact—representations of the tribal ancestress.
 The references in the legend to the descent from Mahuta to the
Rovuma, and to a journey across the highlands into the Mbekuru
valley, undoubtedly indicate the previous history of the tribe, the
travels of the ancestral pair typifying the migrations of their
descendants. The descent to the neighbouring Rovuma valley, with
its extraordinary fertility and great abundance of game, is intelligible
at a glance—but the crossing of the Lukuledi depression, the ascent
to the Rondo Plateau and the descent to the Mbemkuru, also lie
within the bounds of probability, for all these districts have exactly
the same character as the extreme south. Now, however, comes a
point of especial interest for our bacteriological age. The primitive
Makonde did not enjoy their lives in the marshy river-valleys.
Disease raged among them, and many died. It was only after they
had returned to their original home near Mahuta, that the health
conditions of these people improved. We are very apt to think of the
African as a stupid person whose ignorance of nature is only equalled
by his fear of it, and who looks on all mishaps as caused by evil
spirits and malignant natural powers. It is much more correct to
assume in this case that the people very early learnt to distinguish
districts infested with malaria from those where it is absent.
This knowledge is crystallized in the
ancestral warning against settling in the
valleys and near the great waters, the
dwelling-places of disease and death. At the
same time, for security against the hostile
Mavia south of the Rovuma, it was enacted
that every settlement must be not less than a
certain distance from the southern edge of the
plateau. Such in fact is their mode of life at the
present day. It is not such a bad one, and
certainly they are both safer and more
comfortable than the Makua, the recent
intruders from the south, who have made USUAL METHOD OF
good their footing on the western edge of the CLOSING HUT-DOOR
plateau, extending over a fairly wide belt of
country. Neither Makua nor Makonde show in their dwellings
anything of the size and comeliness of the Yao houses in the plain,
especially at Masasi, Chingulungulu and Zuza’s. Jumbe Chauro, a
Makonde hamlet not far from Newala, on the road to Mahuta, is the
most important settlement of the tribe I have yet seen, and has fairly
spacious huts. But how slovenly is their construction compared with
the palatial residences of the elephant-hunters living in the plain.
The roofs are still more untidy than in the general run of huts during
the dry season, the walls show here and there the scanty beginnings
or the lamentable remains of the mud plastering, and the interior is a
veritable dog-kennel; dirt, dust and disorder everywhere. A few huts
only show any attempt at division into rooms, and this consists
merely of very roughly-made bamboo partitions. In one point alone
have I noticed any indication of progress—in the method of fastening
the door. Houses all over the south are secured in a simple but
ingenious manner. The door consists of a set of stout pieces of wood
or bamboo, tied with bark-string to two cross-pieces, and moving in
two grooves round one of the door-posts, so as to open inwards. If
the owner wishes to leave home, he takes two logs as thick as a man’s
upper arm and about a yard long. One of these is placed obliquely
against the middle of the door from the inside, so as to form an angle
of from 60° to 75° with the ground. He then places the second piece
horizontally across the first, pressing it downward with all his might.
It is kept in place by two strong posts planted in the ground a few
inches inside the door. This fastening is absolutely safe, but of course
cannot be applied to both doors at once, otherwise how could the
owner leave or enter his house? I have not yet succeeded in finding
out how the back door is fastened.

MAKONDE LOCK AND KEY AT JUMBE CHAURO

 This is the general way of closing a house. The Makonde at Jumbe
Chauro, however, have a much more complicated, solid and original
one. Here, too, the door is as already described, except that there is
only one post on the inside, standing by itself about six inches from
one side of the doorway. Opposite this post is a hole in the wall just
large enough to admit a man’s arm. The door is closed inside by a
large wooden bolt passing through a hole in this post and pressing
with its free end against the door. The other end has three holes into
which fit three pegs running in vertical grooves inside the post. The
door is opened with a wooden key about a foot long, somewhat
curved and sloped off at the butt; the other end has three pegs
corresponding to the holes, in the bolt, so that, when it is thrust
through the hole in the wall and inserted into the rectangular
opening in the post, the pegs can be lifted and the bolt drawn out.[50]

MODE OF INSERTING THE KEY

With no small pride first one householder and then a second

showed me on the spot the action of this greatest invention of the
Makonde Highlands. To both with an admiring exclamation of
“Vizuri sana!” (“Very fine!”). I expressed the wish to take back these
marvels with me to Ulaya, to show the Wazungu what clever fellows
the Makonde are. Scarcely five minutes after my return to camp at
Newala, the two men came up sweating under the weight of two
heavy logs which they laid down at my feet, handing over at the same
time the keys of the fallen fortress. Arguing, logically enough, that if
the key was wanted, the lock would be wanted with it, they had taken
their axes and chopped down the posts—as it never occurred to them
to dig them out of the ground and so bring them intact. Thus I have
two badly damaged specimens, and the owners, instead of praise,
come in for a blowing-up.
The Makua huts in the environs of Newala are especially
miserable; their more than slovenly construction reminds one of the
temporary erections of the Makua at Hatia’s, though the people here
have not been concerned in a war. It must therefore be due to
congenital idleness, or else to the absence of a powerful chief. Even
the baraza at Mlipa’s, a short hour’s walk south-east of Newala,
shares in this general neglect. While public buildings in this country
are usually looked after more or less carefully, this is in evident
danger of being blown over by the first strong easterly gale. The only
attractive object in this whole district is the grave of the late chief
Mlipa. I visited it in the morning, while the sun was still trying with
partial success to break through the rolling mists, and the circular
grove of tall euphorbias, which, with a broken pot, is all that marks
the old king’s resting-place, impressed one with a touch of pathos.
Even my very materially-minded carriers seemed to feel something
of the sort, for instead of their usual ribald songs, they chanted
solemnly, as we marched on through the dense green of the Makonde
bush:—
 “We shall arrive with the great master; we stand in a row and have
no fear about getting our food and our money from the Serkali (the
Government). We are not afraid; we are going along with the great
master, the lion; we are going down to the coast and back.”
With regard to the characteristic features of the various tribes here
on the western edge of the plateau, I can arrive at no other
conclusion than the one already come to in the plain, viz., that it is
impossible for anyone but a trained anthropologist to assign any
given individual at once to his proper tribe. In fact, I think that even
an anthropological specialist, after the most careful examination,
might find it a difficult task to decide. The whole congeries of peoples
collected in the region bounded on the west by the great Central
African rift, Tanganyika and Nyasa, and on the east by the Indian
Ocean, are closely related to each other—some of their languages are
only distinguished from one another as dialects of the same speech,
and no doubt all the tribes present the same shape of skull and
structure of skeleton. Thus, surely, there can be no very striking
differences in outward appearance.
 Even did such exist, I should have no time
to concern myself with them, for day after day,
I have to see or hear, as the case may be—in
any case to grasp and record—an
extraordinary number of ethnographic
phenomena. I am almost disposed to think it
fortunate that some departments of inquiry, at
least, are barred by external circumstances.
Chief among these is the subject of iron-
working. We are apt to think of Africa as a
country where iron ore is everywhere, so to
speak, to be picked up by the roadside, and
where it would be quite surprising if the
inhabitants had not learnt to smelt the
material ready to their hand. In fact, the
knowledge of this art ranges all over the
continent, from the Kabyles in the north to the
Kafirs in the south. Here between the Rovuma
and the Lukuledi the conditions are not so
favourable. According to the statements of the
Makonde, neither ironstone nor any other
form of iron ore is known to them. They have
not therefore advanced to the art of smelting
the metal, but have hitherto bought all their
THE ANCESTRESS OF
THE MAKONDE
iron implements from neighbouring tribes.
Even in the plain the inhabitants are not much
better off. Only one man now living is said to
understand the art of smelting iron. This old fundi lives close to
Huwe, that isolated, steep-sided block of granite which rises out of
the green solitude between Masasi and Chingulungulu, and whose
jagged and splintered top meets the traveller’s eye everywhere. While
still at Masasi I wished to see this man at work, but was told that,
frightened by the rising, he had retired across the Rovuma, though
he would soon return. All subsequent inquiries as to whether the
fundi had come back met with the genuine African answer, “Bado”
(“Not yet”).
 BRAZIER

Some consolation was afforded me by a brassfounder, whom I

came across in the bush near Akundonde’s. This man is the favourite
of women, and therefore no doubt of the gods; he welds the glittering
brass rods purchased at the coast into those massive, heavy rings
which, on the wrists and ankles of the local fair ones, continually give
me fresh food for admiration. Like every decent master-craftsman he
had all his tools with him, consisting of a pair of bellows, three
crucibles and a hammer—nothing more, apparently. He was quite
willing to show his skill, and in a twinkling had fixed his bellows on
the ground. They are simply two goat-skins, taken off whole, the four
legs being closed by knots, while the upper opening, intended to
admit the air, is kept stretched by two pieces of wood. At the lower
end of the skin a smaller opening is left into which a wooden tube is
stuck. The fundi has quickly borrowed a heap of wood-embers from
the nearest hut; he then fixes the free ends of the two tubes into an
earthen pipe, and clamps them to the ground by means of a bent
piece of wood. Now he fills one of his small clay crucibles, the dross
on which shows that they have been long in use, with the yellow
material, places it in the midst of the embers, which, at present are
only faintly glimmering, and begins his work. In quick alternation
the smith’s two hands move up and down with the open ends of the
bellows; as he raises his hand he holds the slit wide open, so as to let
the air enter the skin bag unhindered. In pressing it down he closes
the bag, and the air puffs through the bamboo tube and clay pipe into
the fire, which quickly burns up. The smith, however, does not keep
on with this work, but beckons to another man, who relieves him at
the bellows, while he takes some more tools out of a large skin pouch
carried on his back. I look on in wonder as, with a smooth round
stick about the thickness of a finger, he bores a few vertical holes into
the clean sand of the soil. This should not be difficult, yet the man
seems to be taking great pains over it. Then he fastens down to the
ground, with a couple of wooden clamps, a neat little trough made by
splitting a joint of bamboo in half, so that the ends are closed by the
two knots. At last the yellow metal has attained the right consistency,
and the fundi lifts the crucible from the fire by means of two sticks
split at the end to serve as tongs. A short swift turn to the left—a
tilting of the crucible—and the molten brass, hissing and giving forth
clouds of smoke, flows first into the bamboo mould and then into the
holes in the ground.
The technique of this backwoods craftsman may not be very far
advanced, but it cannot be denied that he knows how to obtain an
adequate result by the simplest means. The ladies of highest rank in
this country—that is to say, those who can afford it, wear two kinds
of these massive brass rings, one cylindrical, the other semicircular
in section. The latter are cast in the most ingenious way in the
bamboo mould, the former in the circular hole in the sand. It is quite
a simple matter for the fundi to fit these bars to the limbs of his fair
customers; with a few light strokes of his hammer he bends the
pliable brass round arm or ankle without further inconvenience to
the wearer.
SHAPING THE POT

SMOOTHING WITH MAIZE-COB

CUTTING THE EDGE

 FINISHING THE BOTTOM

LAST SMOOTHING BEFORE

BURNING

FIRING THE BRUSH-PILE

 LIGHTING THE FARTHER SIDE OF
THE PILE

TURNING THE RED-HOT VESSEL

NYASA WOMAN MAKING POTS AT MASASI

Pottery is an art which must always and everywhere excite the
interest of the student, just because it is so intimately connected with
the development of human culture, and because its relics are one of
the principal factors in the reconstruction of our own condition in
prehistoric times. I shall always remember with pleasure the two or
three afternoons at Masasi when Salim Matola’s mother, a slightly-
built, graceful, pleasant-looking woman, explained to me with
touching patience, by means of concrete illustrations, the ceramic art
of her people. The only implements for this primitive process were a
lump of clay in her left hand, and in the right a calabash containing
the following valuables: the fragment of a maize-cob stripped of all
its grains, a smooth, oval pebble, about the size of a pigeon’s egg, a
few chips of gourd-shell, a bamboo splinter about the length of one’s
hand, a small shell, and a bunch of some herb resembling spinach.
 Nothing more. The woman scraped with the
shell a round, shallow hole in the soft, fine
sand of the soil, and, when an active young
girl had filled the calabash with water for her,
she began to knead the clay. As if by magic it
gradually assumed the shape of a rough but
already well-shaped vessel, which only wanted
a little touching up with the instruments
before mentioned. I looked out with the
MAKUA WOMAN closest attention for any indication of the use
MAKING A POT. of the potter’s wheel, in however rudimentary
SHOWS THE a form, but no—hapana (there is none). The
BEGINNINGS OF THE embryo pot stood firmly in its little
POTTER’S WHEEL
depression, and the woman walked round it in
a stooping posture, whether she was removing
small stones or similar foreign bodies with the maize-cob, smoothing
the inner or outer surface with the splinter of bamboo, or later, after
letting it dry for a day, pricking in the ornamentation with a pointed
bit of gourd-shell, or working out the bottom, or cutting the edge
with a sharp bamboo knife, or giving the last touches to the finished
vessel. This occupation of the women is infinitely toilsome, but it is
without doubt an accurate reproduction of the process in use among
our ancestors of the Neolithic and Bronze ages.
There is no doubt that the invention of pottery, an item in human
progress whose importance cannot be over-estimated, is due to
women. Rough, coarse and unfeeling, the men of the horde range
over the countryside. When the united cunning of the hunters has
succeeded in killing the game; not one of them thinks of carrying
home the spoil. A bright fire, kindled by a vigorous wielding of the
drill, is crackling beside them; the animal has been cleaned and cut
up secundum artem, and, after a slight singeing, will soon disappear
under their sharp teeth; no one all this time giving a single thought
to wife or child.
To what shifts, on the other hand, the primitive wife, and still more
the primitive mother, was put! Not even prehistoric stomachs could
endure an unvarying diet of raw food. Something or other suggested
the beneficial effect of hot water on the majority of approved but
indigestible dishes. Perhaps a neighbour had tried holding the hard
roots or tubers over the fire in a calabash filled with water—or maybe
an ostrich-egg-shell, or a hastily improvised vessel of bark. They
became much softer and more palatable than they had previously
been; but, unfortunately, the vessel could not stand the fire and got
charred on the outside. That can be remedied, thought our
ancestress, and plastered a layer of wet clay round a similar vessel.
This is an improvement; the cooking utensil remains uninjured, but
the heat of the fire has shrunk it, so that it is loose in its shell. The
next step is to detach it, so, with a firm grip and a jerk, shell and
kernel are separated, and pottery is invented. Perhaps, however, the
discovery which led to an intelligent use of the burnt-clay shell, was
made in a slightly different way. Ostrich-eggs and calabashes are not
to be found in every part of the world, but everywhere mankind has
arrived at the art of making baskets out of pliant materials, such as
bark, bast, strips of palm-leaf, supple twigs, etc. Our inventor has no
water-tight vessel provided by nature. “Never mind, let us line the
basket with clay.” This answers the purpose, but alas! the basket gets
burnt over the blazing fire, the woman watches the process of
cooking with increasing uneasiness, fearing a leak, but no leak
appears. The food, done to a turn, is eaten with peculiar relish; and
the cooking-vessel is examined, half in curiosity, half in satisfaction
at the result. The plastic clay is now hard as stone, and at the same
time looks exceedingly well, for the neat plaiting of the burnt basket
is traced all over it in a pretty pattern. Thus, simultaneously with
pottery, its ornamentation was invented.
Primitive woman has another claim to respect. It was the man,
roving abroad, who invented the art of producing fire at will, but the
woman, unable to imitate him in this, has been a Vestal from the
earliest times. Nothing gives so much trouble as the keeping alight of
the smouldering brand, and, above all, when all the men are absent
from the camp. Heavy rain-clouds gather, already the first large
drops are falling, the first gusts of the storm rage over the plain. The
little flame, a greater anxiety to the woman than her own children,
flickers unsteadily in the blast. What is to be done? A sudden thought
occurs to her, and in an instant she has constructed a primitive hut
out of strips of bark, to protect the flame against rain and wind.
This, or something very like it, was the way in which the principle
of the house was discovered; and even the most hardened misogynist
cannot fairly refuse a woman the credit of it. The protection of the
hearth-fire from the weather is the germ from which the human
dwelling was evolved. Men had little, if any share, in this forward
step, and that only at a late stage. Even at the present day, the
plastering of the housewall with clay and the manufacture of pottery
are exclusively the women’s business. These are two very significant
survivals. Our European kitchen-garden, too, is originally a woman’s
invention, and the hoe, the primitive instrument of agriculture, is,
characteristically enough, still used in this department. But the
noblest achievement which we owe to the other sex is unquestionably
the art of cookery. Roasting alone—the oldest process—is one for
which men took the hint (a very obvious one) from nature. It must
have been suggested by the scorched carcase of some animal
overtaken by the destructive forest-fires. But boiling—the process of
improving organic substances by the help of water heated to boiling-
point—is a much later discovery. It is so recent that it has not even
yet penetrated to all parts of the world. The Polynesians understand
how to steam food, that is, to cook it, neatly wrapped in leaves, in a
hole in the earth between hot stones, the air being excluded, and
(sometimes) a few drops of water sprinkled on the stones; but they
do not understand boiling.
To come back from this digression, we find that the slender Nyasa
woman has, after once more carefully examining the finished pot,
put it aside in the shade to dry. On the following day she sends me
word by her son, Salim Matola, who is always on hand, that she is
going to do the burning, and, on coming out of my house, I find her
already hard at work. She has spread on the ground a layer of very
dry sticks, about as thick as one’s thumb, has laid the pot (now of a
yellowish-grey colour) on them, and is piling brushwood round it.
My faithful Pesa mbili, the mnyampara, who has been standing by,
most obligingly, with a lighted stick, now hands it to her. Both of
them, blowing steadily, light the pile on the lee side, and, when the
flame begins to catch, on the weather side also. Soon the whole is in a
blaze, but the dry fuel is quickly consumed and the fire dies down, so
that we see the red-hot vessel rising from the ashes. The woman
turns it continually with a long stick, sometimes one way and
sometimes another, so that it may be evenly heated all over. In
twenty minutes she rolls it out of the ash-heap, takes up the bundle
of spinach, which has been lying for two days in a jar of water, and
sprinkles the red-hot clay with it. The places where the drops fall are
marked by black spots on the uniform reddish-brown surface. With a
sigh of relief, and with visible satisfaction, the woman rises to an
erect position; she is standing just in a line between me and the fire,
from which a cloud of smoke is just rising: I press the ball of my
camera, the shutter clicks—the apotheosis is achieved! Like a
priestess, representative of her inventive sex, the graceful woman
stands: at her feet the hearth-fire she has given us beside her the
invention she has devised for us, in the background the home she has
built for us.
At Newala, also, I have had the manufacture of pottery carried on
in my presence. Technically the process is better than that already
described, for here we find the beginnings of the potter’s wheel,
which does not seem to exist in the plains; at least I have seen
nothing of the sort. The artist, a frightfully stupid Makua woman, did
not make a depression in the ground to receive the pot she was about
to shape, but used instead a large potsherd. Otherwise, she went to
work in much the same way as Salim’s mother, except that she saved
herself the trouble of walking round and round her work by squatting
at her ease and letting the pot and potsherd rotate round her; this is
surely the first step towards a machine. But it does not follow that
the pot was improved by the process. It is true that it was beautifully
rounded and presented a very creditable appearance when finished,
but the numerous large and small vessels which I have seen, and, in
part, collected, in the “less advanced” districts, are no less so. We
moderns imagine that instruments of precision are necessary to
produce excellent results. Go to the prehistoric collections of our
museums and look at the pots, urns and bowls of our ancestors in the
dim ages of the past, and you will at once perceive your error.
MAKING LONGITUDINAL CUT IN
BARK

DRAWING THE BARK OFF THE LOG

REMOVING THE OUTER BARK

 BEATING THE BARK

WORKING THE BARK-CLOTH AFTER BEATING, TO MAKE IT

SOFT

MANUFACTURE OF BARK-CLOTH AT NEWALA

To-day, nearly the whole population of German East Africa is
clothed in imported calico. This was not always the case; even now in
some parts of the north dressed skins are still the prevailing wear,
and in the north-western districts—east and north of Lake
Tanganyika—lies a zone where bark-cloth has not yet been
superseded. Probably not many generations have passed since such
bark fabrics and kilts of skins were the only clothing even in the
south. Even to-day, large quantities of this bright-red or drab
material are still to be found; but if we wish to see it, we must look in
the granaries and on the drying stages inside the native huts, where
it serves less ambitious uses as wrappings for those seeds and fruits
which require to be packed with special care. The salt produced at
Masasi, too, is packed for transport to a distance in large sheets of
bark-cloth. Wherever I found it in any degree possible, I studied the
process of making this cloth. The native requisitioned for the
purpose arrived, carrying a log between two and three yards long and
as thick as his thigh, and nothing else except a curiously-shaped
mallet and the usual long, sharp and pointed knife which all men and
boys wear in a belt at their backs without a sheath—horribile dictu!
[51]
Silently he squats down before me, and with two rapid cuts has
drawn a couple of circles round the log some two yards apart, and
slits the bark lengthwise between them with the point of his knife.
With evident care, he then scrapes off the outer rind all round the
log, so that in a quarter of an hour the inner red layer of the bark
shows up brightly-coloured between the two untouched ends. With
some trouble and much caution, he now loosens the bark at one end,
and opens the cylinder. He then stands up, takes hold of the free
edge with both hands, and turning it inside out, slowly but steadily
pulls it off in one piece. Now comes the troublesome work of
scraping all superfluous particles of outer bark from the outside of
the long, narrow piece of material, while the inner side is carefully
scrutinised for defective spots. At last it is ready for beating. Having
signalled to a friend, who immediately places a bowl of water beside
him, the artificer damps his sheet of bark all over, seizes his mallet,
lays one end of the stuff on the smoothest spot of the log, and
hammers away slowly but continuously. “Very simple!” I think to
myself. “Why, I could do that, too!”—but I am forced to change my
opinions a little later on; for the beating is quite an art, if the fabric is
not to be beaten to pieces. To prevent the breaking of the fibres, the
stuff is several times folded across, so as to interpose several
thicknesses between the mallet and the block. At last the required
state is reached, and the fundi seizes the sheet, still folded, by both
ends, and wrings it out, or calls an assistant to take one end while he
holds the other. The cloth produced in this way is not nearly so fine
and uniform in texture as the famous Uganda bark-cloth, but it is
quite soft, and, above all, cheap.
Now, too, I examine the mallet. My craftsman has been using the
simpler but better form of this implement, a conical block of some
hard wood, its base—the striking surface—being scored across and
across with more or less deeply-cut grooves, and the handle stuck
into a hole in the middle. The other and earlier form of mallet is
shaped in the same way, but the head is fastened by an ingenious
network of bark strips into the split bamboo serving as a handle. The
observation so often made, that ancient customs persist longest in
connection with religious ceremonies and in the life of children, here
finds confirmation. As we shall soon see, bark-cloth is still worn
during the unyago,[52] having been prepared with special solemn
ceremonies; and many a mother, if she has no other garment handy,
will still put her little one into a kilt of bark-cloth, which, after all,
looks better, besides being more in keeping with its African
surroundings, than the ridiculous bit of print from Ulaya.
MAKUA WOMEN