Equilibria

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YOUR NOTES
A Level Chemistry CIE 
5.5 Equilibria (A Level Only)
CONTENTS
5.5.1 Acids & Bases
5.5.2 pH, Ka, pKa & Kw Calculations
5.5.3 pH & [H+] Calculations
5.5.4 Buffers
5.5.5 Buffer Calculations
5.5.6 Solubility Product
5.5.7 Solubility Product Calculations
5.5.8 The Common Ion Effect
5.5.9 Partition Coefficients
Page 1 of 27
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5.5.1 Acids & Bases YOUR NOTES


Conjugate Acids & Bases
A Brønsted acid is a species that can donate a proton
For example, hydrogen chloride (HCl) is a Brønsted acid as it can lose a proton to form
a hydrogen (H+) and chloride (Cl-) ion
HCl (aq) → H+ (aq) + Cl- (aq)
A Brønsted base is a species that can accept a proton
For example, a hydroxide (OH-) ion is a Brønsted base as it can accept a proton to form
water
OH- (aq) + H+ (aq) → H2O (l)
In an equilibrium reaction, the products are formed at the same rate as the reactants are
used
This means that at equilibrium, both reactants and products are present in the solution
For example, ethanoic acid (CH3COOH) is a weak acid that partially dissociates in solution
When equilibrium is established there are CH3COOH, H2O, CH3COO- and H3O+ ions
present in the solution
The species that can donate a proton are acids and the species that can accept a proton
are bases
The reactant CH3COOH is linked to the product CH3COO- by the transfer of a proton from
the acid (CH3COOH) to the base (CH3COO-)
Similarly, the H2O molecule is linked to H3O+ ion by the transfer of a proton
These pairs are therefore called conjugate acid-base pairs
A conjugate acid-base pair is two species that are different from each other by an H+ ion
Conjugate here means related
In other words, the acid and base are related to each other by one proton difference
Page 2 of 27
Defining Conjugate Acids & Bases YOUR NOTES

Conjugate acid-base pairs are a pair of reactants and products that are linked to each 
other by the transfer of a proton
For example, in the equilibrium reaction below, the ethanoic acid (CH3COOH) partially
dissociates in solution to form ethanoate (CH3COO-) and hydrogen (H+) ions
When equilibrium is established there are CH3COOH, H2O, CH3COO- and H3O+ ions
present in the solution
The species that can donate a proton are acids and the species that can accept a proton
are bases
In the forward reaction:

The acid CH3COOH is linked to the base CH3COO-
CH3COO- is, therefore, the conjugate base of CH3COOH
CH3COOH - CH3COO- = conjugate acid-base pair
The base H2O is linked to the acid H3O+
H3O+ is, therefore, the conjugate acid of H2O
H2O - H3O+ = conjugate acid-base pair
In the reverse reaction
The base CH3COO- is linked to the acid CH3COOH
CH3COOH is therefore conjugate acid of CH3COO-
CH3COO- - CH3COOH = conjugate acid-base pair
The acid H3O+ is linked to the base H2O
H2O is, therefore, the conjugate base of H3O+
H3O+ - H2O = conjugate acid-base pair
Worked Example: Identifying conjugate acid-base pairs
Answer
In the forward reaction:
NH4+ is the conjugate acid of the base NH3
OH- is the conjugate base of the acid H2O
Page 3 of 27
In the reverse reaction YOUR NOTES

NH3 is the conjugate base of the acid NH4+ 
H2O is the conjugate acid of the base OH-
Page 4 of 27
5.5.2 pH, Ka, pKa & Kw Calculations YOUR NOTES


Calculating pH, Ka, pKA & Kw
pH
The pH indicates the acidity or basicity of an acid or alkali
The pH scale goes from 0 to 14
Acids have pH between 0-7
Pure water is neutral and has a pH of 7
Bases and alkalis have pH between 7-14
The pH can be calculated using: pH = -log10 [H+]
where [H+] = concentration of H+ ions (mol dm-3)
The pH can also be used to calculate the concentration of H+ ions in solution by rearranging
the equation to:
[H+] = 10-pH
Worked Example: Calculating the pH of acids
Answer
pH = -log [H+]
= -log 1.32 x 10-3
= 2.9
Ka & pKa
The Ka is the acidic dissociation constant
It is the equilibrium constant for the dissociation of a weak acid at 298 K
For the partial ionisation of a weak acid HA the equilibrium expression to find Ka is as
follows:
HA (aq) ⇌ H+ (aq) + A- (aq)
When writing the equilibrium expression for weak acids, the following assumptions are
made:
The concentration of hydrogen ions due to the ionisation of water is negligible
Page 5 of 27
The dissociation of the weak acid is so small that the concentration of HA is YOUR NOTES
approximately the same as the concentration of A- 
The value of Ka indicates the extent of dissociation
A high value of Ka means that:
The equilibrium position lies to the right
The acid is almost completely ionised
The acid is strongly acidic
A low value of Ka means that:
The equilibrium position lies to the left
The acid is only slightly ionised (there are mainly HA and only a few H+ and A- ions)
The acid is weakly acidic
Since Ka values of many weak acids are very low, pKa values are used instead to compare
the strengths of weak acids with each other
pKa = -log10 Ka
The less positive the pKa value the more acidic the acid is
Worked Example: Calculating the Ka & pKa of weak acids
Answer
Step 1: Write down the equation for the partial dissociation of ethanoic acid
CH3COOH (aq) ⇌ H+ (aq) + CH3COO- (aq)
Step 2: Write down the equilibrium expression to find Ka
Step 3: Simplify the expression

The ratio of H+ to CH3COO- is 1:1
The concentration of H+ and CH3COO- is, therefore, the same
The equilibrium expression can be simplified to:
Step 4: Substitute the values into the expression to find Ka
Page 6 of 27
YOUR NOTES

= 1.74 x 10-5
Step 5: Determine the units of Ka
= mol dm-3
The value of Ka is therefore 1.74 x 10-5 mol dm-3
Step 6: Find pKa
pKa = - log10 Ka
= - log10 (1.74 x 10-5)
= 4.76
Kw
The Kw is the ionic product of water
It is the equilibrium constant for the dissociation of water at 298 K
Its value is 1.00 x 10-14 mol2 dm-6
For the ionisation of water the equilibrium expression to find Kw is as follows:
H2O (l) ⇌ H+ (aq) + OH- (aq)
As the extent of ionisation is very low, only small amounts of H+ and OH- ions are formed
The concentration of H2O can therefore be regarded as constant and removed from the Kw
expression
The equilibrium expression therefore becomes:
Kw = [H+] [OH-]
As the [H+] = [OH+] in pure water, the equilibrium expression can be further simplified to:
Kw = [H+]2
Worked Example: Calculating the concentration of H+ of pure water
Page 7 of 27
YOUR NOTES

Answer
Step 1: Write down the equation for the partial dissociation of water
In pure water, the following equilibrium exists:
H2O (l) ⇌ H+ (aq) + OH- (aq)
Step 2: Write down the equilibrium expression to find Kw

Since the concentration of H2O is constant, this expression can be simplified to:
Kw = [H+] [OH-]
Step 4: Further simplify the expression
The ratio of H+ to OH- is 1:1
The concentration of H+ and OH- is, therefore, the same and the equilibrium expression can
be further simplified to:
Kw = [H+]2
Step 5: Rearrange the equation to find [H+]
Kw = [H+]2
Step 6: Substitute the values into the expression to find Kw
= 1.00 x 10-7 mol dm-3
Page 8 of 27
Exam Tip YOUR NOTES

 Remember:The greater the Ka value, the more strongly acidic the acid is.The greater

the pKa value, the less strongly acidic the acid is.Also, you should be able to
rearrange the following expressions:
pH = -log10 [H+] TO [H+] = 10-pH
pKa = - log10 Ka TO Ka = 10-pKa
Page 9 of 27
5.5.3 pH & [H+] Calculations YOUR NOTES


Calculating [H+] & pH
If the concentration of H+ of an acid or alkali is known, the pH can be calculated using the
equation:
pH = -log [H+]
Similarly, the concentration of H+ of a solution can be calculated if the pH is known by
rearranging the above equation to:
[H+] = 10-pH
Strong acids
Strong acids are completely ionised in solution
HA (aq) → H+ (aq) + A- (aq)
Therefore, the concentration of hydrogen ions ([H+]) is equal to the concentration of acid
([HA])
The number of hydrogen ions ([H+]) formed from the ionisation of water is very small
relative to the [H+] due to ionisation of the strong acid and can therefore be neglected
The total [H+] is therefore the same as the [HA]
Worked Example: pH calculations of a strong acid
Answer
Hydrochloric acid is a strong monobasic acid
HCl (aq) → H+ (aq) + Cl- (aq)
Answer 1
The pH of the solution is:
pH = -log [H+]
= -log 1.6 x 10-4
= 3.80
Answer 2
Page 10 of 27
The hydrogen concentration can be calculated by rearranging the equation for pH YOUR NOTES
pH = -log [H+] 
[H+] = 10-pH
= 10-3.1
= 7.9 x 10-4 mol dm-3
Strong alkalis
Strong alkalis are completely ionised in solution
BOH (aq) → B+ (aq) + OH- (aq)
Therefore, the concentration of hydroxide ions ([OH-]) is equal to the concentration of base
([BOH])
Even strong alkalis have small amounts of H+ in solution which is due to the ionisation
of water
The concentration of OH- in solution can be used to calculate the pH using the ionic
product of water
Kw = [H+] [OH-]
Since Kw is 1.00 x 10-14 mol2 dm-6
Once the [H+] has been determined, the pH of the strong alkali can be founding using pH = -
log[H+]
Similarly, the ionic product of water can be used to find the concentration of OH- ions in
solution if [H+] is known
Worked Example: pH calculations of a strong alkali
Answer
Page 11 of 27
Sodium hydroxide is a strong base which ionises as follows: YOUR NOTES

NaOH (aq) → Na+ (aq) + OH- (aq) 
Answer 1
The pH of the solution is:
pH = -log [H+]
= -log 3.5 x 10-11
= 10.5
Answer 2
Step 1: Calculate hydrogen concentration by rearranging the equation for pH
pH = -log [H+]
= 10-pH
= 10-12.3
= 5.01 x 10-13 mol dm-3
Step 2: Rearrange the ionic product of water to find the concentration of hydroxide ions
Kw = [H+] [OH-]
Step 3: Substitute the values into the expression to find the concentration of hydroxide
ions
Since Kw is 1.00 x 10-14 mol2 dm-6
= 0.0199mol dm-3
Weak acids
The pH of weak acids can be calculated when the following is known:
The concentration of the acid
The Ka value of the acid
Worked Example: pH calculations of weak acids
Page 12 of 27
Answer YOUR NOTES

Ethanoic acid is a weak acid which ionises as follows: 

The ratio of H+ to CH3COO- ions is 1:1
The concentration of H+ and CH3COO- ions are therefore the same
The expression can be simplified to:
Step 3: Rearrange the expression to find [H+]
Step 4: Substitute the values into the expression to find [H+]
= 1.32 x 10-3 mol dm-3

Step 5: Find the pH
pH = -log10 [H+]
= -log10 1.32 x 10-3
= 2.88
Page 13 of 27
5.5.4 Buffers YOUR NOTES


Buffers
A buffer solution is a solution in which the pH does not change a lot when small amounts of
acids or alkalis are added
A buffer solution is used to keep the pH almost constant
A buffer can consists of weak acid - conjugate base or weak base - conjugate acid
Ethanoic acid & sodium ethanoate as a buffer
A common buffer solution is an aqueous mixture of ethanoic acid and sodium ethanoate
Ethanoic acid is a weak acid and partially ionises in solution to form a relatively low
concentration of ethanoate ions
Sodium ethanoate is a salt which fully ionises in solution
There are reserve supplies of the acid (CH3COOH) and its conjugate base (CH3COO-)
The buffer solution contains relatively high concentrations of CH3COOH (due to
ionisation of ethanoic acid) and CH3COO- (due to ionisation of sodium ethanoate)
In the buffer solution, the ethanoic acid is in equilibrium with hydrogen and ethanoate ions
When H+ ions are added:

The equilibrium position shifts to the left as H+ ions react with CH3COO- ions to form more
CH3COOH until equilibrium is re-established
As there is a large reserve supply of CH3COO- the concentration of CH3COO- in solution
doesn’t change much as it reacts with the added H+ ions
As there is a large reserve supply of CH3COOH the concentration of CH3COOH in solution
doesn’t change much as CH3COOH is formed from the reaction of CH3COO- with H+
As a result, the pH remains reasonable constant
Page 14 of 27
When hydrogen ions are added to the solution the pH of the solution would decrease; YOUR NOTES
However, the ethanoate ions in the buffer solution react with the hydrogen ions to prevent 
this and keep the pH constant
When OH- ions are added:
The OH- reacts with H+ to form water
OH- (aq) + H+ (aq) → H2O (l)
The H+ concentration decreases
The equilibrium position shifts to the right and more CH3COOH molecules ionise to form
more H+ and CH3COO- until equilibrium is re-established
CH3COOH (aq) → H+ (aq) + CH3COO- (aq)
As there is a large reserve supply of CH3COOH the concentration of CH3COOH in solution
doesn’t change much when CH3COOH dissociates to form more H+ ions
As there is a large reserve supply of CH3COO- the concentration of CH3COO- in solution
doesn’t change much
As a result, the pH remains reasonably constant
When hydroxide ions are added to the solution, the hydrogen ions react with them to form
water; The decrease in hydrogen ions would mean that the pH would increase however the
equilibrium moves to the right to replace the removed hydrogen ions and keep the pH
constant
Uses of buffer solutions in controlling the pH of blood
In humans, HCO3- ions act as a buffer to keep the blood pH between 7.35 and 7.45
Body cells produce CO2 during aerobic respiration
This CO2 will combine with water in blood to form a solution containing H+ ions
CO2 (g) + H2O (l) ⇌ H+ (aq) + HCO3- (aq)
This equilibrium between CO2 and HCO3- is extremely important
If the concentration of H+ ions is not regulated, the blood pH would drop and cause
‘acidosis’
Acidosis refers to a condition in which there is too much acid in the body fluids such as
blood
This could cause body malfunctioning and eventually lead to coma
Page 15 of 27
If there is an increase in H+ ions YOUR NOTES

The equilibrium position shifts to the left until equilibrium is restored 
CO2 (g) + H2O (l) → H+ (aq) + HCO3- (aq)
This reduces the concentration of H+ and keeps the pH of the blood constant
If there is a decrease in H+ ions
The equilibrium position shifts to the right until equilibrium is restored
CO2 (g) + H2O (l) → H+ (aq) + HCO3- (aq)
This increases the concentration of H+ and keeps the pH of the blood constant
 Exam Tip
Remember that buffer solutions cannot cope with excessive addition of acids or
alkalis as their pH will change significantly.The pH will only remain relatively constant
if small amounts of acids or alkalis are added.
Page 16 of 27
5.5.5 Buffer Calculations YOUR NOTES


Calculating pH of Buffer Solutions
The pH of a buffer solution can be calculated using:
The Ka of the weak acid
The equilibrium concentration of the weak acid and its conjugate base (salt)
To determine the pH, the concentration of hydrogen ions is needed which can be found
using the equilibrium expression
To simplify the calculations, logarithms are used such that the expression becomes:
Since -log10 [H+] = pH, the expression can also be rewritten as:
Worked Example: Calculating the pH of a buffer solution
Answer
Ethanoic acid is a weak acid that ionises as follows:
Step 2: Rearrange the equation to find [H+]
Step 3: Substitute the values into the expression
Page 17 of 27
= 8.39 x 10-6 mol dm-3 YOUR NOTES

Step 4: Calculate the pH 
pH = - log [H+]
= -log 8.39 x 10-6
= 5.08
Page 18 of 27
5.5.6 Solubility Product YOUR NOTES


Solubility Product
Solubility is defined as the number of grams or moles of compound needed to saturate
100 g of water, or it can also be defined in terms of 1 kg of water, at a given temperature
For example, sodium chloride (NaCl) is considered to be a soluble salt as a saturated
solution contains 36 g of NaCl per 100 g of water
Lead chloride (PbCl2) on the other hand is an insoluble salt as a saturated solution only
contains 0.99 g of PbCl2 per 100 g of water
Solubility product
The solubility product (Ksp) is:
The product of the concentrations of each ion in a saturated solution of a relatively
soluble salt
At 298 K
Raised to the power of their relative concentrations
C (s) ⇌ aAx+ (aq) + bBy- (aq)
Ksp = [Ax+ (aq)]a [By- (aq)]b
When an undissolved ionic compound is in contact with a saturated solution of its ions,
an equilibrium is established
The ions move from the solid to the saturated solution at the same rate as they move from
the solution to the solid
For example, the undissolved magnesium chloride (MgCl2) is in equilibrium with a
saturated solution of its ions
MgCl2 (s) ⇌ Mg2+ (aq) + 2Cl- (aq)
When the undissolved MgCl2 salt gets in contact with its ions in a saturated solution, an
equilibrium between the salt and ions is established
The solubility product for this equilibrium is:
Ksp = [Mg2+ (aq)] [Cl- (aq)]2
Page 19 of 27
The Ksp is only useful for sparingly soluble salts YOUR NOTES
The smaller the value of Ksp, the lower the solubility of the salt 
Expressing Ksp
The general equilibrium expression for the solubility product (Ksp) is:
C (s) ⇌ aAx+ (aq) + bBy- (aq)
Ksp = [Ax+ (aq)]a [By- (aq)]b
Worked Example: Expressing Ksp of ionic compounds
Answer
Expressing Ksp of ionic compounds answers table
Page 20 of 27
5.5.7 Solubility Product Calculations YOUR NOTES


Calculating the Solubility Product
Calculations involving the solubility product (Ksp) may include::
Calculating the solubility product of a compound from its solubility
Calculating the solubility of a compound from the solubility product
Worked example: Calculating the solubility product of a compound from
its solubility
Answer
Step 1: Write down the equilibrium equation
PbBr2 (s) ⇌ Pb2+ (aq) + 2Br- (aq)
Step 2: Write down the equilibrium expression
Ksp = [Pb2+(aq)] [Br- (aq)]2
Step 3: Calculate the ion concentrations in the solution
[PbBr2(s)] = 1.39 x 10-3 mol dm-3
The ratio of PbBr2 to Pb2+ is 1:1
[Pb2+(aq)] = [PbBr2(s)] = 1.39 x 10-3 mol dm-3
The ratio of PbBr2 to Br- is 1:2
[Br-(aq)] = 2 x [PbBr2(s)] = 2 x 1.39 x 10-3 mol dm-3
= 2.78 x 10-3 mol dm-3
Step 4: Substitute the values into the expression to find the solubility product
Ksp = (1.39 x 10-3) x (2.78 x 10-3)2
= 1.07 x 10-8
Step 6: Determine the correct units of Ksp
Ksp = (mol dm-3) x (mol dm-3)2
= mol3 dm-9
The solubility product is therefore 1.07 x 10-8 mol3 dm-9
Page 21 of 27
Worked example: Calculating the solubility of a compound from its YOUR NOTES
solubility product 
Answer
CuO (s) ⇌ Cu2+ (aq) + O2- (aq)
Ksp = [Cu2+ (aq)] [O2- (aq)]
Step 3: Simplify the equilibrium expression
The ratio of Cu2+ to O2- is 1:1
[Cu2+(aq)] = [O2-(aq)] so the expression can be simplified to:
Ksp = [Cu2+ (aq)]2
Step 4: Substitute the value of Ksp into the expression to find the concentration
5.9 x 10-36 = [Cu2+ (aq)]2
= 2.4 x 10-18 mol dm-3

Since [CuO(s)] = [Cu2+ (aq)] the solubility of copper oxide is 2.4 x 10-18 mol dm-3
 Exam Tip
Remember that the solubility product is only applicable to very slightly soluble salts
and cannot be used for soluble salts such as:
Group 1 element salts
All nitrates salts
All ammonium salts
Many sulfate salts
Many halide salts (except for lead(II) halides and silver halides)
Page 22 of 27
5.5.8 The Common Ion Effect YOUR NOTES


Solubility Product & the Common Ion Effect
A saturated solution is a solution that contains the maximum amount of dissolved salt
If a second compound, which has an ion in common with the dissolved salt, is added to the
saturated solution, the solubility of the salt reduces and a solid precipitate will be formed
This is also known as the common ion effect
For example, if a solution of potassium chloride (KCl) is added to a saturated solution of
silver chloride (AgCl) a precipitate of silver chloride will be formed
The chloride ion is the common ion
The solubility product can be used to predict whether a precipitate will actually form or not
A precipitate will form if the product of the ion concentrations is greater than the
solubility product (Ksp)
Common ion effect in silver chloride
When a KCl solution is added to a saturated solution of AgCl, an AgCl precipitate forms
In a saturated AgCl solution, the silver chloride is in equilibrium with its ions
AgCl (s) ⇌ Ag+ (aq) + Cl- (aq)
When a solution of potassium chloride is added:
Both KCl and AgCl have the common Cl- ion
There is an increased Cl- concentration so the equilibrium position shifts to the left
The increase in Cl- concentration also means that [Ag+ (aq)] [Cl-(aq)] is greater than
the Ksp for AgCl
As a result, the AgCl is precipitated
The addition of potassium chloride to a saturated solution of silver chloride results in the
precipitate of silver chloride
Page 23 of 27
Worked Example: Calculations using the Ksp values and the concentration YOUR NOTES
of the common ion 
Answer
Step 1: Determine the equilibrium reaction of CaSO4
CaSO4 (s) ⇌ Ca2+ (aq) + SO42- (aq)
Step 2: Write down the equilibrium expression for Ksp
Ksp = [Ca2+ (aq)] [SO42- (aq)]
Step 3: Determine the concentrations of the ions
There are equal volumes of each solution
This means that the total solution was diluted by a factor of 2
The new concentrations of the Ca2+ ion is halved
−3
1 × 10
Ca 2+ =
2
= 5.0 x 10-4 mol dm-3

The sulfate ion concentration remains the same as it is a common ion and its concentration
is the same in both solutions
Step 4: Substitute the values into the expression
Product of the ion concentrations = [Ca2+ (aq)] x [SO42- (aq)]
= (5.0 x 10-4) x (1.0 x 10-3)
= 5.0 x 10-7 mol2 dm-6
Step 5: Determine if a precipitate will form
As the product of the ion concentration (5.0 x 10-7 mol dm-3 ) is smaller than the Ksp value
(2.0 x 10-5 mol2 dm-6), the CaSO4 precipitate will not be formed
Page 24 of 27
5.5.9 Partition Coefficients YOUR NOTES


Partition Coefficient & Calculations
The partition coefficient (Kpc) is the ratio of the concentrations of a solute in two different
immiscible solvents in contact with each other when equilibrium has been established (at a
particular temperature)
For example, methylamine (CH3NH2) is dissolved in two immiscible solvents:
Water
An organic solvent
A separating funnel is shaken with the organic solvent and aqueous methylamine
The methylamine is soluble in both solvents, so when the mixture is left to settle an
equilibrium is established
The rate of methylamine molecules moving from the organic layer into the aqueous
layer is equal to the rate of molecules moving from the aqueous layer to the organic
layer
CH3NH2(aq) ⇌ CH3NH2(organic solvent)
The value of its equilibrium constant is also called the partition coefficient
⎣ CH 3 NH 2 ( organic solvent ) ⎥⎦
⎡⎢ ⎤
Kpc = ⎡⎢ CH NH ( aq ) ⎤⎥
⎣ 3 2 ⎦
The partition coefficient is the ratio of methylamine molecules in the organic and aqueous
layer once equilibrium has been established
Page 25 of 27
Calculating Partition Coefficients YOUR NOTES

The partition coefficient (Kpc) for a system in which the solute is in the same physical state 
in the two solvents can be calculated using the equilibrium expression
Worked example: Calculating the partition coefficient
Answer
CH3NH2(aq) ⇌ CH3NH2(organic solvent)
Step 3: Determine how many moles of CH3NH2 has reacted with HCl at the end-point
At the end-point, all CH3NH2 (aq) has been neutralised by HCl (aq)
CH3NH2 (aq) + HCl (aq) → CH3NH3Cl (aq)
CH3NH2 and HCl react in a ratio of 1:1
Mol (HCl) = mol (CH3NH2) = 0.225 x 0.0141
= 3.18 x 10-3 mol
Step 4: Determine the number of moles of CH3NH2 present in the aqueous layer
Only 50.0 cm3 of the aqueous layer was used to titrate against HCl
Thus, 3.18 x 10-3 mol of CH3NH2 was present in only 50.0 cm3 of the aqueous layer
The number of moles of CH3NH2 in 100 cm3 aqueous layer is, therefore:
Mol (CH3NH2 aqueous layer) = 3.18 x 10-3 x 2 = 6.34 x 10-3 mol
Page 26 of 27
Step 5: Determine the number of moles of CH3NH2 in the organic layer YOUR NOTES
Mol CH3NH2 (organic layer) = mol CH3NH2 (total) - mol CH3NH2(aqueous layer) 
Mol CH3NH2 (total) = 0.100 x 0.150 = 0.015 mol

Mol CH3NH2 (organic layer) = 0.015 - 6.34 x 10-3 = 8.67 x 10-3 mol
Step 6: Change the number of moles into concentrations
= 0.063 mol dm-3
= 0.116 mol dm-3

Step 7: Substitute the values into the Kpc expression
= 1.83
Since the value of Kpc is larger than 1, methylamine is more soluble in the organic solvent
than in water
Factors Affecting the Partition Coefficient

The partition coefficient (Kpc) depends on the solubilities of the solute in the two solvents
The degree of solubility of a solute is determined by how strong the intermolecular bonds
between solute and solvent are
The strength of these intermolecular bonds, in turn, depends on the polarity of the solute
and solvent molecules
For example, ammonia is more soluble in water than in an organic solvent such as carbon
tetrachloride (CCl4)
Ammonia and water are both polar molecules that form hydrogen bonds with each
other
Ammonia forms permanent dipole-induced dipole forces with the non-polar CCl4
molecules
Since these forces are much weaker than hydrogen bonding, ammonia is less soluble
in CCl4
When Kpc is < 1 the solute is more soluble in water than the organic solvent
When Kpc is > 1 the solute is more soluble in the organic solvent than the water
Page 27 of 27

Equilibria

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5.5 Equilibria (A Level Only)

5.5.1 Acids & Bases YOUR NOTES

Defining Conjugate Acids & Bases YOUR NOTES

In the forward reaction:

In the reverse reaction YOUR NOTES

5.5.2 pH, Ka, pKa & Kw Calculations YOUR NOTES

Step 3: Simplify the expression

Step 4: Substitute the values into the expression to find Ka

Step 3: Simplify the expression

= 1.00 x 10-7 mol dm-3

Exam Tip YOUR NOTES

pKa = - log10 Ka TO Ka = 10-pKa

5.5.3 pH & [H+] Calculations YOUR NOTES

Since Kw is 1.00 x 10-14 mol2 dm-6

Worked Example: pH calculations of a strong alkali

Sodium hydroxide is a strong base which ionises as follows: YOUR NOTES

Answer YOUR NOTES

CH3COOH (aq) ⇌ H+ (aq) + CH3COO- (aq)

Step 1: Write down the equilibrium expression to find Ka

Step 2: Simplify the expression

Step 3: Rearrange the expression to find [H+]

Step 4: Substitute the values into the expression to find [H+]

= 1.32 x 10-3 mol dm-3

5.5.4 Buffers YOUR NOTES

Sodium ethanoate is a salt which fully ionises in solution

When H+ ions are added:

If there is an increase in H+ ions YOUR NOTES

5.5.5 Buffer Calculations YOUR NOTES

Worked Example: Calculating the pH of a buffer solution

Step 2: Rearrange the equation to find [H+]

Step 3: Substitute the values into the expression

= 8.39 x 10-6 mol dm-3 YOUR NOTES

5.5.6 Solubility Product YOUR NOTES

5.5.7 Solubility Product Calculations YOUR NOTES

= 2.4 x 10-18 mol dm-3

5.5.8 The Common Ion Effect YOUR NOTES

= 5.0 x 10-4 mol dm-3

5.5.9 Partition Coefficients YOUR NOTES

Calculating Partition Coefficients YOUR NOTES

Mol CH3NH2 (total) = 0.100 x 0.150 = 0.015 mol

= 0.063 mol dm-3

= 0.116 mol dm-3

Factors Affecting the Partition Coefficient

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