Mathematics For Elementary School Teachers 1st Edition Ebook PDF

Mathematics for Elementary School
Teachers 1st Edition, (Ebook PDF)

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iii
To Mitchell and Samantha
Unless otherwise noted, all content on this page is © Cengage Learning.

Copyright 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
Contents
Preface ix
CHAPTER 1 Problem Solving and Reasoning 1

Section 1.1 Patterns and Inductive Reasoning 2
Section 1.2 Problem-Solving Strategies 14
Section 1.3 Algebra and Problem Solving 23
Section 1.4 Logic and Deductive Reasoning 35
Chapter Review 51
Chapter Organizer 51
Review Questions 52
Chapter Test 55
CHAPTER 2 with Whole Numbers

Sets, Numeration, and Addition and Subtraction
57
Section 2.1 Sets and Operations 58
Section 2.2 Numbers and Numeration 69
Section 2.3 Models and Properties of Addition and Subtraction 87
Section 2.4 Algorithms for Whole Number Addition and Subtraction 104
Chapter Review 119
Review Questions 120
Chapter Test 124
CHAPTER 3 Multiplication and Division with Whole Numbers 127

Section 3.1 Models and Properties of Multiplication 128
Section 3.2 Models of Division 145
Section 3.3 Algorithms for Whole Number Multiplication and Division 159
Chapter Review 180
Chapter Test 183
CHAPTER 4 Elementary Number Theory and Integers 187

Section 4.1 Divisibility of Counting Numbers 188
Section 4.2 Prime and Composite Numbers, Least Common Multiple,
and Greatest Common Factor 201
Section 4.3 Integers 217
Chapter Review 234
Chapter Test 238
v
vi CO N T E N T S
CHAPTER 5 Rational Numbers and Fractions 241

Section 5.1 Concept of Fractions and Representations 242
Section 5.2 Addition and Subtraction with Rational Numbers 259
Section 5.3 Multiplication and Division with Rational Numbers 272
Section 5.4 Ratios and Proportional Reasoning 289
Chapter Review 301
Chapter Test 305
CHAPTER 6 Decimals, Real Numbers, and Percents 307

Section 6.1 Decimals and Operations 308
Section 6.2 Repeating Decimals, Irrational Numbers, and Real Numbers 325
Section 6.3 Percent and Percent Change 344
Chapter Review 358
Chapter Test 362
CHAPTER 7 Algebra and Functions 365

Section 7.1 Representing and Creating Functions 366
Section 7.2 Solving Equations 382
Section 7.3 Algebra Tiles 395
Chapter Review 405
Chapter Test 410
CHAPTER 8 Descriptive Statistics 413

Section 8.1 Graphical Representations of Data 414
Section 8.2 Measures of Center and Measures of Variation 442
Section 8.3 Percentile, Box Plot, and Outliers 461
Chapter Review 476
Chapter Test 483
CHAPTER 9 Probability 489

Section 9.1 Basics of Probability 490
Section 9.2 Probability Rules 508
Section 9.3 Expected Value, Normal Distribution, Simulations, and Odds 526
Chapter Review 546
Chapter Test 552
CO N T E N T S vii
CHAPTER 10 Introduction to Geometry 555

Section 10.1 Representation of Building Blocks of Geometry 556
Section 10.2 Pairs of Angles and Types of Polygons 572
Section 10.3 Three-Dimensional Shapes 594
Chapter Review 608
Chapter Test 614
CHAPTER 11 Measurement 617

Section 11.1 Concept of Measurement and Measurement Systems 618
Section 11.2 Perimeter and Area 634
Section 11.3 The Pythagorean Theorem and Triangle Inequalities 658
Section 11.4 Volume and Surface Area 671
Chapter Review 694
Chapter Test 700
CHAPTER 12 Triangles and Quadrilaterals 703

Section 12.1 Congruence Axioms for Triangles 705
Section 12.2 Euclidean Constructions 723
Section 12.3 Similarity 739
Chapter Review 759
Chapter Test 764
CHAPTER 13 Coordinate Geometry and Plane Transformations 767

Section 13.1 Representations of Lines 768
Section 13.2 Properties of Polygons Using Coordinate Geometry 784
Section 13.3 Transformations of the Plane 798
Chapter Review 834
Chapter Test 842
Appendix A TI-73 Graphing Calculator A-1

Appendix B Geometer’s Sketchpad B-1
Appendix C Theorems on Lines C-1
Appendix D Selected Answers D-1
Bibliography BIB-1
Index I-1
Preface
M y motivation for writing this textbook stems from searching for ways to relate the
mathematics in college courses for prospective elementary school teachers to the mathe-
matics in the elementary curriculum.
My goal is to give prospective elementary school teachers a profound understanding
of the mathematical content they are expected to know and be able to teach.
My writing has been shaped by reviewing and incorporating the literature and stan-
dards from both the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM) Standards and
Expectations and the Common Core State Standards (CCSS). The standards describe
knowledge and skills that students should have, and, in turn, describe what teachers should
be able to teach. It was shaped by my experiences teaching prospective elementary school
teachers in college classrooms for more than 15 years and by teaching K–6 students during
a sabbatical leave, along with hundreds of additional volunteer hours in the elementary
classroom during the 6 years of writing this textbook. In addition, the writing was shaped
by class testing the material, which gave me the opportunity to incorporate valuable feed-
back from students and colleagues. These reinforcing factors made it possible to narrow
the gap between theory and practice by developing, testing, and refining accessible ways
to convey the mathematical content.
As I wrote, researched, and revised the chapters, it was important to answer some key
questions.
• What topics are given highest priority by the NCTM Standards and Expectations?
• What recommendations are published in the literature?
• What mathematical strategies promote comprehension?
• What are effective ways to develop the mathematical topics so that prospective elemen-
tary school teachers can readily apply them in their own classrooms?
• What examples clarify topics?
• What questions assess understanding and skills?
In this textbook, the quality, quantity, and variety of worked examples and homework
questions provide prospective elementary school teachers with opportunities to acquire
mathematical knowledge, to develop skills that they can effectively apply in their own
classrooms, and to support assessment of the main ideas in the sections, in the spirit of
the NCTM standards and CCSS. The worked examples and homework questions reflect
my belief that “students learn what they are given opportunities to learn” (Hiebert,
2003).
Enriching the Content

through Use of the Standards
The Principles and Standards for School Mathematics, published by the NCTM in 2000,
represents the most significant and influential collaboration among educators to improve
mathematics education at a national level. The relevant NCTM Standards and Expectations
appear in the exposition.
The purpose of the NCTM standards is “to ensure quality, to indicate goals, and to
promote change” (© NCTM Standards 2011 by National Council of Teachers of Mathematics).
ix
x P r e face
There are two main categories for standards—content standards and process standards—
each of which has five subcategories.
Content Standards Process Standards

Skills, concepts, and understanding that Ways that students acquire and use
students should acquire for bands of grade knowledge and demonstrate
levels (Pre-K–2, 3–5, 6–8, and 9–12) understanding
Number and operations Representation
Algebra Problem solving
Geometry Reasoning and proof
Measurement Connections
Data analysis and probability Communication
The content standards, which include specific goals called expectations, outline the
math content that Pre-K–8 students will have to know and understand, which, in turn,
indicate the mathematical topics that prospective elementary school teachers will have to
understand and teach. The five NCTM process standards highlight ways in which teachers
present content; students learn content; and students can demonstrate factual, conceptual,
and procedural understanding. “The five process standards are drawn from extensive
research on human cognition and mathematics. It is our job as teachers to help students
learn how to use these processes appropriately to develop the mathematical knowledge
described in the content standards” (Zemelman et al., 2005, p. 112).
Representation I highlight the process standards throughout the textbook in the exposition, worked
Problem Solving examples, and homework questions. A colorful icon, which includes the names of the
Reasoning applicable processes, is presented in the margin throughout the book to tie the following
Connection process standards to the content.
Communication Representation is the display of mathematical content using language, tables, alge-
bra, diagrams, and symbols in contextualized situations. These tools help math instructors
teach in ways that make mathematics more accessible, relevant, and enjoyable for prospec-
tive teachers. They help prospective teachers “articulate, clarify, justify, and communicate
their reasoning to others” (Woleck, 2001) not only in ways they will teach their own stu-
dents but also in ways they will expect their own students to reason and solve problems.
Students with strong representational skills achieve more success in mathematics, because
representations make mathematical ideas more comprehensible, spark thought, narrow the
gap between abstract and concrete ideas, and help students see connections between math-
ematical ideas. “Representations should be treated as essential elements in supporting
students’ understanding of mathematical concepts and relationships; in communicating
mathematical approaches, arguments, and understanding of one’s self and to others; in
recognizing connections among related mathematical concepts; and in applying mathemat-
ics to realistic problem situations through modeling” (NCTM, 2000, p. 67).
Problem solving challenges prospective teachers to apply their knowledge in unfa-
miliar situations. It helps build and extend their mathematical knowledge and reasoning
abilities.
Reasoning and Proof form a way of thinking, justifying, and making sense of math-
ematics and providing an explanation (a proof ) in a logical and convincing manner. Types
of reasoning include inductive reasoning, deductive reasoning, algebraic reasoning, addi-
tive reasoning, multiplicative reasoning, proportional reasoning, probabilistic reasoning,
and geometric reasoning.
P r e face xi
Connections involve recognizing relationships between and among topics and are an
indicator of understanding. Students should be able to explain, for example, how the four
arithmetic operations are related; how division and fractions are related; how fractions and
decimals are related; how the array model of multiplication and the formula for the area of
a rectangle are related; how number systems (counting numbers, whole numbers, integers,
rational numbers, irrational numbers, and real numbers) are related; and how to use dia-
grams to solve classic algebra, ratio, and percent problems. “When students can connect
mathematical ideas, their understanding is deeper and more lasting” (NCTM, 2000, p. 64).
Communication involves expressing written and verbal explanations in a clear and
organized manner and supporting the explanations with diagrams and appropriate math-
ematical notation, symbols, and vocabulary. The explanations flow in a logical order
within the textbook, which builds the habit among students of communicating in an
orderly way.
248 chapter 5 r at i o n a l n u m b e r s a n d F r ac t i o n s
EXAMPLE 5.8 John ate three-fifths of a bag of jellybeans. He ate 36 jellybeans altogether. How many
PrObLem SOLvINg
jellybeans were in the whole bag? Solve this problem using the Draw a Diagram problem
reaSONINg solving strategy.
rePreSeNTaTION
SOLUTION
In Figure 6(a), we use a rectangle to represent a bag of jellybeans. The problem suggests
three-fifths of the rectangle represents 36 jellybeans, so we split the rectangle into five
kentoh/Shutterstock.com
fifths because there are five fifths in a whole.

one bag of jellybeans
3
176 chapter 3
To help students comprehend the five
M u lt i p l i c at i o n a n d d i v i s i o n w i t h w h o l e n u M b e r s
5
FIGURE 6(a) process standards,
Step 4. We regroup each
1 long and 3 units
five as 13 worked Example
units. Procedurally,
five this means “bring
five
A representation of one bag of jellybeans. down the 3.”
In Figure 6(b), we use the fair-share model of division to split the 36 jellybeans into three
illustrates
24
concepts and techniques and an
equal-sized groups, and 36 ÷ 3 = 12. So each fractional unit represents 12 jellybeans. icon
12 3443indicates which of the five process
five
24
five
12 12 12
standards
104
103T
are emphasized in the example.
36 jellybeans 13 Think: Regroup 1five long and 3five units as 13five units.
FIGURE 6(b) Do: Bring down the 3.
36 ÷ 3 = 12.
Step 5. We can give 1five unit to each of the 12five groups. This leaves 1five unit.
In Figure 6(c), we compute the total number of jellybeans in the bag: 5 × 12 = 60.
241
12 12 12 12 12 12five 3443five
5 × 12 = 60
24
104
FIGURE 6(c)
5 × 12 = 60.
103T
13 Think: Split 13five units among 12five groups. Each group gets 1five
We conclude there were 60 jellybeans in the whole bag. 12 unit, and 12five × 1five = 12five.
▲ 1 Do: Put the 1 above the dividend in the units place, and subtract:
13five − 12five = 1five.
Fraction as a Quotient Think: The 1 represents 1five unit.
CONNeCTION Diagrams make it easier to see that a fraction is also a quotient. This represents another Step 6. The number of units remaining is less than the divisor, so the procedure termi-
opportunity for elementary school students to see the relationship between fractions and nates. Each of the 12five groups receives 2five flats, 4five longs, and 1five unit. The quotient is
multiplicative thinking. For example, a teacher splits four cookies among three people. 241five, and the remainder is 1five. Let’s check our work: 12five × 241five + 1five = 3442five
How much cookie does each person get? + 1five = 3443five, which equals the dividend. Then 3443five ÷ 12five = 241five R1five.
The problem implies that four cookies must be split into three equal-sized groups, so
we need to evaluate the arithmetic expression 4 ÷ 3. We can represent the people with the
letters A, B, and C and model a cookie with an area model. We can split one cookie fairly
QUESTIONS
among three people by giving each person 13 cookie. We repeat this process for the remain- FOR SECTION 3.3
ing cookies, as shown in Figure 7.
rePreSeNTaTION
A A A A
REPRESENTATION a. List the partial quotients.
b. Find the quotient. c. Find the remainder.
B C B C B C Refresher: Representations (language, diagrams, tables,
B C
symbols, algebra, manipulatives, and contextualized situ- d. Write an equation involving division.
FIGURE 7 ations) are important because we use them to organize,
Splitting four cookies (circles) among three people (A, B, record,
C). and communicate mathematical ideas and to PROBLEM SOLVING
make them more comprehensible.
Each letter (A, B, and C) appears four times. When four cookies are split fairly among S E C T I O N 3.3 A lg O rRefresher:
I T h m S f O r Problem
W h O l E Nsolving
u m b E r(reaching a AT
m u lT I p l I C goal
I O Nthat
A N disdnot
IvISION 177
three people, each person receives 43 cookies. Then 4 ÷ 3 = 43 , where 41. isIllustrate how to 3
the dividend, use base ten blocks to multiply: 4 × 37. immediately attainable) is important because it helps
is the divisor, and 43 is the quotient. 2. For the division problem 863 ÷ 4, students think more deeply about what they know and
b. Find the largest product possible, assuming each digitdealcanwith unfamiliar
plication facts. The digits are added along the diagonals, with
situations.
Many End-of-Section Questions are grouped a. estimate the quotient. be used at most twice.
b. illustrate how to use base ten blocks to divide using the fair
regrouping as necessary, because each diagonal represents a
place avalue.
4. Arlene is planning party.The
Shedigits on the
bought 212left andand
sodas bottom edges
made 72 of the lattice
according to the process they emphasize to help
share model. revealperson
cupcakes. If each the product:
drinks 785 × 47and
3 sodas = 36,895.
eats 2 cupcakes,
REASONING AND PROOF
3. The partial quotients method is used to solve 3302 ÷ 121 as how many people can she invite to the party?
students organize their work and to help them shown. Refresher: Reasoning and proof (thinking and justifying) 7
5. Find two possible numbers 5 given×
8with the partial products.
93635_ch05_241-306.indd 248 121 3302are important because
12/27/11 they help students make sense of
2:49 PM a. 42 and 210 3 b.2 3, 60,3120, and2 2400 4
understand how processes affect their choice of 363mathematics.
3 6. Consider the problem
8 2
4 of finding
5
0
a product
3 using only the digits
2939 2, 3, 4, and 6. 6 9 6 5 7
problems in their own classroom. In each section 1210 7.10What two simpler problems does 234 × 56 require, using the
1729 standard multiplication algorithm? n n n 8 9 5
exercise set, a Refresher reminds students of each 121 8. 1A student is multiplying two numbers using the standard mul-
1608 tiplication algorithm. The two simpler problems are 345 × 8
× n
a. Use the given lattice to determine 456 × 82.
process standard. The run of exercises that follows 1573 13and 345 × 40. What are the two numbers being multiplied? a. Find the largest product possible, assuming each digit can
359. In the problem 3456 ÷ b, a student computed the partial quo- only be used once.4 5 6 ×
gives prospective teachers an opportunity to explore tients 400, 30, 60, and 3 and the remainder 5.
a. Find the divisor.
3 3 2 4 0 4 8 8
the particular process standard and relate that stan- b. Write an equation involving division. 7 0 8 1 0 1 2 2
c. Check your work.
dard to mathematical content. 10. Use properties to multiply 38 and 400.
3 9 2
93635_ch03_127-186.indd 176 12/27/11 2:50 PM

11. Maria computed the partial quotients 1200, 300, 50, and 3 and b. Use the lattice method to multiply 49 and 36. Verify the
the remainder 25 for a ÷ b. product with a calculator.
a. Find a possible value for a and for b. c. Use the lattice method to multiply 724 and 23. Verify the
b. Is your choice of dividend a and divisor b unique? Explain. product with a calculator.
12. List all whole numbers y such that a front-end estimate of the d. Calculate 46 × 37 using the partial products method and
product leads to the approximation y × 242 ≈ 120,000. the lattice method.
Unless otherwise noted, all content on this page is © Cengage Learning. e. What is the connection between the partial products and
13. What is the conceptual reason for
Copyright 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook
the diagonal and/or
entries in theeChapter(s).
lattice method?
a. “bringing down the 3”?
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any timef.if subsequent
Explain how rights restrictions
the lattice require
method uses placeit.value concepts.
1
10 Introduction to Geometry
xii P r e face
In addition to the integration of the content and process stan-

Where Are We Going?
dards, the text includes many features designed to engage students
In Section 10.1, we introduce geometric language, diagrams, and symbolic notation
that students need to describe, compare, and contrast geometric shapes and their
and prepare them to become elementary school teachers.
properties. We also discuss point and line relationships. In Section 10.2, we discuss The Where Are We Going? Chapter Opener motivates the
various angle relationships: vertical angles, complementary angles, supplementary
angles, and angles created by a transversal. We also discuss attributes of triangles material in the chapter with inviting and brief questions (and
and parallelograms. In Section 10.3, we categorize objects in three dimensions.
their answers). This direct approach will help students navigate
How Did Ancient Cultures Use Geometry? the main concepts of the chapter.
Geometry is the study of shapes and their patterns and properties. Ancient cultures
used geometry in different ways according to their needs. The ancient Chinese used Unique Concept Maps engage students by showing how
geometry to calculate heights and distances of objects in land surveys and to construct
buildings and canals. The Mayans applied geometry in the construction of pyramids, concepts relate to one another. The Concept Maps are rich with
temples, terraces, and reservoirs, as well as in their spiritual thinking. Geometry
appears in their fabulous symmetric mosaic designs on ceramics and weavings. The
information and recap ideas in an accessible way.
ancient Egyptians used geometry to survey land and restore property boundaries after 150 chapter 3 M u lt i p l i c at i o n a n d d i v i s i o n w i t h w h o l e n u M b e r s
periodic flooding of the Nile and to construct religious temples and public buildings.
They also cared about mathematical relationships between geometric figures, such as
placing two right triangles together to form a rectangle, but some of their rules were
inexact, such as the rule for the area of a circle 1A = 3.11r 2 2 . Concept Map 3.2 Relatedness of Whole Number Operations
S E C T I O N 9.1 Ba S I C S O f P rO Ba B I l I T y 497
What Is the Greek Influence on Geometry? Inverse Operations
Repeated Subtraction
SOLUTION • Solve n × 12 = 72.
Although ancient cultures used geometry for religious, Division 12 – 3 – 3 – 3 – 3 = 0,
Each marble has an equal chance of being drawn because they are presumably the= 72
n × 12 same so 12 ÷ 3 = 4
educational, and practical purposes, geometry progressed as
Dmitry Rukhlenko/Shutterstock.com
n × 12 ÷In12the
size and feel the same, so this experiment consists of equally likely outcomes. = 72bag,
÷ 12
an unorganized collection of results. The ancient Greeks,
8 marbles are green and there are 12 marbles altogether, so the probability of drawing n = 72 ÷ 12
a
who learned geometry from the Egyptians, changed that by marble is 8/12 ≈ 67%. n = 6
green Subtraction
adding structure and logical reasoning, making geometry a • Solve k ÷ 4 = 5. ▲
subject to study from a mathematical and an abstract point k÷4=5
AmanaImagesRF/Getty Images
EXAMPLE An experiment consists of drawing a card from a standard deck of 52 cards.

9.11word k ÷ What
4 × 4 = is
5 ×the
4
of view. The word geometry stems from the Greek Inverse Operations
k=5×4 Whole Number Operations
The Greeks’probability of drawing a club or a queen?
geometria, which means “Earth measure.” CONNECTION k = 20 • Solve n + 3 = 8.
The step pyramid El
remarkable discoveries, methodical inquiry, REASONINg
and scholarly Castillo (“the Castle”), built n+3=8
books led to the understanding and development of by the Mayans between the n+3–3=8–3
Multiplication n=8–3
geometry in a systematic and organized way. 900s and the 1300s.
n=5
555 • Solve k – 4 = 5.
Repeated Addition
Addition k–4=5
3 + 3 + 3 + 3 = 12, k–4+4=5+4
SOLUTION so 4 × 3 = 12 k=5+4
k=9
Each card has an equal chance of being drawn because they are presumably the same size
and feel the same, so this experiment
12/27/11 2:51 consists
PM of equally likely outcomes. There are
13 clubs (A♣, 2♣, 3♣, 4♣, 5♣, 6♣, 7♣, 8♣, 9♣, 10♣, J♣, Q♣, and K♣) and four queens
(Q♣, Q♠, Q♥, and Q♦). The event is the union of these sets: E = {A♣, 2♣, 3♣, 4♣, 5♣,
6♣, 7♣, 8♣, 9♣, 10♣, J♣, Q♣, K♣, Q♠, Q♥, Q♦} (we count Q♣ once). There are
16 ways to draw a club or queen, and there are 52 equally likely outcomes altogether, so
the probability of drawing a club or queen is 16/52 ≈ 31%.
▲ The National
Quotient–Remainder Center for Education Sta-
Theorem
The following Released Items illustrates other situations involving equally likely
outcomes. tistics administers a nationwide standard-
In the division problems we’ve considered so far, there were no objects remaining after the
groupings. However, the set of whole numbers is not closed under division. For example,
ized test—the National Assessment of Edu-
7 ÷ 3 is not a whole number. The following problem illustrates division still applies when
RELEASED ITEM objects remain after the groupings.
NAEP, 2009
●
cational Progress (NAEP), also known as
out one3.23 Marco is making toy cars. He has nine wheels. Each toy car requires four wheels.
EXAMPLE
Marty has 6 red pencils, 4 green pencils, and 5 blue pencils. If he picks
pencil without looking, what is the probability that the pencil will be green? a. How the Nation’s
many toy Report Card—to a pooled ran-
cars can he make? COmmUNICaTION
a. 1 out of 3 b. 1 out of 4 c. 1 out of 15 d. 4 out of 15 dom sample of 4th, 8th, and 12th graders.
b. How many wheels are left over? PRObLem SOLvINg
RePReSeNTaTION
38% of fourth graders gave the correct answer.
S O L U TThe
ION NAEP released 25 and 29 questions
NAEP, 2007
● This involves the repeated subtraction model of division.
1 1, 1 2 1 2, 1 2 1 3, 1 2 a. Figurefrom
10 models4th- andSets8th-grade
the nine wheels. tests in 1996,
of four wheels are grouped.
lkphotographers/Shutterstock.com
1 1, 2 2 1 2, 2 2 1 3, 2 2
1 1, 3 2 1 2, 3 2 1 3, 3 2 respectively; 59 and 67 questions from 4th-
A pair of numbers will be chosen at random from the list above. What is the and 8th-grade tests in 2003, respectively; 32
probability that the first number in the pair will be less than the second number
in the pair? and 56 questions from 4th- and 8th-grade
FIGURE 10
Each dot represents a wheel. Each group of four wheels represents a car.
33% of eighth graders gave the correct answer. (U.S. Department of Education,
Institute of Education Sciences, National Center for Education Statistics, NAEP) tests in 2005, respectively; 54 and 53 ques-
tions from 4th- and 8th-grade tests in 2007,
Each group represents one toy car. Marco can make two toy cars.
b. One wheel is left over.
Another sample space with equally likely outcomes occurs by rolling a pair of standard
dice. Suppose an experiment consists of rolling a pair of dice and adding the numbers that respectively; 31 and 34 questions from 4th- ▲
appear on top. How many ways can we obtain a sum of 3? Many students claim there is one
and
way, not 8th-grade
realizing tests
that there are actually into2009,
two ways respectively;
obtain a 3. Colored and 51 and 47 questions from 4th- and 8th-grade
dice make it easier to Unless otherwise noted, all content on this page is © Cengage Learning.
“see” this. Table 9.2 provides a systematic way to list all possible outcomes in a simple experi-
tests
ment that inof a2011,
consists respectively.
single toss of two dice, supposing one is green and the other is blue.
Some NAEP test questions given to 4th- and 8th-grade students appear in this text-
93635_ch03_127-186.indd 150 12/27/11 2:51 PM
book. The NAEP questions are commonly called Released Items because these questions
were selectively released to improve student learning. The Released Items in the text show
93635_ch09_489-554.indd 497 12/27/11 2:51 PM
prospective teachers types of questions that elementary school students see in standardized
assessment tests. The percentage of students who answered the question correctly is given.

SOLUTION
a. The rational number 407 is in its simplified form. The prime factors of 40 are 2 and 5.
So 407 is a terminating decimal number.
b. The rational number 156 is equivalent to the simplified fraction 25 . The prime factor of
the denominator is 5. So 156 is a terminating decimal. P r e face xiii
c. The rational number 37 is in its simplified form. The prime factor of the denominator is
7. Then 37 is not a terminating decimal. So 37 is a repeating decimal number.
▲
In the following Classroom Connection, students use long division or a calculator to

Pre-K–8 problems from actual elementary
classify rational numbers according to their decimal representation. mathematics textbooks appear in the exposition as
Classroom Connection
Classroom Connection boxes. They give prospec-
●Harcourt Math, Student Edition, Grade 6, p. 247 tive teachers another opportunity to see that the top-
Rename each fraction as a terminating or repeating decimal. Write terminating
11 4
or repeating. , . (© by Harcourt, Inc. Reproduced by permission of the publisher,
25 15
ics they are studying are relevant to the mathematics
644
Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company.)
chapter 11 MeasureMent
curriculum. Furthermore, relevant pages from the
actual elementary mathematics textbooks are fea-
Connections betweenabout Rational Numbers
Some homework questions at the end of this section are designed to help you think
“exhibiting rectangles with the same perimeter and different areas or with the same tured. Each Classroom Connection box is placed in
and Decimal Representations area and different perimeters” (Gr. 3, CCSS). The following student page is an example of
an activity that relates the perimeter and area of a rectangle. context so that prospective teachers can understand
Now we summarize the connections between rational numbers and decimal numbers.
how textbooks for elementary school students pres-
Connections between Rational and Decimal Representations ent the information that they are currently studying
Let a and b represent integers, with b ≠ 0. in a college classroom.
a
• The rational number is a terminating decimal or a repeating decimal.
b
a
This textbook includes integrated research
• A terminating decimal can be expressed as a rational number .
• A repeating decimal can be expressed as a rational number . a
b
b
results from publications and from Pre-K–8 class-
room teachers to develop and clarify mathematical
119
Irrational Numbers topics. Research results cannot prescribe the “best chapter 2 review
An irrational number is a nonterminating, nonrepeating decimal number, which is a deci- 37. Use compatible numbers toway”estimate eachto
sum.teach a topic, but
46. Estimate they
the sum 345 + 687 doby rounding
“show what
each addend to the is
a. 43 + 879 b. 124 + 68 c. 87 + 325 nearest
mal number that has an infinite number of digits to the right of the decimal point and does
not repeat. Two examples are 5.12122122212222 . . . (it has a pattern but not a repeating
possible and what
38. Sketch how you can use base ten blocks to subtract 345 − 97. looks promising”
a. hundreds place. b. tens place. (Heibert,
39. Use front-end estimation.
2003). They help determine
a. 527 + 62 b. 745 − 97 c. 731 + 398 and subtrahend toreasonable
the nearest approaches
47. Estimate the difference 868 − 532 by rounding the minuend
for topresenting
40. Use the partial differences method subtract. material and increase
a. hundreds place. b. tens place.
a prospective
48. Front estimation was used to estimate the sum. What are the
a. 79 − 15 b. 757 − 83
teacher’s
41. Use the trade-first method to subtract. level of a.smallest
confidence in instructional
and largest possible values for the missing addend?
245 + n ≈ 800 b. 731 + n ≈1600
decisions.
a. 456 − 273 b. 834 − 46 c. 803 − 51
42. Calculate mentally. 1 Show your work; for example, 43 − 28 =
49. Each addend in the sum 4258 + n is rounded to the nearest
hundred, and the result is 9000.
4.indd 329 12/27/11 2:52 PM
43 − 20 − 8 = 23 − 8 = 15. 2
a. What is the smallest possible value for n?
a. 57 − 43 b. 65 − 28 c. 131 − 63
b. What is the largest possible value for n?
43. Calculate mentally. 1 Show your work; for example, 43 + 28 = c. How many possible values are there for n? Explain.
40 + 20 + 3 + 8 = 60 + 11 = 71. 2
50. Add using the standard addition algorithm.
a. 57 + 43 b. 65 + 28 c. 72 + 25
a. 343five + 324five b. 214five + 403five
44. Use partial sums to add 367 + 487.
c. A57twelve + 4B7twelve d. 476twelve + 325twelve
45. Find a pair of possible addends.
51. Subtract using the standard subtraction algorithm.
n n n a. 343five − 124five b. 240five − 124five
+n n n c. 45Atwelve − B7twelve d. 92Btwelve − 376twelve
0 1 1
8 4 3
(Harcourt Math, Student Edition, Grade 6, p. 530)
(© by Harcourt, Inc. Reproduced by permission of the publisher, Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Pub-
CHAPTER 2 REVIEW
lishing Company.)
The following example illustrates how we can use representation to multiply two
algebraic expressions.
EXAMPLE 11.23 Use a diagram to simplify the product 1a + 12 12a + 32 .

120
CHAPTER 2 Organizer
ConnECtion chapter 2 S e t S , N u m e r at i o N , a N d a d d i t i o N a N d S u bt r ac t i o N w i t h w h o l e N u m b e r S
REaSoninG
REpRESEntation Section What You Should Learn Review Problems
Section
2.1 What
1. Youideas
Express Should Learn
about collections of objects using vocabulary and notation. Review Problems
1–3
4. Determine the subtraction model that is more appropriate in a situation. 45
Unless otherwise noted, all content on this page is © Cengage Learning. 2. Represent sets with a Venn diagram. 4–6
5. Write a story problem for a given equation. 46
3. Find the union, intersection, set difference, and Cartesian product of two
6. given sets. reasoning to compare two numbers.
Use additive 7
47
93635_ch11_617-702.indd 644 4. Use
Add,a subtract,
7. 12/27/11 Venn
2:53 PMdiagram to visualize
or translate sets and relationships.
phrases. 8–12
48–49
Key learning outcomes and ideas of 2.2
2.4 1.1. Identify basicplace-value
Use various properties methods
of a numeration system.
to add or subtract. 13–14
50–58
the chapter are summarized in a chapter 2.

2. Demonstrate understanding
Estimate sums of place value concepts.
and differences. 15–21
59–60
3.
3. Represent a base ten
Add and subtract numeral
in other in various forms.
bases. 22–24
61–62
organizer grid. The Chapter Organizer Key Terms4.and
Use Concepts
a diagram to round, demonstrate understanding of rounding. 25–28
presents the main elements of the chapter set 58 5. Convert numerals to and from
element 581. Use number sense (decomposing,
perioda base
72 ten numeral.
value 72composing, making ten, using decomposition
compatible numbers 91 29–36
2.3 doubles) to add.91 37–40
in a concise way so that they are accessible list form 58
2. Use the take-away model to subtract.
standard form 74 identity for addition 92
41–42
universal set 58 word form 74 take away model 93
to students. empty set 3.
58 Solve an equation using the definition
short of subtraction,
word form 74 fact family,definition
or the fact
of subtraction 94
that addition and subtraction are inverse operations. 43–44
equal 58 expanded form 74 difference 94
equivalent 59 rounding 75 minuend 94
cardinality 59 Mayan numeration system 77 subtrahend 94
subset 61 Mayan place values 77 missing addend 94
proper subset 61 Babylonian numeration system 78 unknown addend 94
union 62 Babylonian place values 79 addend model 95
93635_ch02_057-126.indd 119 12/27/11 2:53 PM
intersection 62 base five numeration system 79 comparison model 96
disjoint 62 base twelve numeration system 81 number line model (−) 97
set difference 62 place value numeration system 82 inverse operations 98
complement 63 set model 87 fact family 100
Cartesian product 63 definition of addition 87 regrouping 104
Venn diagram 64 addend 87 partial sums method 105
numeration system 69 sum 87 standard addition algorithm 106
number 69 counting-on strategy 88 lattice algorithm 108
numeral 69 number line model (+) 88 column addition method 109
tally system 70 mental arithmetic 89 scratch addition method 110
Egyptian numeration system 70 closure property of addition 89 standard subtraction algorithm 110
Hindu-Arabic numeration commutative property of trade-first method 111
system 71 addition 89 same-change method 112
digits 71 associative property of partial differences method 112
place value 71 addition 90
estimation 113
base ten blocks 72 number sense 90
front-end rounding 114
composition 91
Unless otherwise noted, all content on this page is © Cengage Learning. Review Questions
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage 1.Learning
Give an reserves theeach
example of right
settoorremove additional content at any time
relationship. if subsequent
3. Determine rights restrictions
the cardinality require it.
of each set.
xiv P r e face
chapter 8 review 477
A variety of problems are given in a set of Review

Review Questions
Questions to increase interest and flexibility in teaching
1. Determine the type of variable. a. How many surveyed females were between 46 and
60 years old?
the topics in this textbook.
a. number of students who ride a bike to school
b. student identification numbers b. How many males were surveyed?
c. letter grade on an assignment c. How many people were surveyed?
d. telephone numbers d. What percentage of those surveyed were females?
e. percentage of students who say their favorite color is blue 5. Consumer Reports listed the prices of cell phones recom-
mended for its subscribers. The manufacturer, brand of phone,
f. age group of survey respondents: 13 to 18, 19 to 25, 26
and prices are listed.
to 30, 31 to 35, . . .
g. types of crime (burglary, robbery, and so on) Samsung; Impression; $50 Samsung; Solstice; $30
2. The table shows data for five participants in a survey at an
elementary school. Motorola; Tundra; $180 LG; Rumor Touch; $30
Samsung; Instinct; $100 Samsung; Exclaim; $50
Student ID Favorite color Pets
LG; Lotus Elite; $100 Samsung; Alias 2; $50
Janet 415 blue 4
LG; enV Touch; $80 Casio; G’zOne Rock; $150
Carlo 213 green 3
LG; enV3; $30 Samsung; Jitterbug J; $150
Mikey 004 blue 4
Samsung; Convoy; $70 Casio; G’zOne Brigade; $250
Elisa 681 brown 5
Pete 400 purple 0 Display the data in a frequency table. Create categories that
depend on the
a. Explain how the table records the data associated with a. manufacturer. b. price range.
each participant. 6. Write a creative or interpretative title for the graph.
b. Determine the variables of interest and type of each vari-
Percent of Tort Cases Concluded by Trial
able. in U.S. District Courts, 1970−2003
c. Explain how the table records the data for each variable. 10
3. A teacher surveys students with pets. She asks the question, 8
7 00 c h a p t e r 11 MeasureMent
“What is your favorite animal?” The choices were dog, cat,
Percent
6
bird, or other. The following table records the results. 4
Student Type Student Type

2 Chapter 11 Test
The1 Chapter dog 6Test other provides students an 0
1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995
1. Understand major principles of measurement. List two attri-
2000
7. Determine the perimeter or area of a polygon. Use formulas
Years
opportunity 2 tobird reinforce 7 their learning—even as
cat butes of a jar that you can measure.
SOURCE: Bureau of Justice Statistics.
2. Understand major principles of measurement.
to find the area of each polygon.
3 bird 8 other
the display 4
ofcat learning outcomes in the chapter
7. According to the Bureau of Justice Statistics, “Drug abuse
violations are defined as state or local offenses relating to the
a.
tests offers 5 students

none an opportunity to making consider
unlawful possession, sale, use, growing, manufacturing, and
of narcotic drugs, including opium or cocaine and 1 2 3 4 5
√61
howSummarize
knowledge acquisition
the data in the following formats. works. The chapter
their derivatives, marijuana, synthetic narcotics, and danger-
ous non-narcotic drugs such as barbiturates. Juveniles are
√29
defined as persons under age 18 years. Adults are defined as

testsa.c. are also designed to support the
tally table b. frequency table
relative frequency table
personsnational
a. Explain how an elementary school student could mistak-
age 18 and older” (bjs.ojp.usdoj.gov/content/glance/
enly report the length of the nail as 4 inches. 1
8
drug.cfm). Write a creative or interpretative title for the graph.
trendpantsofwhointegrating instruction, assessment, and
4. The following frequency table shows the number of partici-
favor Proposition 123. The table groups the results
b. Determine the correct length of the nail. Show your work.
Drug Arrests by Age, 1970−2007
3. Determine the precision and greatest possible error (GPE). b.
2,000,000
content and process standards.
by gender and age group. Part of a ruler is shown. Determine the precision and GPE of
the ruler.
1,500,000
√10
√45
Arrests
Adult
,30 30–45 46–60 61–75 .75 1,000,000
Male 5 2 7 1 4 500,000 1 2 3
Juvenile
0
Female 4 3 7 8 2 1970 1980 1990 4. 2000 S E C T Iand
2007 the precision
Determine O N greatest
8.1 G rpossible
aphICa l r E(GPE).
error p r E S E N TaT I O N S O f DaTa 421
Years Lewis and Clark measure the circumference of a tree. Lewis c.
SOURCE: Bureau of Justice Statistics. records the measurement as 2.3 feet, and Clark records the
Pre-K–2 should be encouraged
measurement as 2.38 feet. to make interpretative statements about the data, such as
Unless otherwise noted, all content on this page is © Cengage Learning. “Most students 1in2measurement
a. Which the
8 class
c h ahave
p tise r lost
more only
u lttwo
3 precise?
M teeth”
iplic (p.a113).
at i o n n d d iCreative
vision w titles
ith suggest the
√20w h o l e n u M b e r s
graph maker comprehends
b. Which theisdata.
measurement more accurate?
c. Which measurement do you expect would be more accu-
rate? S E C T I O N 4.2 P r I m E a N d CO m P OS I T E N u m b E r S , L E a S T CO m m O N m u LT I P L E , a N d G r E aT E S T CO m m O N FaC TO r 213
93635_ch08_413-488.indd 477
Historical
5. DetermineNote SECTION
12/27/11 2:54 PM
the range 3.1
of values of the actual measurement. A
student reports that the length of a pipe is 46.7 feet. The true
Models and properties of Multiplication
8. Find the area, circumference, radius, or diameter of a circle.
William Playfair
length of the(1759–1823),
pipe is between a___
draftsman and engineer,
and ___ feet. Theinvented linealgorithm
Euclidean plots, barterminates when the remainder is 0 or 1, because the GCF is
graphs, pie charts, and histograms, publishing them in thetobooks
simple
Addition find: The
answers theCommercial
GCF1 0, n 2 = n“How
question and GCF1
many 1, 2 = when
in nall?” 1. Youdisjoint
can always terminate
sets are the Mul-
combined. algo-
6. Use dimensional analysis to convert linear measurements.
and Political
ConvertAtlas and Statistical
the following Breviary.using
measurements In the preface
rithm of answers
his atlas,when
prematurely
tiplication
dimensional Playfair
the the question
same GCF becomes obvious.in which the disjoint sets each have the
for situations
makes analysis.
the caseRound
that he
thewas
finalthe firsttototherepresent data with pictureofgraphs
objects.(also
Other Key Features

answer same
nearest hundredth.number
called pictographs).
a. 800 yd = ___ mi
Regarding tables, Playfair said, “A man who has carefully investigated a printed
b. 32 ft = ___ cm Connections
Set Model of between
table, finds, when done, that he has only a very faint and partial idea of what he the LCM and the GCF
Multiplication
has read, and that like a figure imprinted on sand, In is soon
The theLCMtotally
anderased
the GCFand have several properties, such asofGCF 2 = GCF
1 a, bobjects, 1 b,each
a2,
Historical Notes provide social, cultural, and defaced” (Atlas, 1801, p. xiv). Regarding graphs, group he
LCM1
set model
said,having
a,“as
b 2 much
=theLCM
of multiplication,
information
same 1 b,number
a 2 , andofGCF
we join
objects.
several groups
2 ≤following
1 a, bThe LCM 1 a, bproblem
discrete
2 . But one remarkable
introduces
with
relation-
a connection
may be obtained in five minutes as would require between wholeisdays
ship twotonew
worth imprint
exploring onfurther,
the as shown in Table 4.12. What relationship do you see
historical context for select mathematical ideas. memory, in a lasting manner, by a table of figures”between (Atlas, p.a #xii)
b and
concepts.
andGCF1
a.
“Of alla, bthe2 # LCM1 a, b 2 ?
senses, the eye gives the liveliestEXAMPLE
and most sensible
3.1 A idea of whatever is Find the circumference of the circle, rounding to the near-
susceptible
They remind students that mathematics is a of being represented to it” (Statistical Breviary, 1801,
CONNeCTION
customer
14).
buys three
the total using the following.
regular cartons of eggs. How many eggs are there in all? Express
est mm.
b. Find the area of the circle, rounding to# the nearest mm2. #
Initially, scientists viewed picture representations with suspicion,
TABLE preferring
4.12 Discovering the Relationship between a b and GCF1a, b2 LCM1a, b2
human activity and an evolving process. RepReSeNTaTION a. Repeated addition
numbers and formal reasoning instead. Graphs were difficult
b. Multiplication
9. Findatthethat
a tobpublish A acircle
area, circumference, radius, or diameter of a circle.
· b has atime
GCF1a, b 2 ofLCM1a,
circumference b2
55.8 cm. Determine GCF1a,
the diam-b 2 # LCM1a, b 2
because of the difficulty of engraving illustrations on copper plates. With improved
Important Definitions and Key Theorems printing technology and increased acceptance of inductive
SOLUTION
4 reasoning,
6 eter
the24graphs Round
of the circle. 2 to the nearest
12 hundredth. 24
gradually became acceptable tools for representing data and 3 making reasonable
and Properties are set in two types of boxes 5 15 1 15 15
Waxen/Shutterstock.com
inferences. Graphs today still model Playfair’s useThere are 3 cartons,

of descriptive titles,with
frames,12 eggs per carton.
shading, grid lines, and labels for axes. a. In repeated
9 12 addition,
108 all addends 3 36 The total number108
are identical. of eggs is 12 +
designed to distinguish them. Definitions briefly 12 + 12.
b. We can represent the sum 12 + 12 + 12 more compactly as 3 × 12, with the understand-
describe key terms to learn. ing
Wethat the 3 indicates
formalize the number
this relationship in of groups, the × sign indicates a new arithmetic op-
a theorem.
eration called multiplication, and the 12 indicates the number of objects in each group.
Key terms appear in boldface type to make Bar Graphs Unless otherwise noted, all content on this page is © Cengage Learning.
▲
them easier to locate. Bar graphs are mainly used to display categorical dataTheorem
Initially,
egories. Bar graphs use rectangles separated by equally spaced
15 for comparing cat-
and are useful
students
gaps. Each calculate × 12 as 3 × 12 = 12 + 12 + 12 = 36. This helps
rectangle 3rep-
Then a # b = # GCF
resents a category, the rectangles have a common width,develop
and their
the readiness
height of afor multiplication.
rectangle However, thinking of multiplication solely in
isnumbers.
93635_ch11_617-702.indd 700 termsLetofa repeated
and b represent
addition any
is whole
ineffective for supporting LCM1 a, b 2 thinking
multiplicative 1 a,in
b 2PM
12/27/11 2:55
.
other
proportional to the frequency or relative frequency of the category.
situations with multiplicative structure, such as arrays, Cartesian products, comparisons,
fractions, and measurements. The following noncomputational definition of multiplication
EXAMPLE 8.8 Mrs. Smith surveyed her sixth-grade class to learn what type multiplicative
supports of juice her students
thinkingprefer
in these various situations.
Reasoning
for the end-of-the-year party. The choices
EXAMPLE were4.24
apple,Maria
orange, grape, and
discovered thattomato
GCF 1 juice.
48, 18 2 = 6. Use this information to find LCM1 48, 18 2 .
RepResentation CONNeCTION
Noncomputational
SO LUTION Definition of a × b
Favorite type of juice LCM148, 182 # GCF148, 18 2 = 48 # 18
Frequency
LCM148, 182 = 148 # 182 ÷ GCF148, 182

apple juice Let
16 the counting number a represent the number of groups and b represent the
number of objects in each group. Then the total number of objects in all groups is
orange juice a5× b, which is read as “a 148 # 182
=times b.” ÷ 6
grape juice 7 = 144
• a is called the multiplier, and b is called the multiplicand. ▲
tomato juice 0
• a and b are also called factors.
• The number a × b is also read as “the product of a and b.”
FIGURE 1 Although the procedure for finding the LCM and the GCF using prime factorizations
a. Display the data using a bar student
A second-grade graph. interprets • for
works Wetwo
define 0 × numbers,
or more b as equalthe zero 10 × bin=Theorem
to relationship 02 . 15 only holds for two numbers.
3 × 4 as
b. What juice should three
Mrs. groupsbring
Smith of four.
to the class party for her students next year to
satisfy the majority of students?
c. What juice should Mrs. Smith avoid CONNeCTION
bringing to the class partyshould
Students for her
be students next
able to “interpret Concept Map for the LCM and the GCF
products of whole numbers, e.g., interpret 5 × 7
year? as the total number of objects in 5 groups of 7 objects each” (CCSS, Gr. 3). The phrases
Students
“three should
times four”beand
able“three
to “find the greatest
groups of four”common factor
mean there areofthree
two whole
groups,numbers less
where each
than orhas
group equal
fourtoobjects,
100 andas the leastincommon
shown Figure 1.multiple of two
In this case, whole
there are 3numbers
× 4, orless than or
12, objects
equal to 12” (CCSS,
3×4=
in all, becauseUnless Gr. 6). Concept
4 + 4 + noted, Map 4.1 on the next page summarizes the main
4 = 12.all content on this page is © Cengage Learning. ideas
for the LCM and the GCF. otherwise
Ratios and adding, subtracting, and simplifying fractions will
Copyright 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic be rights,
covered some third party
in Chapter 5. content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
P r e face xv
A Brief Overview
This textbook:
• focuses on the goal of giving prospective teachers a lasting understanding of the fac-
tual, conceptual, and procedural knowledge that they are expected to know and be able
to teach.
• includes problems from actual elementary mathematics textbooks, Released Items from
the NAEP, and selected NCTM Standards and Expectations and CCSS that link the
mathematics prospective teachers study to the mathematics they will teach, as appropri-
ate. This combination helps students answer the questions “What do we need to know?”
and “Why do we need to know it?” This combination makes mathematics more relevant
for prospective teachers, which will increase their persistence, improve their attitude,
and reduce their anxiety. This allows the mathematics instructor to focus on the math-
ematical content while teaching the course.
• promotes the five processes of mathematics (representation, problem solving, reason-
ing and proof, connections, and communication). The processes provide a bridge to
teaching and learning mathematical content. The processes that a student uses reveal
much about the student’s level of understanding—which is important for planning, in-
struction, and assessment.
• contains a variety of homework problems at the end of each section and chapter to in-
crease a student’s interest and flexibility in teaching the topics from the textbook. The
problems reflect the content and processes that prospective teachers must know and
teach. They also reflect the national trend of integrating instruction, assessment, and
content and process standards. Although the five processes underlie all questions in the
homework, some questions are organized in groups to give prospective teachers a
chance to explore a particular process in more depth and to improve their abilities in
selecting problems that assess the process. This unique differentiation allows the math-
ematics instructor to assess a particular aspect of student understanding of a mathemat-
ical topic.
• views procedural understanding (how) as the culmination of conceptual understanding
(why), which improves motivation and attitude. The chapter tests found at the end of the
chapters reinforce and reconsider these hows and whys by linking problems to specific
learning outcomes.
• reflects the belief that prospective teachers should know the content at a deeper level
than they teach because they will lead classroom discussions, ask their students ques-
tions, and answer questions from their students. The Math Panel Report (2008) supports
this assertion: “teachers must know in detail and from a more advanced perspective the
mathematical content they are responsible for teaching and the connection of that con-
tent to other important mathematics, both prior to and beyond the level they are as-
signed to teach” (p. 38).
Supplements for the Instructor

Print Supplements
Instructor Edition
(ISBN: 978-1-111-98946-0)
The Instructor Edition features an appendix containing the answers to all problems in
the book, as well as an appendix denoting which problems can be found in Enhanced
WebAssign®.
Instructor’s Resource Manual
(ISBN: 978-1-133-36372-9)
Authors: Ricardo D. Fierro and Scott Fallstrom
The Instructor’s Resource Manual provides detailed solutions to all problems in the text.
xvi P r e face
Electronic Supplements
PowerLecture with ExamView®
(ISBN: 978-1-133-36373-6)
This CD-ROM (or DVD) provides you with dynamic media tools for teaching. Create,
deliver, and customize tests (both print and online) in minutes with ExamView Computer-
ized Testing Featuring Algorithmic Equations. Easily build solution sets for homework or
exams using Solution Builder’s online solutions manual. Microsoft® PowerPoint® lecture
slides and figures from the book are included on this CD-ROM (or DVD).
Solution Builder
This online instructor database offers complete worked solutions to all exercises in
the text, allowing you to create customized, secure solutions printouts (in PDF format)
matched exactly to the problems you assign in class. For more information, visit
www.cengage.com/solutionbuilder.
Enhanced WebAssign
(ISBN: 978-0-538-73810-1)
Exclusively from Cengage Learning®, Enhanced WebAssign combines the exceptional
mathematics content that you know and love with the most powerful online homework
solution, WebAssign. Enhanced WebAssign engages students with immediate feedback,
rich tutorial content, and interactive e-books that help students to develop a deeper concep-
tual understanding of their subject matter. Online assignments can be built by selecting
from thousands of text-specific problems or supplemented with problems from any Cen-
gage Learning textbook.
Enhanced WebAssign: Start Smart Guide for Students
(ISBN: 978-0-495-38479-3)
Author: Brooks/Cole
The Enhanced WebAssign: Start Smart Guide for Students helps students get up and run-
ning quickly with Enhanced WebAssign so that they can study smarter and improve their
performance in class.
Supplements for the Student

Print Supplements
Student Solutions Manual
(ISBN: 978-1-133-36374-3)
Authors: Ricardo D. Fierro and Scott Fallstrom
Go beyond the answers—see what it takes to get there and improve your grade! This
manual provides step-by-step solutions to selected problems in the text, giving you the
information you need to truly understand how these problems are solved.
Activities Manual
(ISBN: 978-1-133-36371-2)
Authors: Ricardo D. Fierro and Randa Kress
The Activities Manual is geared toward helping you grasp the main ideas of each section
that is covered in the text, with open-ended activities that allow you to practice and apply
the knowledge that you have learned.
Math Manipulatives Kit
(ISBN: 978-0-618-19093-5)
Author: ETA Cuisenaire
Get hands-on experience when you use the Manipulatives Kit. By using this tool, you will
see benefits that help elementary school students understand mathematical concepts. The
kit includes pattern blocks, pentominoes, base ten flats, base ten rods, base ten units, tan-
grams, and a geoboard.
P r e face xvii
Electronic Supplements
Enhanced WebAssign: Start Smart Guide for Students
(ISBN: 978-0-495-38479-3)
Author: Brooks/Cole
If your instructor has chosen to package Enhanced WebAssign with your text, this manual
will help you get up and running quickly with the Enhanced WebAssign system so that you
can study smarter and improve your performance in class.
Enhanced WebAssign
(ISBN: 978-0-538-73810-1)
Enhanced WebAssign (assigned by the instructor) provides you with instant feedback on
homework assignments. This online homework system is easy to use and includes helpful
links to textbook sections, video examples, and problem-specific tutorials.
Acknowledgments
I would like to thank the many people who reviewed the manuscript throughout various
stages. Their thoughtful feedback helped shape this textbook in many ways.
Advisory Reviewers
John Armon, Illinois Central Flor de Maria Garcia-Wukovits,
Beth Chance, Cal Poly at San Luis University of the Incarnate Word
Obispo Theresa Johnson, Los Angeles Pierce
Eduardo Chappa, Texas A&M University College
Robert delMas, University of Minnesota Mary Richardson, Grand Valley State
University
Reviewers
Paul S. Ache, Kutztown University of Grant A. Fraser, California State
Pennsylvania University at Los Angeles
Jim Brandt, Southern Utah University Melinda Gann, Mississippi College
Linda Cooke, University of South Cheryl Herrmann, Front Range
Carolina Upstate Community College
Mark L. Daniels, University of Texas Randa Kress, Idaho State University
at Austin Maria Mitchell, Central Connecticut
Julie DePree, University of New Mexico State University
Valencia Campus Stuart Moskowitz, Humboldt State
Monette Elizalde, Palo Alto College University
Scott Fallstrom, MiraCosta College Nancy Ressler, Oakton College
Thomas W. Fisher, Front Range Vince Schielack, Texas A&M University
Community College Rebecca Wong, West Valley College
Linda Fitzpatrick, Western Kentucky
University
Special thanks to Cheryl Herrmann, Randa Kress, and Vince Schielack for reviewing the
manuscript in its entirety. They contributed a great amount of time and feedback.
Mrs. Dietor, Mrs. Dugger, Mrs. Emme, Mrs. Grady, Ms. Klien, Mrs. Kulminski, Ms.
Litt, Mrs. Rocha, Mrs. Roncaglia, Mrs. Smith, Mrs. Swan, and Mrs. Verga deserve special
thanks for the many hours of discussions and weekly opportunities to teach to and learn
from their students in the first, second, third, fourth, fifth, and sixth grades through the
years. It’s a pleasure to interact with them and their energetic students. Mrs. Smith deserves
additional recognition for allowing me to spend a sabbatical leave in her classroom, teach-
ing mathematics to her sixth-grade students.
xviii P r e face
Former students in mathematics for elementary school teacher courses through the past
15 years also deserve appreciation. Marcia Michel, a former student and current teacher,
deserves special thanks for providing comments on drafts of chapters. Tim Eddo, a former
undergraduate and graduate student, was helpful in photocopying resources that were
unavailable online. Leila Safaralian, Gina Sanders, and Kerry Ferreirae tested drafts in their
classrooms and provided useful suggestions.
Thanks to Ray Landis for sharing his experiences of writing a textbook. Gary Sloane,
Jim Ho, Richard Hoff, Bill Belko, Jo Anne Moran, Bob Alidaee, Jennifer Smith, Linda
Olafson, and Barry Raskin provided welcome diversion by occasionally joining me for
food and conversation on the progress of this project. On numerous occasions, Gary
Sloane applied his amazing troubleshooting skills and technical expertise to maintain my
home computer and network.
This textbook is the result of the coordinated efforts and dedication of many talented
people. Thanks to Publisher Charlie Van Wagner for his overall support and giving the
green light to this project. Thanks to Acquisitions Editor Marc Bove for coordinating the
reviews, replying to e-mails and returning phone calls quickly and enthusiastically, asking
prodding questions, providing feedback to raw ideas, and communicating a steady voice
of reason and reassurance during the process. Thanks to Development Editor Don Gece-
wicz for his many efforts, such as filtering and interpreting the reviews to improve the
manuscript, infusing ideas, and analyzing pedagogical features. I appreciated his insight
and many suggestions. Thanks to Art Editor Leslie Lahr, who ensured the quality of all
artwork. I appreciated her stories, sense of humor, and valuable suggestions. Thanks to
Art Stylist Lisa Torri, who helped write the specifications for art design, and Art Director
Vernon Boes, who managed everything having to do with art and design. Thanks to Mar-
keting Manager Gordon Lee for leading the marketing efforts for this textbook. Thanks to
Production Editor Dan Fitzgerald at Graphic World for managing the production schedule
and working with the copy editor, proofreader, and composition team to produce the final
product. Thanks to Marcia Frobish for checking the accuracy of solutions. Thanks to Zack
Crockett, Bryon Spencer, and Michael Ledesma for their contributions. Thanks to Shaun
Williams for her efforts in coordinating the tasks involved in producing the Activities
Manual and Instructor’s Resource Manual. Thanks to Stefanie Beeck for coordinating
many tasks and assisting in reviewing the chapters. In addition, I would like to thank Con-
tent Project Manager Cheryll Linthicum, who had the incredible responsibility of oversee-
ing and monitoring the entire project. Cheryll and Stefanie also served as the eagle eyes
ensuring that every “i” was dotted and “t” crossed and kept me in line by filtering all my
concerns, questions, and ideas.
My dearest children, Mitchell and Samantha, provided continual inspiration and
allowed me to visit and teach many of their classes. My memories of those times are price-
less. Samantha helped me organize an after-school program called Math Academy, where
we experimented and enjoyed success with using diagrams to represent and solve problems
and using the tile model to solve equations. Last, but certainly not least, my wife, Nancy,
was supportive and understanding during the writing and editing of this textbook. She
stood by my side from the conception to the completion of the entire project. I thank her
for being an incredible and loving partner on this journey.
1 Problem Solving
and Reasoning
Where Are We Going?

In Section 1.1, we discuss patterns and inductive reasoning. They are tools to help
students learn mathematical principles and solve problems. In Section 1.2, we describe
teacher George Pólya’s four-phase process for problem solving and demonstrate several
problem-solving strategies. In Section 1.3, we introduce some basic language of
algebra, along with additive, multiplicative, and algebraic reasoning. We also use
diagrams and algebra to represent and solve problems. In Section 1.4, we explore the
language of logic and discuss another form of reasoning called deductive reasoning.
What Is Problem Solving?

Problem solving, a major avenue of learning, is a common theme in mathematics,
from elementary school to college. The National Council of Teachers of
Mathematics’ (NCTM’s) Principles and Standards for School Mathematics states:
Problem solving is a hallmark of mathematical activity. It is finding a way to reach
a goal that is not immediately attainable. (© NCTM Standards 2011 by National Council
of Teachers of Mathematics)
It requires curiosity, flexibility, and imagination. In this chapter, we focus on
typical problem-solving strategies and demonstrate how to use them to grapple with
problems. Many of these strategies form the basis for representation (using
diagrams, tables, symbols, algebra, manipulatives, and contextualized situations) and
communication (supporting written and verbal explanations with appropriate
diagrams and notation) to make mathematical ideas more comprehensible.
What Are the Benefits of

Problem-Solving Skills?
As you gain problem-solving skills, many once-
formidable problems will become routine, giving you
the ability and confidence to tackle more challenging
AmanaImagesRF/Getty Images
ones and “see” more math. Seeing more math helps

iofoto/Shuttertock.com
you become an effective problem solver and teacher.

It improves your attitude toward mathematics and
gives you the ability to provide greater learning
opportunities for your students.
1
2 chapter 1 P ro b l e m S o lv i n g a n d R e a s o n i n g
Section 1.1 Patterns and Inductive Reasoning

Patterns and Mathematical Principles
A pattern is similarity or regularity in observations that allows you to predict the behavior
in the observations or what comes next. A conjecture (or claim) is a general statement that
seems to be true. Inductive reasoning, one of the most basic forms of reasoning that
humans use, is the process of using patterns to make a conjecture. The word inductive
stems from the Latin word inductivis, which means “leading on.”
Inductive reasoning is an accessible and informal form of justification for students. It
makes mathematics more engaging and fascinating, and it gives students the power to learn
new mathematical ideas and solve problems.
EXAMPLE 1.1 Use inductive reasoning to make a conjecture about the sum of two consecutive whole
communication
numbers.
reasoning SOLUTION
Let’s pick some pairs of consecutive numbers and find the sums: 3 + 4 = 7, 17 + 18 =
35, 76 + 77 = 153, and 524 + 525 = 1049. The sums 7, 35, 153, and 1049 are all odd
numbers. These observations support (but do not prove) the claim “the sum of two con-
secutive whole numbers is an odd number.”
▲
The NCTM’s reasoning and proof standard for grades pre-K–12 says students should
“make and investigate mathematical conjectures.” This helps them discover mathematical
principles, as illustrated by the problem shown in the following Classroom Connection.
● Math, Grade 4, p. 147
What happens when you multiply an even number by 5? An odd number? What
patterns do you notice? (© 2000 Macmillan/McGraw Hill. Reprinted by permission.)
Connection In later chapters, we use patterns to draw conclusions or make predictions (statistics
and probability); realize the inverse relationship between the size of the measurement unit
and the number of units, such as 1 yd = 3 ft and 1 yd = 36 in. (measurement); sort and
classify geometric shapes (geometry); and express a function given in table form as a func-
tion in equation form (algebra and functions).
Here are some vocabulary words we use in the study of patterns.
Definition
• A sequence is an ordered arrangement of objects, such as numbers, letters,

equations, or shapes.
• Each object in the sequence is called a term.
Because a sequence is ordered, there is an initial term, second term, third term, and so
on. We often use inductive reasoning to predict the next likely term in a sequence. The next
example illustrates that inductive reasoning can lead to multiple (correct) answers.
SECTION 1.1 Patte r ns a n d I n d u cti v e Re a sonin g 3
EXAMPLE 1.2 Predict the next few terms in the sequence 10110 . . . .
reasoning
SOLUTION
There are several possibilities.
Option 1: The next few terms could be 0111000 (as in the sequence 10 1100
111000 . . .).
Option 2: The next few terms could be 11101111 (as in the sequence 10 110 1110
11110 . . .).
Option 3: The next few terms could be 10110 (as in the sequence 10110 10110
10110 . . .).
▲
Repeating Sequence
A repeating sequence is a pattern of recurring digits, letters, symbols, or pictures. For
example, 1, 7, 8, 5, 1, 7, 8, 5, 1, 7, 8, 5, 1, . . . is a repeating sequence because it repeats
the terms 1, 7, 8, and 5 (it repeats in groups of four). We typically see repeating patterns
in decimal numbers, such as 7.5461461461. . . . We also see repeating patterns in textiles
(such as rugs), art (such as stained glass), and wallpaper.
The following Released Item indicates that students should be able to recognize a pat-
tern to predict missing terms.
RELEASED ITEM
● NAEP, 2003
Peter wrote down a pattern of A’s and B’s that repeats in groups of 3. Here is
the beginning of his pattern with some of the letters erased. Fill in the missing
letters.
A B ___ A ___ B ___ ___ ___
52% of fourth graders and 65% of eighth graders gave the correct response.
(U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, National Center for
Education Statistics, NAEP)
Using a Pattern to Solve a Problem

Patterns and inductive reasoning are stepping stones that students can use for improving
their understanding of mathematical principles, problem solving, and algebraic thinking.
Yogi Berra once said, “You can observe a lot just by watching.” In that spirit, you can learn
a lot just by observing. Searching for patterns is an overlooked problem-solving strategy.
The following examples demonstrate that we can solve problems by observing patterns.
EXAMPLE 1.3 Determine the 158th term in the repeating sequence 5, 11, 6, 5, 11, 6, 5, 11, 6, . . . .
Connection
Communication SOLUTION
Problem Solving We notice the three terms 5, 11, and 6 repeat, and every third term is a 6 (third term, sixth
Reasoning term, ninth term, and so on). The table shows a pattern in the remainders when we divide
the position (1, 2, 3, 4, . . .) by the number of repeating terms (3).
(continued)

position 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 . . . 158
term 5 11 6 5 11 6 5 11 6 ... ?
position ÷ 3 0 R1 0 R2 1 R0 1 R1 1 R2 2 R0 2 R1 2 R2 3 R0 . . . 52 R2
For example, 158 ÷ 3 = 52 with a remainder of 2 (52 R2). We see that every position
divided by 3 that has a remainder of 2 (such as positions 2, 5, and 8) corresponds to the
term 11. The pattern suggests that the 158th term of the repeating sequence 5, 11, 6, 5, 11,
6, 5, 11, 6, . . . is 11.
▲
Arithmetic Sequences
Students should be able to “describe, extend, and make generalizations about geometric
and numeric patterns” (NCTM, algebra expectations for grades 3–5), which often involves
using tables to organize sequences, see patterns, and generalize the sequence using alge-
bra. These experiences prepare students for more advanced algebraic reasoning, as illus-
trated in the following Classroom Connection.
● Houghton Mifflin Math Steps, California Edition, Grade 4, p. 294
Describe the rule using words. Complete the table. Then write the rule as an
algebraic equation using the variables given. (© by Houghton Mifflin Company,
Inc. Reproduced by permission of the publisher, Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing
Company.)
plants ( p) 1 2 3 4
flowers ( f ) 6 12 18
The most common types of numerical sequences seen in the elementary mathematics
curriculum are arithmetic sequences, such as 6, 12, 18, 24, . . . and 5, 12, 19, 26, . . . . You
obtain the next term by adding a constant to the previous term. Now we illustrate how to
describe, extend, and generalize an arithmetic sequence.
EXAMPLE 1.4 The sequence 5, 12, 19, 26, . . . is an arithmetic sequence.

Connection a. Describe the sequence using words.
Reasoning
b. Extend the sequence.
Representation
c. Generalize the sequence.
SOLUTION
a. We describe this sequence using words by saying, “We begin with 5 and obtain the next
term by adding 7 to the previous term.”
b. We extend this sequence by observing a pattern. The next two terms after 26 are 33 and 40.
c. We generalize the sequence with a formula for the nth term, which is an equation
that relates the position n to the value y of the nth term in the sequence 1n = 1 corre-
sponds to the initial term, n = 2 corresponds to the second term, and so on2 . Table 1.1
shows the developing pattern and the equations. The table makes the pattern more
apparent.
SECTION 1.1 Patte r ns a n d I n d u cti v e Re a sonin g 5
TABLE 1.1 Using a Table to Generalize the Sequence 5, 12, 19, 26, . . .
Position Value of nth term
(n) (y) Developing pattern Equation
1 5 5 5=5+0#7
2 12 12 = 5 + 7 12 = 5 + 1 # 7
3 19 19 = 12 + 7 = 5 + 7 + 7 19 = 5 + 2 # 7
4 26 26 = 19 + 7 = 5 + 7 + 7 + 7 26 = 5 + 3 # 7
The equation is y = 5 + 71n − 12 , where y is the term and n is the position. In simpli-
fied form, the equation is y = 7n − 2.
▲
Connection Arithmetic sequences such as 2, 4, 6, . . . (even numbers); 5, 10, 15, 20, . . . (multiples
of 5); and 10, 20, 30, . . . (multiples of 10) are called skip-counting sequences. We apply
skip counting, for example, to prepare for multiplication and division with whole numbers;
to find the least common multiple; to motivate divisibility rules for 2, 5, and 10; and to
generate entries in a ratio table.
We can use algebraic notation to define an arithmetic sequence.
Definition
An arithmetic sequence is a sequence that begins with the number a; the next
term is obtained by adding the constant d to the previous term.
• a is called the initial term, and d is called the common difference.
• The nth term y is given by the rule y = a + d1n − 12 , for n = 1, 2, 3, . . . .
In the arithmetic sequence 5, 12, 19, 26, . . . , the initial term is 5 and the com-
mon difference is 7 1because 12 − 5 = 7, 19 − 12 = 7, 26 − 19 = 7, and so on2.
EXAMPLE 1.5 The sequence 1, 5, 9, 13, 17, . . . is an arithmetic sequence.

Connection
a. What are the initial term and the common difference in this sequence?
Representation b. What is the 24th term?
c. In this sequence, 297 is the kth term. Find k.
SOLUTION
a. The initial term is 1, and the common difference is 4 15 − 1 = 4, 9 − 5 = 4, 13 − 9
= 4, . . .2 .
b. A generalization of the sequence is y = 1 + 41n − 12 , where y is the term and n is the
position. Replacing n with 24, we get y = 1 + 4124 − 1 2 = 1 + 4 # 23 = 93. The 24th
term is 93.
c. We need to find k such that 297 = 1 + 41k − 12 . Then 296 = 41k − 12 . Then 74 =
k − 1. Then 75 = k. So 297 is the 75th term in the arithmetic sequence.
▲
EXAMPLE 1.6 How many numbers are in the list 4, 10, 16, 22, . . . , 214?
Connection
Representation SOLUTION
We assume 4, 10, 16, 22, . . . , 214 describes an arithmetic sequence with initial term 4 and
common difference 6. Then we need to find k such that 214 = 4 + 61k − 12 . Then 210 =
61k − 1 2 . Then 35 = k − 1. Then 36 = k. This means 214 is the 36th term in the sequence.
So there are 36 numbers in the list 4, 10, 16, 22, . . . , 214.
▲
Multiple Representations of a Sequence

The NCTM representation standards affirm that students should “create and use represen-
tations to organize, record, and communicate mathematical ideas” and “select, apply, and
translate among mathematical representations to solve problems.” Multiple representations
deepen student understanding of concepts and relationships, and each representation high-
lights different aspects of the problem.
EXAMPLE 1.7 Represent the arithmetic sequence −5, −2, 1, 4, . . . using

Representation
a. words.
b. a table.
c. algebra.
d. a graph.
SOLUTION
a. We begin with −5 and obtain the next term by adding 3 to the previous term.
b. We make a table with a few terms.
position (n) 1 2 3 4 5
term ( y) −5 −2 1 4 7
c. y = −5 + 31n − 12 = −5 + 3n − 3 = −8 + 3n. So y = −8 + 3n.

d. In the graph, we put the “independent” variable n along the horizontal axis and the
“dependent” variable y along the vertical axis. The graph shows the first few terms of
the arithmetic sequence.
The First Five Terms of
the Sequence y = −8 + 3n
8
6
4
2
y, term
0
1 2 3 4 5
–2
–4
–6
n, position
▲
Classic Savings Problem

The classic savings problem is a model problem for arithmetic sequences.
Images/Shutterstock.com
Monkey Business
EXAMPLE 1.8 Mark had $2. Then he saved a fixed amount at the end of each week
Problem Solving
throughout the year. The table shows the total amount of money he accu-
mulated at the end of each week. When did he have $38 saved?
week (n) 1 2 3 4
total amount saved ( y) $2 $6 $10 $14
SOLUTION
After n weeks, he saved y = 2 + 41n − 12 dollars, or y = 4n − 2 dollars. We need to solve the
equation 38 = 4n − 2. Then 40 = 4n. Then 10 = n. At the end of 10 weeks, he had saved $38.
▲

S ECTION 1 . 1 Pat t e r n s a n d I n d u c t i v e R e a s o n i n g 7
Connections between Whole Numbers

and Geometric Patterns
Connection The sequence 2, 5, 8, 11, 13, . . . is an example of an arithmetic sequence. The sum 2 + 5 +
Representation 8 + 11 + 13 is an example of an arithmetic series. An arithmetic series is a sum in which
the addends are consecutive terms in an arithmetic sequence. Can you explain why 2 + 5 +
8 + 15 is not an arithmetic series? Certain whole numbers (triangular numbers, square num-
bers, and oblong numbers) have close ties to arithmetic series and geometric patterns.
A triangular number is an arithmetic series of the form 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + . . . + n.
The first four triangular numbers are 1, 3, 6, and 10. Each can be represented by an arith-
metic series and a triangle.
triangular number 1 3 6 10
arithmetic series representation 1 1+2 1+2+3 1+2+3+4
geometric representation
What are the next three triangular numbers?

A square number is a whole number that has a geometric representation in the shape
of a square.
square number 1 4 9 16
arithmetic series representation 1 1+3 1+3+5 1 + 3+ 5 + 7
What are the next three square numbers? Each square number is an arithmetic series.
For example, 1 = 1, 4 = 1 + 3, and 9 = 1 + 3 + 5. Can you express 16 as an arithmetic
series?
An oblong number is a whole number that has a geometric representation in the shape
of the rectangle, where the length and width differ by exactly one unit.
oblong number 2 6 12 20
product 1×2 2×3 3×4 4×5
What are the next three oblong numbers? Each oblong number is an arithmetic series. For
example, 2 = 2, 6 = 2 + 4, and 12 = 2 + 4 + 6. Can you express 20 as an arithmetic series?
Gauss’s Method
Connection Carl Friedrich Gauss (1777–1855) calculated the sum 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + . . . + 99 + 100 in
Representation elementary school. To keep the students busy, his teacher asked the class to find the sum. Within

minutes, Gauss solved the problem using the following clever method: Let S represent the sum:
S = 1 + 2 + 3 + . . . + 99 + 100. Gauss rewrote the sum by reversing the order of the addends:
S = 1 + 2 + 3 + . . . + 98 + 99 + 100
S = 100 + 99 + 98 + . . . + 3 + 2 + 1
Then by adding the two equalities, he realized the following:
2S = 101 + 101 + 101 + . . . + 101 + 101 + 101
= 100 # 101 1because 1 + 2 + 3 + . . . + 100 has 100 addends2
Then he solved for S to get S = 1100 # 1012 ÷ 2 = 5050. The equation S = 1100 # 1012 ÷ 2
has the form S = 1number of terms # sum of the first and last terms2 ÷ 2.
The next example suggests that this technique works for other arithmetic series.
EXAMPLE 1.9 Grocery stores often stack merchandise in the shape of a trapezoid to draw attention to the
Connection
merchandise. A stack has 85 boxes in the first row, 79 boxes in the second row, 73 boxes in the
Communication third row, and so on. There are 43 boxes in the last row. How many boxes are in this display?
Problem Solving
Reasoning SOLUTION
Representation The number of boxes in the stack is 85 + 79 + 73 + 67 + 61 + 55 + 49 + 43. The
sum 85 + 79 + 73 + 67 + 61 + 55 + 49 + 43 is an arithmetic series, because 85, 79,
73, . . . , 43 is an arithmetic sequence with initial term 85 and common difference −6.
Using Gauss’s method, we let S represent the sum and then rewrite it backward:
S = 85 + 79 + 73 + 67 + 61 + 55 + 49 + 43
S = 43 + 49 + 55 + 61 + 67 + 73 + 79 + 85
Then we add
2S = 128 + 128 + 128 + 128 + 128 + 128 + 128 + 128.
So 2S = 1number of times 128 is repeated2 # 128.
The number of times 128 is repeated equals the position of 43. Note that 43 is a term
in the arithmetic sequence 85, 79, 73, . . . , 43 with rule y = 85 + 1−62 1n − 12 . We need
to find n such that 43 = 85 + 1−62 1n − 12 . Solving for n, we get n = 8. Then 2S = 8 #
128, so S = 18 # 1282 ÷ 2, which equals 512. There are 512 boxes in the display.
As in Gauss’s equation, S = 18 # 1282 ÷ 2 has the form S = 1number of terms # sum

of the first and last terms2 ÷ 2.
▲
Geometric Sequences
The sequence 2, 6, 18, 54, 162, . . . has initial term 2, and the next term is obtained by
multiplying the previous term by 3 16 = 2 # 3, 18 = 6 # 3, 54 = 18 # 3, . . . 2 . The terms in
this sequence can also be expressed using exponents, as shown in Table 1.2.
Reasoning TABLE 1.2 Expressing Terms in a Geometric Sequence Using Exponential Notation
Representation
Position Term
(n) ( y) Developing pattern Equation
1 2 2 2 = 2 # 30
2 6 6 = 2 # 3 6 = 2 # 31
3 18 18 = 3 # 6 = 2 # 3 # 3 18 = 2 # 32
4 54 54 = 3 # 18 = 2 # 3 # 3 # 3 54 = 2 # 33
The table is a powerful organizing tool, making it easier to see how the exponent
depends on the position. The general formula for the sequence is y = 2 # 3n−1, where y is
the nth term. The ratio of consecutive terms is constant: 6 ÷ 2 = 3, 18 ÷ 6 = 3, 54 ÷ 18
= 3, and so on. The sequence 2, 6, 18, 54, 162, . . . is called a geometric sequence. We can
use algebraic notation to define a geometric sequence.
Definition
A geometric sequence is a sequence that begins with the nonzero number a; the
next term is obtained by multiplying the previous term by the nonzero number r.
• a is the initial term, and r is called the common ratio.
• The nth term y is given by the rule y = a # r n−1, for n = 1, 2, 3, . . . .
The phrase common ratio means “common quotient.” The ratio of a geometric
sequence is the quotient of two consecutive terms. For example, we can find the common
ratio of the geometric sequence 3, 15, 75, 375, . . . by division: 15 ÷ 3 = 5, 75 ÷ 15 = 5,
and 375 ÷ 75 = 5. The common ratio of the geometric sequence 3, 15, 75, 375, . . . is 5,
and the nth term y is given by y = 3 # 5n−1, for n = 1, 2, 3, . . . .
EXAMPLE 1.10 Find the initial term and common ratio in each geometric sequence.
Connection
a. 10, 100, 1000, 10,000, . . .
b. 125, 25, 5, 1, . . .
c. 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, . . .
SOLUTION
a. 100 ÷ 10 = 10, 1000 ÷ 100 = 10, and 10,000 ÷ 1000 = 10. The initial term is 10.
The common ratio is 10.
b. 25 ÷ 125 = 15, 5 ÷ 25 = 15, and 1 ÷ 5 = 15. The initial term is 125. The common
ratio is 15.
c. 4 ÷ 4 = 1, 4 ÷ 4 = 1, and 4 ÷ 4 = 1. The initial term is 4. The common ratio is 1.
▲
Limitation of Inductive Reasoning

Communication Elementary school students enjoy being detectives, searching for patterns in sequences of
Reasoning numbers, letters, shapes, and equations. For example, when students see the equations 3 +
5 = 8, 1 + 3 = 4, and 7 + 3 = 10, they recognize a pattern and then claim that the sum
of two odd numbers is an even number. Their claim summarizes their observations. Often,
the students are correct. As a result, they believe inductive reasoning is a perfect method.
But it is a flawed form of reasoning, because sometimes the observations lead to an incor-
rect claim. The following Released Item assesses student understanding of the limitation
of inductive reasoning.
Released Item
● NAEP, 2009
Sam did the following problems. 2 + 1 = 3, 6 + 1 = 7. Sam concluded that
when he adds 1 to any whole number, his answer will always be odd. Is Sam
correct? __________ Explain your answer.
42% of fourth-grade students answered the question correctly.
TABLE 1.3 Pattern Showing The following problem illustrates this limitation of inductive reasoning. A whole num-
Limitation of Inductive ber divided by a nonzero whole number either has a finite decimal expansion (such as 0.2
Reasoning
and 0.35) or a repeating decimal expansion (such as 0.3333. . . or 9.128457457457. . .).
6 ÷ 8 = 0.75 Look for a pattern in the computations shown in Table 1.3.
6 ÷ 9 = 0.66666. . . • Predict whether the decimal expansion of 6 ÷ 12 is finite or repeating. Check your
answer with a calculator. Were you correct?
6 ÷ 10 = 0.6
• Predict whether the decimal expansion of 6 ÷ 13 is finite or repeating. Check your
6 ÷ 11 = 0.545454. . . answer with a calculator. Were you correct?
6 ÷ 12 = ? • Predict whether the decimal expansion of 6 ÷ 14 is finite or repeating. Check your
answer with a calculator. Were you correct?
6 ÷ 13 = ?
What did you learn about inductive reasoning? Please answer this question before you
6 ÷ 14 = ?
continue reading.
Inductive reasoning is an imperfect form of reasoning because observations (such
as the results in Table 1.3) do not always lead to a true conclusion (such as your predic-
tion). For this reason, scientists, mathematicians, and teachers do not accept examples as
proof of a conjecture. However, this flaw of inductive reasoning does not make it a poor
method. Students, scientists, mathematicians, and teachers use it all the time to discover
patterns that help them recognize relationships, group objects, acquire understanding,
and experience some exciting “aha” moments while learning. The NCTM’s Principles
and Standards for School Mathematics say for students in grades 3 to 5, “formulating
conjectures and assessing them on the basis of evidence should become the norm.”
Mathematicians often use inductive reasoning to make a conjecture, but they always
use deductive reasoning to prove the conjecture. Deductive reasoning is the process of
making a conclusion based on formal laws of logic (see Section 1.4). In time, teachers help
their students shift from inductive reasoning to deductive reasoning. Both inductive and
deductive reasoning are vital parts of mathematical reasoning.
QUESTIONS FOR SECTION 1.1
REPRESENTATION 4. The following graph shows an arithmetic sequence.

24
Refresher: Representations (language, diagrams, tables,
symbols, algebra, manipulatives, and contextualized situ- 20
ations) are important because we use them to organize, 16
y, term
record, and communicate mathematical ideas and to 12

make them more comprehensible. 8
4
1. Represent the arithmetic sequence with initial term 1 and com-
0
mon difference 3 in the following ways. 1 2 3 4 5 6
a. words b. table c. algebra d. graph n, position
2. Identify whether the sequence is an arithmetic sequence, geo- a. Represent the graph with a table.
metric sequence, both, or neither.
b. What feature of the graph reveals that the sequence is an
a. 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, . . . b. 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, . . . arithmetic sequence?
c. 20, 12, 6, 2, . . . d. 18, 14, 10, 6, 2, . . . 5. For the arithmetic sequence 4, 7, 10, 13, . . . ,
e. 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, . . . a. find the initial term. b. find the common difference.
3. The equation y 7n 12 represents an arithmetic sequence. c. represent the sequence with an equation.
a. What is the initial term? d. graph the sequence using graph paper.
b. What is the common difference? e. draw a line through the points on the graph.
c. Represent the sequence with a table. f. find the slope of the line.
g. discuss the connection between the sequence and the slope
of the line.

PROBLEM SOLVING 15. 1, 3, 5, and 7 are odd numbers, and 1 = 0 + 1, 3 = 1 + 2, 5 =

2 + 3, and 7 = 3 + 4.
Refresher: Problem solving (reaching a goal that is not
a. Find the next three equations that continue the pattern.
immediately attainable) is important because it helps
b. Make a conjecture about a property of odd numbers.
students think more deeply about what they know and
deal with unfamiliar situations. c. What type of reasoning did you use?
16. What is the 247th term in the repeating sequence 8, 20, 41, 25,
6. What is the ones digit of 958? (Hint: Look for a pattern in the
8, 20, 41, 25, . . . ?
ones digit of 91, 92, 93, . . . .)
17. a. How would you use the first and last term in each list to
7. A rectangle represents a table, and a dot represents a student
determine the number of terms in the sequence 34, 35, 36?
sitting at the table. Join the tables according to the diagrams
In the sequence 34, 35, 36, 37?
shown.
b. Look for a pattern to determine how many terms are in the
arithmetic sequence 34, 35, 36, . . . , 621.
CONNECTIONS
a. How many students can be seated at the tables when
37 tables are joined together? Refresher: Connections (linking and applying mathemat-
b. What is the minimum number of tables needed to seat ical ideas) are important because they deepen student
185 students? understanding and make mathematics more meaningful,
8. Rico saved money in his piggy bank. In the first month he put
flexible, and useful.
$11 in the piggy bank. Every month thereafter he deposited a 18. Do the following.
fixed amount in the piggy bank. When he checked his piggy a. What are the initial term, common difference, and equation
bank, he had $195. What are some possible fixed amounts of for the arithmetic sequence 8, 16, 24, 32, 40, . . . ?
money he could have deposited?
b. What are the initial term, common difference, and equation
9. The shaded cell in the diagram moves clockwise in the order for the arithmetic sequence 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, . . . ?
A, B, C, D, A, . . . .
c. Arithmetic sequences such as 8, 16, 24, 32, 40, . . . and 10,
A B 20, 30, 40, 50, . . . are called skip-counting sequences.
D C Write a definition for this term.
19. Consider the following sequence of equations: 43 = 64, 42 =
At time t = 0 sec, the shaded square in the diagram is in the 16, 41 = 4, . . . . Use patterns to help your students evaluate 40.
upper left corner (A). At time t = 4 sec, the shaded square
20. Consider the sequence 3 × 4 = 12, 2 × 4 = 8, 1 × 4 = 4, 0 ×
moves to cell B. Every 4 seconds, the shaded square moves to
4 = 0, . . . . Use patterns to help your students evaluate −1 ×
the next cell. Where will the shaded square be after 3 minutes
4 and −2 × 4.
and 10 seconds?
21. The following equations form a “fact family” for the equation
10. If we know the sum 2 + 3 + 4 + 5, how can we quickly find
5 + 3 = 8: 5 + 3 = 8, 3 + 5 = 8, 8 − 3 = 5, and 8 − 5 = 3.
the sum 6 + 9 + 12 + 15?
Look for the pattern in the equations to write the fact family
11. There are 23 players in a ping-pong tournament. Each player for the equation n − 7 = 16. Then circle the equation or equa-
plays every other player exactly once. How many games will tions that help you solve the equation n − 7 = 16.
be played? (Hint: Suppose there are simply 2 players, 3 play-
22. Consider the sequence of staircases shown. To obtain the next
ers, 4 players, and so on, and look for a pattern.)
staircase from the previous staircase, place one new column of
12. The eighth term of an arithmetic sequence is 78. The 26th term squares along the tallest column of the shape, extending one
is 240. Find the 62nd term. square longer. Each square has a side length of one unit.
REASONING AND PROOF

Refresher: Reasoning and proof (thinking and justifying)
are important because they help students make sense of First Second Third
mathematics. staircase staircase staircase
13. Use a calculator to determine 372, 3372, 33372, and 33,3372. a. Draw the next staircase.
Use a pattern to predict 3,333,3372. b. Find the perimeter of each of the first four staircases and
14. Pick pairs of consecutive whole numbers. Multiply the two organize the results in a table.
numbers in the pair. c. Write an equation for the perimeter of nth staircase.
a. What pattern did you notice? d. The third staircase has 3 steps. What would be the perime-
b. Make a conjecture about the result. ter of a staircase that has 14 steps?
c. What type of reasoning did you use?

23. A teacher shows her students the division problem 52 ÷ 15. b. _______ is finding a way to reach a goal that is not imme-
Then she demonstrates the following strategy based on skip diately attainable.
counting: She writes on the board the sequence 15, 30, 45 and c. Similarity or regularity in observations that allows you to
the equation 52 − 45 = 7. Then she writes 52 ÷ 15 = 3 R7. predict the behavior in the observations or what comes next
Study the teacher’s approach. Use the same approach to solve is called _______.
each division problem.
d. The process of using several observations to make a con-
a. 85 ÷ 20 b. 52 ÷ 15 c. 64 ÷ 12 clusion is called _______.
24. In the equation a ÷ b = q Rr, the number a is the dividend, b e. _______ are aids such as tables, graphs, diagrams, and
is the divisor, q is the quotient, and r is the remainder, with 0 ≤ algebra that we use to communicate and learn mathemati-
r < b. We read a ÷ b = q Rr as “a divided by b equals q cal ideas.
remainder r.” The following list shows a few equations.
f. In a(n) _______ sequence, we add a constant to the previ-
0 ÷ 3 = 0 R0 ous term to obtain the next term.
1 ÷ 3 = 0 R1 g. 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, . . . is an example of a(n) _______
2 ÷ 3 = 0 R2 sequence.
a. Complete the next six rows of the list. h. Students are expected to describe, extend, and _______
b. Describe the pattern in the remainders for division by 3. patterns.
25. Find the next two equations that continue the pattern. 31. Find the next three likely terms in each sequence.
1 = 12 a. 5, 8, 11, 14, 17, ___, ___, ___
1+3=2 2 b. 1, 8, 27, 64, 125, ___, ___, ___
1 + 3 + 5 = 32 c. 5, 10, 20, 40, 80, 160, ___, ___, ___
1+3+5+7=4 2 d. 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, ___, ___, ___
26. Find the next two equations that continue the pattern. e. 4, 11, 6, 13, 8, 15, 10, ___, ___, ___
2=1×2 32. What are the next three likely terms in the sequence 1, 2, 6,
24, . . . ?
2+4=2×3
33. Pick a few whole numbers.
2+4+6=3×4
a. Multiply each number by 5.
2+4+6+8=4×5
b. What pattern do you notice?
c. Make a conjecture about the result.
COMMUNICATION
d. What type of reasoning did you use?
Refresher: Communication (written and verbal explana- 34. The sequence −3, 1, 5, 9, . . . is an arithmetic sequence.
tions using representations and proper mathematical a. Describe the sequence in words.
vocabulary) is important because it helps students refine
b. Represent the sequence with a table.
and strengthen their understanding.
c. Represent the sequence with a graph.
27. Answer the following.
d. Represent the sequence with an equation.
a. What is a pattern? b. What is a conjecture?
e. How many terms are less than 513?
c. What is inductive reasoning? # #
35. Compare 46 47 and 465 465. Compare 134 135 and 1345 # #
d. What is a limitation of inductive reasoning? 1345. Then compare 728 729 and 7285 7285. # #
28. 1, 2, 3, 4, . . . is a sequence. #
a. Given 36 37 = 1332, predict 365 365. #
a. Could it be an arithmetic sequence? Why? #
b. Given 4725 4725 = 22,325,625, what product can you
b. Could it be a geometric sequence? Why? easily predict?
29. 7, 7, 7, 7, . . . is a sequence. 36. A teacher writes the sequence 5 + 2a, 10 + 3a, 30 + 4a, . . .
a. Could it be a repeating sequence? Why? on the board. He asks the class, “What is the next likely term?”
b. Could it be an arithmetic sequence? Why? A few minutes later, Marissa shouts, “The next likely term is
120 + 5a!” Explain how Marissa could be correct.
c. Could it be a geometric sequence? Why?
37. What is the tens digit of the number 2184?
More practice with the ideas of the section 38. Do the following.
a. Calculate 642, 6642, 66642, and 66,6642.
30. Fill in the blank. Choose one of the following words or phrases:
arithmetic, deductive reasoning, exercises, generalize, geomet- b. Use a pattern to predict 6,666,6642.
ric, inductive reasoning, pattern, problem solving, representa- 39. Find the sum of each arithmetic series using Gauss’s method.
tions, sequence, skip counting, stretch, or wishful thinking. a. 204 + 206 + 208 + . . . + 410
a. _______ help(s) you to reinforce your skill in performing b. 88 + 96 + 104 + . . . + 496
calculations and applying procedures.
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DANCE ON STILTS AT THE GIRLS’ UNYAGO, NIUCHI
Newala, too, suffers from the distance of its water-supply—at least

the Newala of to-day does; there was once another Newala in a lovely
valley at the foot of the plateau. I visited it and found scarcely a trace
of houses, only a Christian cemetery, with the graves of several
missionaries and their converts, remaining as a monument of its
former glories. But the surroundings are wonderfully beautiful. A
thick grove of splendid mango-trees closes in the weather-worn
crosses and headstones; behind them, combining the useful and the
agreeable, is a whole plantation of lemon-trees covered with ripe
fruit; not the small African kind, but a much larger and also juicier
imported variety, which drops into the hands of the passing traveller,
without calling for any exertion on his part. Old Newala is now under
the jurisdiction of the native pastor, Daudi, at Chingulungulu, who,
as I am on very friendly terms with him, allows me, as a matter of
course, the use of this lemon-grove during my stay at Newala.
FEET MUTILATED BY THE RAVAGES OF THE “JIGGER”
(Sarcopsylla penetrans)
The water-supply of New Newala is in the bottom of the valley,

some 1,600 feet lower down. The way is not only long and fatiguing,
but the water, when we get it, is thoroughly bad. We are suffering not
only from this, but from the fact that the arrangements at Newala are
nothing short of luxurious. We have a separate kitchen—a hut built
against the boma palisade on the right of the baraza, the interior of
which is not visible from our usual position. Our two cooks were not
long in finding this out, and they consequently do—or rather neglect
to do—what they please. In any case they do not seem to be very
particular about the boiling of our drinking-water—at least I can
attribute to no other cause certain attacks of a dysenteric nature,
from which both Knudsen and I have suffered for some time. If a
man like Omari has to be left unwatched for a moment, he is capable
of anything. Besides this complaint, we are inconvenienced by the
state of our nails, which have become as hard as glass, and crack on
the slightest provocation, and I have the additional infliction of
pimples all over me. As if all this were not enough, we have also, for
the last week been waging war against the jigger, who has found his
Eldorado in the hot sand of the Makonde plateau. Our men are seen
all day long—whenever their chronic colds and the dysentery likewise
raging among them permit—occupied in removing this scourge of
Africa from their feet and trying to prevent the disastrous
consequences of its presence. It is quite common to see natives of
this place with one or two toes missing; many have lost all their toes,
or even the whole front part of the foot, so that a well-formed leg
ends in a shapeless stump. These ravages are caused by the female of
Sarcopsylla penetrans, which bores its way under the skin and there
develops an egg-sac the size of a pea. In all books on the subject, it is
stated that one’s attention is called to the presence of this parasite by
an intolerable itching. This agrees very well with my experience, so
far as the softer parts of the sole, the spaces between and under the
toes, and the side of the foot are concerned, but if the creature
penetrates through the harder parts of the heel or ball of the foot, it
may escape even the most careful search till it has reached maturity.
Then there is no time to be lost, if the horrible ulceration, of which
we see cases by the dozen every day, is to be prevented. It is much
easier, by the way, to discover the insect on the white skin of a
European than on that of a native, on which the dark speck scarcely
shows. The four or five jiggers which, in spite of the fact that I
constantly wore high laced boots, chose my feet to settle in, were
taken out for me by the all-accomplished Knudsen, after which I
thought it advisable to wash out the cavities with corrosive
sublimate. The natives have a different sort of disinfectant—they fill
the hole with scraped roots. In a tiny Makua village on the slope of
the plateau south of Newala, we saw an old woman who had filled all
the spaces under her toe-nails with powdered roots by way of
prophylactic treatment. What will be the result, if any, who can say?
The rest of the many trifling ills which trouble our existence are
really more comic than serious. In the absence of anything else to
smoke, Knudsen and I at last opened a box of cigars procured from
the Indian store-keeper at Lindi, and tried them, with the most
distressing results. Whether they contain opium or some other
narcotic, neither of us can say, but after the tenth puff we were both
“off,” three-quarters stupefied and unspeakably wretched. Slowly we
recovered—and what happened next? Half-an-hour later we were
once more smoking these poisonous concoctions—so insatiable is the
craving for tobacco in the tropics.
Even my present attacks of fever scarcely deserve to be taken
seriously. I have had no less than three here at Newala, all of which
have run their course in an incredibly short time. In the early
afternoon, I am busy with my old natives, asking questions and
making notes. The strong midday coffee has stimulated my spirits to
an extraordinary degree, the brain is active and vigorous, and work
progresses rapidly, while a pleasant warmth pervades the whole
body. Suddenly this gives place to a violent chill, forcing me to put on
my overcoat, though it is only half-past three and the afternoon sun
is at its hottest. Now the brain no longer works with such acuteness
and logical precision; more especially does it fail me in trying to
establish the syntax of the difficult Makua language on which I have
ventured, as if I had not enough to do without it. Under the
circumstances it seems advisable to take my temperature, and I do
so, to save trouble, without leaving my seat, and while going on with
my work. On examination, I find it to be 101·48°. My tutors are
abruptly dismissed and my bed set up in the baraza; a few minutes
later I am in it and treating myself internally with hot water and
lemon-juice.
Three hours later, the thermometer marks nearly 104°, and I make
them carry me back into the tent, bed and all, as I am now perspiring
heavily, and exposure to the cold wind just beginning to blow might
mean a fatal chill. I lie still for a little while, and then find, to my
great relief, that the temperature is not rising, but rather falling. This
is about 7.30 p.m. At 8 p.m. I find, to my unbounded astonishment,
that it has fallen below 98·6°, and I feel perfectly well. I read for an
hour or two, and could very well enjoy a smoke, if I had the
wherewithal—Indian cigars being out of the question.
Having no medical training, I am at a loss to account for this state
of things. It is impossible that these transitory attacks of high fever
should be malarial; it seems more probable that they are due to a
kind of sunstroke. On consulting my note-book, I become more and
more inclined to think this is the case, for these attacks regularly
follow extreme fatigue and long exposure to strong sunshine. They at
least have the advantage of being only short interruptions to my
work, as on the following morning I am always quite fresh and fit.
My treasure of a cook is suffering from an enormous hydrocele which
makes it difficult for him to get up, and Moritz is obliged to keep in
the dark on account of his inflamed eyes. Knudsen’s cook, a raw boy
from somewhere in the bush, knows still less of cooking than Omari;
consequently Nils Knudsen himself has been promoted to the vacant
post. Finding that we had come to the end of our supplies, he began
by sending to Chingulungulu for the four sucking-pigs which we had
bought from Matola and temporarily left in his charge; and when
they came up, neatly packed in a large crate, he callously slaughtered
the biggest of them. The first joint we were thoughtless enough to
entrust for roasting to Knudsen’s mshenzi cook, and it was
consequently uneatable; but we made the rest of the animal into a
jelly which we ate with great relish after weeks of underfeeding,
consuming incredible helpings of it at both midday and evening
meals. The only drawback is a certain want of variety in the tinned
vegetables. Dr. Jäger, to whom the Geographical Commission
entrusted the provisioning of the expeditions—mine as well as his
own—because he had more time on his hands than the rest of us,
seems to have laid in a huge stock of Teltow turnips,[46] an article of
food which is all very well for occasional use, but which quickly palls
when set before one every day; and we seem to have no other tins
left. There is no help for it—we must put up with the turnips; but I
am certain that, once I am home again, I shall not touch them for ten
years to come.
Amid all these minor evils, which, after all, go to make up the
genuine flavour of Africa, there is at least one cheering touch:
Knudsen has, with the dexterity of a skilled mechanic, repaired my 9
× 12 cm. camera, at least so far that I can use it with a little care.
How, in the absence of finger-nails, he was able to accomplish such a
ticklish piece of work, having no tool but a clumsy screw-driver for
taking to pieces and putting together again the complicated
mechanism of the instantaneous shutter, is still a mystery to me; but
he did it successfully. The loss of his finger-nails shows him in a light
contrasting curiously enough with the intelligence evinced by the
above operation; though, after all, it is scarcely surprising after his
ten years’ residence in the bush. One day, at Lindi, he had occasion
to wash a dog, which must have been in need of very thorough
cleansing, for the bottle handed to our friend for the purpose had an
extremely strong smell. Having performed his task in the most
conscientious manner, he perceived with some surprise that the dog
did not appear much the better for it, and was further surprised by
finding his own nails ulcerating away in the course of the next few
days. “How was I to know that carbolic acid has to be diluted?” he
mutters indignantly, from time to time, with a troubled gaze at his
mutilated finger-tips.
Since we came to Newala we have been making excursions in all
directions through the surrounding country, in accordance with old
habit, and also because the akida Sefu did not get together the tribal
elders from whom I wanted information so speedily as he had
promised. There is, however, no harm done, as, even if seen only
from the outside, the country and people are interesting enough.
The Makonde plateau is like a large rectangular table rounded off
at the corners. Measured from the Indian Ocean to Newala, it is
about seventy-five miles long, and between the Rovuma and the
Lukuledi it averages fifty miles in breadth, so that its superficial area
is about two-thirds of that of the kingdom of Saxony. The surface,
however, is not level, but uniformly inclined from its south-western
edge to the ocean. From the upper edge, on which Newala lies, the
eye ranges for many miles east and north-east, without encountering
any obstacle, over the Makonde bush. It is a green sea, from which
here and there thick clouds of smoke rise, to show that it, too, is
inhabited by men who carry on their tillage like so many other
primitive peoples, by cutting down and burning the bush, and
manuring with the ashes. Even in the radiant light of a tropical day
such a fire is a grand sight.
Much less effective is the impression produced just now by the
great western plain as seen from the edge of the plateau. As often as
time permits, I stroll along this edge, sometimes in one direction,
sometimes in another, in the hope of finding the air clear enough to
let me enjoy the view; but I have always been disappointed.
Wherever one looks, clouds of smoke rise from the burning bush,
and the air is full of smoke and vapour. It is a pity, for under more
favourable circumstances the panorama of the whole country up to
the distant Majeje hills must be truly magnificent. It is of little use
taking photographs now, and an outline sketch gives a very poor idea
of the scenery. In one of these excursions I went out of my way to
make a personal attempt on the Makonde bush. The present edge of
the plateau is the result of a far-reaching process of destruction
through erosion and denudation. The Makonde strata are
everywhere cut into by ravines, which, though short, are hundreds of
yards in depth. In consequence of the loose stratification of these
beds, not only are the walls of these ravines nearly vertical, but their
upper end is closed by an equally steep escarpment, so that the
western edge of the Makonde plateau is hemmed in by a series of
deep, basin-like valleys. In order to get from one side of such a ravine
to the other, I cut my way through the bush with a dozen of my men.
It was a very open part, with more grass than scrub, but even so the
short stretch of less than two hundred yards was very hard work; at
the end of it the men’s calicoes were in rags and they themselves
bleeding from hundreds of scratches, while even our strong khaki
suits had not escaped scatheless.
NATIVE PATH THROUGH THE MAKONDE BUSH, NEAR

MAHUTA
I see increasing reason to believe that the view formed some time
back as to the origin of the Makonde bush is the correct one. I have
no doubt that it is not a natural product, but the result of human
occupation. Those parts of the high country where man—as a very
slight amount of practice enables the eye to perceive at once—has not
yet penetrated with axe and hoe, are still occupied by a splendid
timber forest quite able to sustain a comparison with our mixed
forests in Germany. But wherever man has once built his hut or tilled
his field, this horrible bush springs up. Every phase of this process
may be seen in the course of a couple of hours’ walk along the main
road. From the bush to right or left, one hears the sound of the axe—
not from one spot only, but from several directions at once. A few
steps further on, we can see what is taking place. The brush has been
cut down and piled up in heaps to the height of a yard or more,
between which the trunks of the large trees stand up like the last
pillars of a magnificent ruined building. These, too, present a
melancholy spectacle: the destructive Makonde have ringed them—
cut a broad strip of bark all round to ensure their dying off—and also
piled up pyramids of brush round them. Father and son, mother and
son-in-law, are chopping away perseveringly in the background—too
busy, almost, to look round at the white stranger, who usually excites
so much interest. If you pass by the same place a week later, the piles
of brushwood have disappeared and a thick layer of ashes has taken
the place of the green forest. The large trees stretch their
smouldering trunks and branches in dumb accusation to heaven—if
they have not already fallen and been more or less reduced to ashes,
perhaps only showing as a white stripe on the dark ground.
This work of destruction is carried out by the Makonde alike on the
virgin forest and on the bush which has sprung up on sites already
cultivated and deserted. In the second case they are saved the trouble
of burning the large trees, these being entirely absent in the
secondary bush.
After burning this piece of forest ground and loosening it with the
hoe, the native sows his corn and plants his vegetables. All over the
country, he goes in for bed-culture, which requires, and, in fact,
receives, the most careful attention. Weeds are nowhere tolerated in
the south of German East Africa. The crops may fail on the plains,
where droughts are frequent, but never on the plateau with its
abundant rains and heavy dews. Its fortunate inhabitants even have
the satisfaction of seeing the proud Wayao and Wamakua working
for them as labourers, driven by hunger to serve where they were
accustomed to rule.
But the light, sandy soil is soon exhausted, and would yield no
harvest the second year if cultivated twice running. This fact has
been familiar to the native for ages; consequently he provides in
time, and, while his crop is growing, prepares the next plot with axe
and firebrand. Next year he plants this with his various crops and
lets the first piece lie fallow. For a short time it remains waste and
desolate; then nature steps in to repair the destruction wrought by
man; a thousand new growths spring out of the exhausted soil, and
even the old stumps put forth fresh shoots. Next year the new growth
is up to one’s knees, and in a few years more it is that terrible,
impenetrable bush, which maintains its position till the black
occupier of the land has made the round of all the available sites and
come back to his starting point.
The Makonde are, body and soul, so to speak, one with this bush.
According to my Yao informants, indeed, their name means nothing
else but “bush people.” Their own tradition says that they have been
settled up here for a very long time, but to my surprise they laid great
stress on an original immigration. Their old homes were in the
south-east, near Mikindani and the mouth of the Rovuma, whence
their peaceful forefathers were driven by the continual raids of the
Sakalavas from Madagascar and the warlike Shirazis[47] of the coast,
to take refuge on the almost inaccessible plateau. I have studied
African ethnology for twenty years, but the fact that changes of
population in this apparently quiet and peaceable corner of the earth
could have been occasioned by outside enterprises taking place on
the high seas, was completely new to me. It is, no doubt, however,
correct.
The charming tribal legend of the Makonde—besides informing us
of other interesting matters—explains why they have to live in the
thickest of the bush and a long way from the edge of the plateau,
instead of making their permanent homes beside the purling brooks
and springs of the low country.
“The place where the tribe originated is Mahuta, on the southern
side of the plateau towards the Rovuma, where of old time there was
nothing but thick bush. Out of this bush came a man who never
washed himself or shaved his head, and who ate and drank but little.
He went out and made a human figure from the wood of a tree
growing in the open country, which he took home to his abode in the
bush and there set it upright. In the night this image came to life and
was a woman. The man and woman went down together to the
Rovuma to wash themselves. Here the woman gave birth to a still-
born child. They left that place and passed over the high land into the
valley of the Mbemkuru, where the woman had another child, which
was also born dead. Then they returned to the high bush country of
Mahuta, where the third child was born, which lived and grew up. In
course of time, the couple had many more children, and called
themselves Wamatanda. These were the ancestral stock of the
Makonde, also called Wamakonde,[48] i.e., aborigines. Their
forefather, the man from the bush, gave his children the command to
bury their dead upright, in memory of the mother of their race who
was cut out of wood and awoke to life when standing upright. He also
warned them against settling in the valleys and near large streams,
for sickness and death dwelt there. They were to make it a rule to
have their huts at least an hour’s walk from the nearest watering-
place; then their children would thrive and escape illness.”
The explanation of the name Makonde given by my informants is
somewhat different from that contained in the above legend, which I
extract from a little book (small, but packed with information), by
Pater Adams, entitled Lindi und sein Hinterland. Otherwise, my
results agree exactly with the statements of the legend. Washing?
Hapana—there is no such thing. Why should they do so? As it is, the
supply of water scarcely suffices for cooking and drinking; other
people do not wash, so why should the Makonde distinguish himself
by such needless eccentricity? As for shaving the head, the short,
woolly crop scarcely needs it,[49] so the second ancestral precept is
likewise easy enough to follow. Beyond this, however, there is
nothing ridiculous in the ancestor’s advice. I have obtained from
various local artists a fairly large number of figures carved in wood,
ranging from fifteen to twenty-three inches in height, and
representing women belonging to the great group of the Mavia,
Makonde, and Matambwe tribes. The carving is remarkably well
done and renders the female type with great accuracy, especially the
keloid ornamentation, to be described later on. As to the object and
meaning of their works the sculptors either could or (more probably)
would tell me nothing, and I was forced to content myself with the
scanty information vouchsafed by one man, who said that the figures
were merely intended to represent the nembo—the artificial
deformations of pelele, ear-discs, and keloids. The legend recorded
by Pater Adams places these figures in a new light. They must surely
be more than mere dolls; and we may even venture to assume that
they are—though the majority of present-day Makonde are probably
unaware of the fact—representations of the tribal ancestress.
The references in the legend to the descent from Mahuta to the
Rovuma, and to a journey across the highlands into the Mbekuru
valley, undoubtedly indicate the previous history of the tribe, the
travels of the ancestral pair typifying the migrations of their
descendants. The descent to the neighbouring Rovuma valley, with
its extraordinary fertility and great abundance of game, is intelligible
at a glance—but the crossing of the Lukuledi depression, the ascent
to the Rondo Plateau and the descent to the Mbemkuru, also lie
within the bounds of probability, for all these districts have exactly
the same character as the extreme south. Now, however, comes a
point of especial interest for our bacteriological age. The primitive
Makonde did not enjoy their lives in the marshy river-valleys.
Disease raged among them, and many died. It was only after they
had returned to their original home near Mahuta, that the health
conditions of these people improved. We are very apt to think of the
African as a stupid person whose ignorance of nature is only equalled
by his fear of it, and who looks on all mishaps as caused by evil
spirits and malignant natural powers. It is much more correct to
assume in this case that the people very early learnt to distinguish
districts infested with malaria from those where it is absent.
This knowledge is crystallized in the
ancestral warning against settling in the
valleys and near the great waters, the
dwelling-places of disease and death. At the
same time, for security against the hostile
Mavia south of the Rovuma, it was enacted
that every settlement must be not less than a
certain distance from the southern edge of the
plateau. Such in fact is their mode of life at the
present day. It is not such a bad one, and
certainly they are both safer and more
comfortable than the Makua, the recent
intruders from the south, who have made USUAL METHOD OF
good their footing on the western edge of the CLOSING HUT-DOOR
plateau, extending over a fairly wide belt of
country. Neither Makua nor Makonde show in their dwellings
anything of the size and comeliness of the Yao houses in the plain,
especially at Masasi, Chingulungulu and Zuza’s. Jumbe Chauro, a
Makonde hamlet not far from Newala, on the road to Mahuta, is the
most important settlement of the tribe I have yet seen, and has fairly
spacious huts. But how slovenly is their construction compared with
the palatial residences of the elephant-hunters living in the plain.
The roofs are still more untidy than in the general run of huts during
the dry season, the walls show here and there the scanty beginnings
or the lamentable remains of the mud plastering, and the interior is a
veritable dog-kennel; dirt, dust and disorder everywhere. A few huts
only show any attempt at division into rooms, and this consists
merely of very roughly-made bamboo partitions. In one point alone
have I noticed any indication of progress—in the method of fastening
the door. Houses all over the south are secured in a simple but
ingenious manner. The door consists of a set of stout pieces of wood
or bamboo, tied with bark-string to two cross-pieces, and moving in
two grooves round one of the door-posts, so as to open inwards. If
the owner wishes to leave home, he takes two logs as thick as a man’s
upper arm and about a yard long. One of these is placed obliquely
against the middle of the door from the inside, so as to form an angle
of from 60° to 75° with the ground. He then places the second piece
horizontally across the first, pressing it downward with all his might.
It is kept in place by two strong posts planted in the ground a few
inches inside the door. This fastening is absolutely safe, but of course
cannot be applied to both doors at once, otherwise how could the
owner leave or enter his house? I have not yet succeeded in finding
out how the back door is fastened.
MAKONDE LOCK AND KEY AT JUMBE CHAURO

This is the general way of closing a house. The Makonde at Jumbe
Chauro, however, have a much more complicated, solid and original
one. Here, too, the door is as already described, except that there is
only one post on the inside, standing by itself about six inches from
one side of the doorway. Opposite this post is a hole in the wall just
large enough to admit a man’s arm. The door is closed inside by a
large wooden bolt passing through a hole in this post and pressing
with its free end against the door. The other end has three holes into
which fit three pegs running in vertical grooves inside the post. The
door is opened with a wooden key about a foot long, somewhat
curved and sloped off at the butt; the other end has three pegs
corresponding to the holes, in the bolt, so that, when it is thrust
through the hole in the wall and inserted into the rectangular
opening in the post, the pegs can be lifted and the bolt drawn out.[50]
MODE OF INSERTING THE KEY
With no small pride first one householder and then a second

showed me on the spot the action of this greatest invention of the
Makonde Highlands. To both with an admiring exclamation of
“Vizuri sana!” (“Very fine!”). I expressed the wish to take back these
marvels with me to Ulaya, to show the Wazungu what clever fellows
the Makonde are. Scarcely five minutes after my return to camp at
Newala, the two men came up sweating under the weight of two
heavy logs which they laid down at my feet, handing over at the same
time the keys of the fallen fortress. Arguing, logically enough, that if
the key was wanted, the lock would be wanted with it, they had taken
their axes and chopped down the posts—as it never occurred to them
to dig them out of the ground and so bring them intact. Thus I have
two badly damaged specimens, and the owners, instead of praise,
come in for a blowing-up.
The Makua huts in the environs of Newala are especially
miserable; their more than slovenly construction reminds one of the
temporary erections of the Makua at Hatia’s, though the people here
have not been concerned in a war. It must therefore be due to
congenital idleness, or else to the absence of a powerful chief. Even
the baraza at Mlipa’s, a short hour’s walk south-east of Newala,
shares in this general neglect. While public buildings in this country
are usually looked after more or less carefully, this is in evident
danger of being blown over by the first strong easterly gale. The only
attractive object in this whole district is the grave of the late chief
Mlipa. I visited it in the morning, while the sun was still trying with
partial success to break through the rolling mists, and the circular
grove of tall euphorbias, which, with a broken pot, is all that marks
the old king’s resting-place, impressed one with a touch of pathos.
Even my very materially-minded carriers seemed to feel something
of the sort, for instead of their usual ribald songs, they chanted
solemnly, as we marched on through the dense green of the Makonde
bush:—
“We shall arrive with the great master; we stand in a row and have
no fear about getting our food and our money from the Serkali (the
Government). We are not afraid; we are going along with the great
master, the lion; we are going down to the coast and back.”
With regard to the characteristic features of the various tribes here
on the western edge of the plateau, I can arrive at no other
conclusion than the one already come to in the plain, viz., that it is
impossible for anyone but a trained anthropologist to assign any
given individual at once to his proper tribe. In fact, I think that even
an anthropological specialist, after the most careful examination,
might find it a difficult task to decide. The whole congeries of peoples
collected in the region bounded on the west by the great Central
African rift, Tanganyika and Nyasa, and on the east by the Indian
Ocean, are closely related to each other—some of their languages are
only distinguished from one another as dialects of the same speech,
and no doubt all the tribes present the same shape of skull and
structure of skeleton. Thus, surely, there can be no very striking
differences in outward appearance.
Even did such exist, I should have no time
to concern myself with them, for day after day,
I have to see or hear, as the case may be—in
any case to grasp and record—an
extraordinary number of ethnographic
phenomena. I am almost disposed to think it
fortunate that some departments of inquiry, at
least, are barred by external circumstances.
Chief among these is the subject of iron-
working. We are apt to think of Africa as a
country where iron ore is everywhere, so to
speak, to be picked up by the roadside, and
where it would be quite surprising if the
inhabitants had not learnt to smelt the
material ready to their hand. In fact, the
knowledge of this art ranges all over the
continent, from the Kabyles in the north to the
Kafirs in the south. Here between the Rovuma
and the Lukuledi the conditions are not so
favourable. According to the statements of the
Makonde, neither ironstone nor any other
form of iron ore is known to them. They have
not therefore advanced to the art of smelting
the metal, but have hitherto bought all their
THE ANCESTRESS OF
THE MAKONDE
iron implements from neighbouring tribes.
Even in the plain the inhabitants are not much
better off. Only one man now living is said to
understand the art of smelting iron. This old fundi lives close to
Huwe, that isolated, steep-sided block of granite which rises out of
the green solitude between Masasi and Chingulungulu, and whose
jagged and splintered top meets the traveller’s eye everywhere. While
still at Masasi I wished to see this man at work, but was told that,
frightened by the rising, he had retired across the Rovuma, though
he would soon return. All subsequent inquiries as to whether the
fundi had come back met with the genuine African answer, “Bado”
(“Not yet”).
BRAZIER
Some consolation was afforded me by a brassfounder, whom I

came across in the bush near Akundonde’s. This man is the favourite
of women, and therefore no doubt of the gods; he welds the glittering
brass rods purchased at the coast into those massive, heavy rings
which, on the wrists and ankles of the local fair ones, continually give
me fresh food for admiration. Like every decent master-craftsman he
had all his tools with him, consisting of a pair of bellows, three
crucibles and a hammer—nothing more, apparently. He was quite
willing to show his skill, and in a twinkling had fixed his bellows on
the ground. They are simply two goat-skins, taken off whole, the four
legs being closed by knots, while the upper opening, intended to
admit the air, is kept stretched by two pieces of wood. At the lower
end of the skin a smaller opening is left into which a wooden tube is
stuck. The fundi has quickly borrowed a heap of wood-embers from
the nearest hut; he then fixes the free ends of the two tubes into an
earthen pipe, and clamps them to the ground by means of a bent
piece of wood. Now he fills one of his small clay crucibles, the dross
on which shows that they have been long in use, with the yellow
material, places it in the midst of the embers, which, at present are
only faintly glimmering, and begins his work. In quick alternation
the smith’s two hands move up and down with the open ends of the
bellows; as he raises his hand he holds the slit wide open, so as to let
the air enter the skin bag unhindered. In pressing it down he closes
the bag, and the air puffs through the bamboo tube and clay pipe into
the fire, which quickly burns up. The smith, however, does not keep
on with this work, but beckons to another man, who relieves him at
the bellows, while he takes some more tools out of a large skin pouch
carried on his back. I look on in wonder as, with a smooth round
stick about the thickness of a finger, he bores a few vertical holes into
the clean sand of the soil. This should not be difficult, yet the man
seems to be taking great pains over it. Then he fastens down to the
ground, with a couple of wooden clamps, a neat little trough made by
splitting a joint of bamboo in half, so that the ends are closed by the
two knots. At last the yellow metal has attained the right consistency,
and the fundi lifts the crucible from the fire by means of two sticks
split at the end to serve as tongs. A short swift turn to the left—a
tilting of the crucible—and the molten brass, hissing and giving forth
clouds of smoke, flows first into the bamboo mould and then into the
holes in the ground.
The technique of this backwoods craftsman may not be very far
advanced, but it cannot be denied that he knows how to obtain an
adequate result by the simplest means. The ladies of highest rank in
this country—that is to say, those who can afford it, wear two kinds
of these massive brass rings, one cylindrical, the other semicircular
in section. The latter are cast in the most ingenious way in the
bamboo mould, the former in the circular hole in the sand. It is quite
a simple matter for the fundi to fit these bars to the limbs of his fair
customers; with a few light strokes of his hammer he bends the
pliable brass round arm or ankle without further inconvenience to
the wearer.
SHAPING THE POT
SMOOTHING WITH MAIZE-COB
CUTTING THE EDGE

FINISHING THE BOTTOM
LAST SMOOTHING BEFORE

BURNING
FIRING THE BRUSH-PILE

LIGHTING THE FARTHER SIDE OF
THE PILE
TURNING THE RED-HOT VESSEL
NYASA WOMAN MAKING POTS AT MASASI

Pottery is an art which must always and everywhere excite the
interest of the student, just because it is so intimately connected with
the development of human culture, and because its relics are one of
the principal factors in the reconstruction of our own condition in
prehistoric times. I shall always remember with pleasure the two or
three afternoons at Masasi when Salim Matola’s mother, a slightly-
built, graceful, pleasant-looking woman, explained to me with
touching patience, by means of concrete illustrations, the ceramic art
of her people. The only implements for this primitive process were a
lump of clay in her left hand, and in the right a calabash containing
the following valuables: the fragment of a maize-cob stripped of all
its grains, a smooth, oval pebble, about the size of a pigeon’s egg, a
few chips of gourd-shell, a bamboo splinter about the length of one’s
hand, a small shell, and a bunch of some herb resembling spinach.
Nothing more. The woman scraped with the
shell a round, shallow hole in the soft, fine
sand of the soil, and, when an active young
girl had filled the calabash with water for her,
she began to knead the clay. As if by magic it
gradually assumed the shape of a rough but
already well-shaped vessel, which only wanted
a little touching up with the instruments
before mentioned. I looked out with the
MAKUA WOMAN closest attention for any indication of the use
MAKING A POT. of the potter’s wheel, in however rudimentary
SHOWS THE a form, but no—hapana (there is none). The
BEGINNINGS OF THE embryo pot stood firmly in its little
POTTER’S WHEEL
depression, and the woman walked round it in
a stooping posture, whether she was removing
small stones or similar foreign bodies with the maize-cob, smoothing
the inner or outer surface with the splinter of bamboo, or later, after
letting it dry for a day, pricking in the ornamentation with a pointed
bit of gourd-shell, or working out the bottom, or cutting the edge
with a sharp bamboo knife, or giving the last touches to the finished
vessel. This occupation of the women is infinitely toilsome, but it is
without doubt an accurate reproduction of the process in use among
our ancestors of the Neolithic and Bronze ages.
There is no doubt that the invention of pottery, an item in human
progress whose importance cannot be over-estimated, is due to
women. Rough, coarse and unfeeling, the men of the horde range
over the countryside. When the united cunning of the hunters has
succeeded in killing the game; not one of them thinks of carrying
home the spoil. A bright fire, kindled by a vigorous wielding of the
drill, is crackling beside them; the animal has been cleaned and cut
up secundum artem, and, after a slight singeing, will soon disappear
under their sharp teeth; no one all this time giving a single thought
to wife or child.
To what shifts, on the other hand, the primitive wife, and still more
the primitive mother, was put! Not even prehistoric stomachs could
endure an unvarying diet of raw food. Something or other suggested
the beneficial effect of hot water on the majority of approved but
indigestible dishes. Perhaps a neighbour had tried holding the hard
roots or tubers over the fire in a calabash filled with water—or maybe
an ostrich-egg-shell, or a hastily improvised vessel of bark. They
became much softer and more palatable than they had previously
been; but, unfortunately, the vessel could not stand the fire and got
charred on the outside. That can be remedied, thought our
ancestress, and plastered a layer of wet clay round a similar vessel.
This is an improvement; the cooking utensil remains uninjured, but
the heat of the fire has shrunk it, so that it is loose in its shell. The
next step is to detach it, so, with a firm grip and a jerk, shell and
kernel are separated, and pottery is invented. Perhaps, however, the
discovery which led to an intelligent use of the burnt-clay shell, was
made in a slightly different way. Ostrich-eggs and calabashes are not
to be found in every part of the world, but everywhere mankind has
arrived at the art of making baskets out of pliant materials, such as
bark, bast, strips of palm-leaf, supple twigs, etc. Our inventor has no
water-tight vessel provided by nature. “Never mind, let us line the
basket with clay.” This answers the purpose, but alas! the basket gets
burnt over the blazing fire, the woman watches the process of
cooking with increasing uneasiness, fearing a leak, but no leak
appears. The food, done to a turn, is eaten with peculiar relish; and
the cooking-vessel is examined, half in curiosity, half in satisfaction
at the result. The plastic clay is now hard as stone, and at the same
time looks exceedingly well, for the neat plaiting of the burnt basket
is traced all over it in a pretty pattern. Thus, simultaneously with
pottery, its ornamentation was invented.
Primitive woman has another claim to respect. It was the man,
roving abroad, who invented the art of producing fire at will, but the
woman, unable to imitate him in this, has been a Vestal from the
earliest times. Nothing gives so much trouble as the keeping alight of
the smouldering brand, and, above all, when all the men are absent
from the camp. Heavy rain-clouds gather, already the first large
drops are falling, the first gusts of the storm rage over the plain. The
little flame, a greater anxiety to the woman than her own children,
flickers unsteadily in the blast. What is to be done? A sudden thought
occurs to her, and in an instant she has constructed a primitive hut
out of strips of bark, to protect the flame against rain and wind.
This, or something very like it, was the way in which the principle
of the house was discovered; and even the most hardened misogynist
cannot fairly refuse a woman the credit of it. The protection of the
hearth-fire from the weather is the germ from which the human
dwelling was evolved. Men had little, if any share, in this forward
step, and that only at a late stage. Even at the present day, the
plastering of the housewall with clay and the manufacture of pottery
are exclusively the women’s business. These are two very significant
survivals. Our European kitchen-garden, too, is originally a woman’s
invention, and the hoe, the primitive instrument of agriculture, is,
characteristically enough, still used in this department. But the
noblest achievement which we owe to the other sex is unquestionably
the art of cookery. Roasting alone—the oldest process—is one for
which men took the hint (a very obvious one) from nature. It must
have been suggested by the scorched carcase of some animal
overtaken by the destructive forest-fires. But boiling—the process of
improving organic substances by the help of water heated to boiling-
point—is a much later discovery. It is so recent that it has not even
yet penetrated to all parts of the world. The Polynesians understand
how to steam food, that is, to cook it, neatly wrapped in leaves, in a
hole in the earth between hot stones, the air being excluded, and
(sometimes) a few drops of water sprinkled on the stones; but they
do not understand boiling.
To come back from this digression, we find that the slender Nyasa
woman has, after once more carefully examining the finished pot,
put it aside in the shade to dry. On the following day she sends me
word by her son, Salim Matola, who is always on hand, that she is
going to do the burning, and, on coming out of my house, I find her
already hard at work. She has spread on the ground a layer of very
dry sticks, about as thick as one’s thumb, has laid the pot (now of a
yellowish-grey colour) on them, and is piling brushwood round it.
My faithful Pesa mbili, the mnyampara, who has been standing by,
most obligingly, with a lighted stick, now hands it to her. Both of
them, blowing steadily, light the pile on the lee side, and, when the
flame begins to catch, on the weather side also. Soon the whole is in a
blaze, but the dry fuel is quickly consumed and the fire dies down, so
that we see the red-hot vessel rising from the ashes. The woman
turns it continually with a long stick, sometimes one way and
sometimes another, so that it may be evenly heated all over. In
twenty minutes she rolls it out of the ash-heap, takes up the bundle
of spinach, which has been lying for two days in a jar of water, and
sprinkles the red-hot clay with it. The places where the drops fall are
marked by black spots on the uniform reddish-brown surface. With a
sigh of relief, and with visible satisfaction, the woman rises to an
erect position; she is standing just in a line between me and the fire,
from which a cloud of smoke is just rising: I press the ball of my
camera, the shutter clicks—the apotheosis is achieved! Like a
priestess, representative of her inventive sex, the graceful woman
stands: at her feet the hearth-fire she has given us beside her the
invention she has devised for us, in the background the home she has
built for us.
At Newala, also, I have had the manufacture of pottery carried on
in my presence. Technically the process is better than that already
described, for here we find the beginnings of the potter’s wheel,
which does not seem to exist in the plains; at least I have seen
nothing of the sort. The artist, a frightfully stupid Makua woman, did
not make a depression in the ground to receive the pot she was about
to shape, but used instead a large potsherd. Otherwise, she went to
work in much the same way as Salim’s mother, except that she saved
herself the trouble of walking round and round her work by squatting
at her ease and letting the pot and potsherd rotate round her; this is
surely the first step towards a machine. But it does not follow that
the pot was improved by the process. It is true that it was beautifully
rounded and presented a very creditable appearance when finished,
but the numerous large and small vessels which I have seen, and, in
part, collected, in the “less advanced” districts, are no less so. We
moderns imagine that instruments of precision are necessary to
produce excellent results. Go to the prehistoric collections of our
museums and look at the pots, urns and bowls of our ancestors in the
dim ages of the past, and you will at once perceive your error.
MAKING LONGITUDINAL CUT IN
BARK
DRAWING THE BARK OFF THE LOG
REMOVING THE OUTER BARK

BEATING THE BARK
WORKING THE BARK-CLOTH AFTER BEATING, TO MAKE IT

SOFT
MANUFACTURE OF BARK-CLOTH AT NEWALA

To-day, nearly the whole population of German East Africa is
clothed in imported calico. This was not always the case; even now in
some parts of the north dressed skins are still the prevailing wear,
and in the north-western districts—east and north of Lake
Tanganyika—lies a zone where bark-cloth has not yet been
superseded. Probably not many generations have passed since such
bark fabrics and kilts of skins were the only clothing even in the
south. Even to-day, large quantities of this bright-red or drab
material are still to be found; but if we wish to see it, we must look in
the granaries and on the drying stages inside the native huts, where
it serves less ambitious uses as wrappings for those seeds and fruits
which require to be packed with special care. The salt produced at
Masasi, too, is packed for transport to a distance in large sheets of
bark-cloth. Wherever I found it in any degree possible, I studied the
process of making this cloth. The native requisitioned for the
purpose arrived, carrying a log between two and three yards long and
as thick as his thigh, and nothing else except a curiously-shaped
mallet and the usual long, sharp and pointed knife which all men and
boys wear in a belt at their backs without a sheath—horribile dictu!
[51]
Silently he squats down before me, and with two rapid cuts has
drawn a couple of circles round the log some two yards apart, and
slits the bark lengthwise between them with the point of his knife.
With evident care, he then scrapes off the outer rind all round the
log, so that in a quarter of an hour the inner red layer of the bark
shows up brightly-coloured between the two untouched ends. With
some trouble and much caution, he now loosens the bark at one end,
and opens the cylinder. He then stands up, takes hold of the free
edge with both hands, and turning it inside out, slowly but steadily
pulls it off in one piece. Now comes the troublesome work of
scraping all superfluous particles of outer bark from the outside of
the long, narrow piece of material, while the inner side is carefully
scrutinised for defective spots. At last it is ready for beating. Having
signalled to a friend, who immediately places a bowl of water beside
him, the artificer damps his sheet of bark all over, seizes his mallet,
lays one end of the stuff on the smoothest spot of the log, and
hammers away slowly but continuously. “Very simple!” I think to
myself. “Why, I could do that, too!”—but I am forced to change my
opinions a little later on; for the beating is quite an art, if the fabric is
not to be beaten to pieces. To prevent the breaking of the fibres, the
stuff is several times folded across, so as to interpose several
thicknesses between the mallet and the block. At last the required
state is reached, and the fundi seizes the sheet, still folded, by both
ends, and wrings it out, or calls an assistant to take one end while he
holds the other. The cloth produced in this way is not nearly so fine
and uniform in texture as the famous Uganda bark-cloth, but it is
quite soft, and, above all, cheap.
Now, too, I examine the mallet. My craftsman has been using the
simpler but better form of this implement, a conical block of some
hard wood, its base—the striking surface—being scored across and
across with more or less deeply-cut grooves, and the handle stuck
into a hole in the middle. The other and earlier form of mallet is
shaped in the same way, but the head is fastened by an ingenious
network of bark strips into the split bamboo serving as a handle. The
observation so often made, that ancient customs persist longest in
connection with religious ceremonies and in the life of children, here
finds confirmation. As we shall soon see, bark-cloth is still worn
during the unyago,[52] having been prepared with special solemn
ceremonies; and many a mother, if she has no other garment handy,
will still put her little one into a kilt of bark-cloth, which, after all,
looks better, besides being more in keeping with its African
surroundings, than the ridiculous bit of print from Ulaya.
MAKUA WOMEN

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Mathematics for Elementary School

Teachers 1st Edition, (Ebook PDF)

To Mitchell and Samantha

Unless otherwise noted, all content on this page is © Cengage Learning.

CHAPTER 1 Problem Solving and Reasoning 1

CHAPTER 2 with Whole Numbers

CHAPTER 3 Multiplication and Division with Whole Numbers 127

CHAPTER 4 Elementary Number Theory and Integers 187

CHAPTER 5 Rational Numbers and Fractions 241

CHAPTER 6 Decimals, Real Numbers, and Percents 307

CHAPTER 7 Algebra and Functions 365

CHAPTER 8 Descriptive Statistics 413

CHAPTER 9 Probability 489

CHAPTER 10 Introduction to Geometry 555

CHAPTER 11 Measurement 617

CHAPTER 12 Triangles and Quadrilaterals 703

CHAPTER 13 Coordinate Geometry and Plane Transformations 767

Appendix A TI-73 Graphing Calculator A-1

Enriching the Content

Content Standards Process Standards

fifths because there are five fifths in a whole.

93635_ch03_127-186.indd 176 12/27/11 2:50 PM

In addition to the integration of the content and process stan-

EXAMPLE An experiment consists of drawing a card from a standard deck of 52 cards.

Unless otherwise noted, all content on this page is © Cengage Learning.

In the following Classroom Connection, students use long division or a calculator to

(Harcourt Math, Student Edition, Grade 6, p. 530)

EXAMPLE 11.23 Use a diagram to simplify the product 1a + 12 12a + 32 .

the chapter are summarized in a chapter 2.

chapter 8 review 477

A variety of problems are given in a set of Review

Student Type Student Type

tests offers 5 students

defined as persons under age 18 years. Adults are defined as

Other Key Features

inferences. Graphs today still model Playfair’s useThere are 3 cartons,

LCM148, 182 = 148 # 182 ÷ GCF148, 182

Supplements for the Instructor

Supplements for the Student

Where Are We Going?

What Is Problem Solving?

What Are the Benefits of

ones and “see” more math. Seeing more math helps

you become an effective problem solver and teacher.

Section 1.1 Patterns and Inductive Reasoning

• A sequence is an ordered arrangement of objects, such as numbers, letters,

Using a Pattern to Solve a Problem

Unless otherwise noted, all content on this page is © Cengage Learning.

EXAMPLE 1.4 The sequence 5, 12, 19, 26, . . . is an arithmetic sequence.

EXAMPLE 1.5 The sequence 1, 5, 9, 13, 17, . . . is an arithmetic sequence.

Multiple Representations of a Sequence

EXAMPLE 1.7 Represent the arithmetic sequence −5, −2, 1, 4, . . . using

c. y = −5 + 31n − 12 = −5 + 3n − 3 = −8 + 3n. So y = −8 + 3n.

Classic Savings Problem

Unless otherwise noted, all content on this page is © Cengage Learning.

Connections between Whole Numbers

What are the next three triangular numbers?

Unless otherwise noted, all content on this page is © Cengage Learning.

As in Gauss’s equation, S = 18 # 1282 ÷ 2 has the form S = 1number of terms # sum

Limitation of Inductive Reasoning

QUESTIONS FOR SECTION 1.1

REPRESENTATION 4. The following graph shows an arithmetic sequence.

record, and communicate mathematical ideas and to 12

• A sequence is an ordered arrangement of objects, such as numbers, letters,