Mechanical Engineering Reference Manual For The Pe Exam 13th Edition

Mechanical Engineering Reference
Manual for the PE Exam 13th Edition

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viii M E C H A N I C A L E N G I N E E R I N G R E F E R E N C E M A N U A L
23.H Properties of Saturated Refrigerant-12 (R-12) 34.K Heisler Transient Heat Flow Chart (temperature
by Pressure (customary U.S. units) . . . . . . . A-76 at center of infinite slab of thickness 2L) . . A-121
23.I Properties of Superheated Refrigerant-12 (R-12) 35.A Properties of Saturated Water
(customary U.S. units) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-77 (customary U.S. units) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-122
23.J Pressure-Enthalpy Diagram for Refrigerant-12 35.B Properties of Saturated Water (SI units) . . . . A-123
(R-12) (customary U.S. units). . . . . . . . . . . A-79 35.C Properties of Atmospheric Air
23.K Properties of Saturated Refrigerant-22 (R-22) (customary U.S. units) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-124
by Temperature (customary U.S. units) . . . A-80 35.D Properties of Atmospheric Air (SI units) . . . . A-125
23.L Pressure-Enthalpy Diagram for Refrigerant-22 35.E Properties of Steam at One Atmosphere
(R-22) (customary U.S. units). . . . . . . . . . . A-82 (customary U.S. units) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-126
23.M Pressure-Enthalpy Diagram for Refrigerant 35.F Properties of Steam at One Atmosphere
HFC-134a (customary U.S. units) . . . . . . . . A-83 (SI units). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-127
23.N Properties of Saturated Steam by Temperature 36.A Correction Factor, Fc, for the Logarithmic Mean
(SI units). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-84 Temperature Difference (one shell pass,
23.O Properties of Saturated Steam by Pressure even number of tube passes) . . . . . . . . . . . A-128
(SI units). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-87 36.B Correction Factor, Fc, for the Logarithmic
23.P Properties of Superheated Steam (SI units) . . . A-89 Mean Temperature Difference
23.Q Properties of Compressed Water (SI units) . . . A-90 (two shell passes, multiple of four
23.R Enthalpy-Entropy (Mollier) Diagram for Steam tube passes) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-129
(SI units). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-92 36.C Correction Factor, Fc, for the Logarithmic
23.S Properties of Low-Pressure Air (SI units) . . . . A-93 Mean Temperature Difference
23.T Properties of Saturated Refrigerant-12 (R-12) (one shell pass, three tube passes,
by Temperature (SI units) . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-96 two counter and one cocurrent) . . . . . . . . A-130
23.U Pressure-Enthalpy Diagram for Refrigerant-12 36.D Correction Factor, Fc, for the Logarithmic
(R-12) (SI units) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-98 Mean Temperature Difference
23.V Properties of Saturated Refrigerant-22 (R-22) (crossflow shell, one tube pass) . . . . . . . . . A-131
by Temperature (SI units) . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-99 36.E Characteristics of Birmingham Wire Gage
23.W Pressure-Enthalpy Diagram for Refrigerant-22 (BWG) Size Tubing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-132
(R-22) (SI units) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-101 36.F Heat Exchanger Effectiveness (%). . . . . . . . . A-134
23.X Pressure-Enthalpy Diagram for Refrigerant 37.A Emissivities of Various Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . A-136
HFC-134a (SI units). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-102 38.A ASHRAE Psychrometric Chart No. 1, Normal
23.Y Thermal Properties of Selected Solids Temperature—Sea Level (32–120 ! F)
(customary U.S. units) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-103 (customary U.S. units) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-137
23.Z Generalized Compressibility Charts. . . . . . . . A-104 38.B ASHRAE Psychrometric Chart No. 1, Normal
25.A Isentropic Flow Factors (k = 1.4) . . . . . . . . . A-105 Temperature—Sea Level (0–50 ! C)
25.B Isentropic Flow and Normal Shock (SI units). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-138
Parameters (k = 1.4) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-106 38.C ASHRAE Psychrometric Chart No. 2, Low
25.C Fanno Flow Factors (k = 1.4) . . . . . . . . . . . . A-107 Temperature—Sea Level ("40–50 ! F)
25.D Rayleigh Flow Factors (k = 1.4) . . . . . . . . . . A-108 (customary U.S. units) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-139
25.E International Standard Atmosphere . . . . . . . A-109 38.D ASHRAE Psychrometric Chart No. 3, High
34.A Representative Thermal Conductivity . . . . . . A-110 Temperature—Sea Level (60–250 ! F)
34.B Properties of Metals and Alloys . . . . . . . . . . A-111 (customary U.S. units) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-140
34.C Properties of Nonmetals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-112 42.A Representative Insulating Properties of
34.D Typical Thermal Properties of Foodstuffs . . . A-113 Building Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-141
34.E Typical Cooling and Freezing Properties of 48.A Typical Mechanical Properties of Metals
Foodstuffs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-114 (room temperature). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-143
34.F Transient Heat Flow Charts 48.B Typical Mechanical Properties of Thermoplastic
(solid spheres of radius ro) . . . . . . . . . . . . A-116 Resins and Composites (room temperature,
34.G Transient Heat Flow Charts (infinite solid after post-mold annealing) . . . . . . . . . . . . A-146
circular cylinders of radius ro) . . . . . . . . . . A-117 50.A Centroids and Area Moments of Inertia for
34.H Transient Heat Flow Charts (infinite flat Basic Shapes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-147
slabs of thickness 2L) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-118 51.A Elastic Beam Deflection Equations . . . . . . . . A-148
34.I Heisler Transient Heat Flow Chart (temperature 51.B Stress Concentration Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . A-152
at center of a sphere of radius ro) . . . . . . . A-119 53.A Properties of Weld Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-153
34.J Heisler Transient Heat Flow Chart (temperature 54.A Spring Wire Diameters and Sheet Metal
at center of infinite cylinder of radius ro) . . A-120 Gauges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-154
P P I * w w w . p p i 2 p a s s . c o m
A P P E N D I C E S T A B L E O F C O N T E N T S ix
54.B Journal Bearing Correlations . . . . . . . . . . . . A-155 72.A Polyphase Motor Classifications

56.A Mass Moments of Inertia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-156 and Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-165
59.A Standard Epicyclic Gear Train Ratios . . . . . . A-157 72.B DC and Single-Phase Motor Classifications
63.A Single Sampling Plan Table for Various and Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-166
Producer’s and Consumer’s Risks . . . . . . . A-158 73.A Noise Reduction and Absorption
63.B Cumulative Probability Chart . . . . . . . . . . . A-159 Coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-167
64.A Thermoelectric Constants for 73.B Transmission Loss Through Common
Thermocouples. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-160 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-168
67.A Typical Equivalent Lengths of Valves and 74.A Standard Cash Flow Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . A-169
Fittings for Fire Protection Systems . . . . . A-162 74.B Cash Flow Equivalent Factors . . . . . . . . . . . A-170
67.B Approximate Properties of Selected
Flammable Liquids and Gases. . . . . . . . . . A-163
Preface
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This book is a broad review of mechanical engineering In addition, I have used this new edition as an opportu-
principles, as well as a compendium of useful and typical nity to make thousands of improvements, most too
data to support those principles. Because of its emphasis small to be noticed except through a side-by-side com-
on undergraduate engineering subjects (the only prere- parison. These improvements include updates to termi-
quisite course of study required of most state licensing nology, descriptions, and references; clarifications and
examinees), this book is an efficient method of preparing rewording of explanations; additional typical data;
for the standardized Professional Engineering (PE) updated chapter nomenclature; improved consistency
licensing examinations in mechanical engineering. Tens between chapters; and, the inevitable correction of
of thousands of engineers have used the previous 12 edi- author’s errata.
tions for just that purpose.
This is the first edition of the Mechanical Engineering
This book presents each major topic as a standalone Reference Manual to be produced in PPI’s integrated
section subdivided into chapters. Each chapter builds book development and maintenance system. That fact is
on previous chapters, and each section builds on pre- of significance only to PPI. However, it is strategically
vious sections. The choice of what to cover (i.e., topics) too important to go unmentioned. And, I’ll just leave it
in sections and chapters has always been based on what at that.
I think a mechanical engineering graduate should know,
only loosely influenced by the major subdivisions of the Coincident with this new edition is a significant new
PE exam syllabus. Because of that, the scope of this edition of its companion book, Practice Problems for
book exceeds the scope of the PE exam. So, if you use the Mechanical Engineering PE Exam. Approximately
this book as a PE exam reference, you will end up being 150 new problems were added to that book, and many of
over-prepared. them required corresponding supporting instruction and
data to be added this Reference Manual. And, many of
Now, on to this new edition. Many, approximately half, the changes to this Reference Manual have resulted in
of the chapters in this Reference Manual have been problems being added the Practice Problems. The
substantially revised. It would be impractical to describe changes to both books go hand in hand.
everything that is new. All I can say is that a lot of new
material has been added; a small amount of obsolete Truthfully, however, publication of the two books has
material has been removed; and the validity of every- never been 100% synchronized. Just like the fellow who
thing has been checked and updated. For the skeptics replaces his suit jacket when the elbows get threadbare,
and conspiracists who inevitably claim that this edition only to have to replace the pants two years later (and,
is no different from their, say, fifth editions, here are the starting a never-ending cycle of “catch-up”), either the
changes that distinguish the twelfth and thirteenth Reference Manual or its Practice Problems companion
editions. has always been ahead of the other in the publication
cycle. The problems in this cycle are more synchronized
additional pages, 190 than they have ever been, but some practice problems
new chapters, 4 still require instruction or data that are not yet incorpo-
chapters with new material, 36 rated into this new edition. And, the Reference Manual
chapters with revisions to existing material, 46 certainly contains material for which there are no prac-
new equations, 300 tice problems. That’s inevitable. The next edition of
these books will leapfrog them into a new asynchronous
revised equations, 128
mismatch.
new tables, 27
revised tables, 31 Since 1975, the prefaces of this title have cleverly
new examples, 7 chronicled the stages of my life. Each preface was a
revised examples, 34 snapshot, an “instantaneous value” sampled from the
new appendices, 10 continuous function of an author’s life. Laid end to
revised appendices, 27 end, the prefaces would circle a beach ball once or
new figures, 35 stretch across your kitchen floor. They would constitute
revised figures, 28 a stepwise approximation to the continuous function,
new index entries, 1094 and they would tell a story. Of course, no one can even
find all 12 previous prefaces, let alone read them in
xii M E C H A N I C A L E N G I N E E R I N G R E F E R E N C E M A N U A L
sequence. But, if you could, you would learn about pie, books may not even exist. Ahh, but I am jumping for-
pets, and family. And, consistent with the story line, ward several future prefaces at once, and that’s not
you wouldn’t be surprised to learn that “family” now permitted.
includes a grandchild: Sydney Claire King, born May
26, 2012—a significant first edition. It’s too early to The journey to “here” has been an adventure, and I’m
know how books will fit into Sydney’s life. With four looking forward to future editions.
teeth and an insatiable curiosity about what constitutes
nourishment, she is more interested in eating a book Best career wishes.
than reading it. For her, right now, “leading a balanced
life” is interpreted gyroscopically, not socially or intel- Michael R. Lindeburg, PE
lectually. And, who knows? By the time she is grown,
Acknowledgments
. . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . ... . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . .
It’s hard to believe that over 35 years ago, I wrote, Editing, typesetting, and paginating: Roger
typed, edited, and illustrated the first edition of the Apolinar, Tom Bergstrom, Ryan Cannon, Lisa Devoto
Mechanical Engineering Reference Manual. That pro- Farrell, Kate Hayes, Tyler Hayes, Chelsea Logan, Scott
cess describes production of the first six editions of this Marley, Magnolia Molcan, Connor Sempek, Ian A.
book, which consisted of three-ring binders of loose Walker, and Julia White
pages printed from camera-ready copy prepared on my
Smith-Corona typewriter. The seventh edition was Proofreading: Bill Bergstrom, Ryan Cannon, Lisa
typeset by a fine young lady (Joanne Bergeson, PPI’s Devoto Farrell, Tyler Hayes, Jennifer Lindeburg King,
first employee) using new-to-the-world software (TEX) Chelsea Logan, Scott Marley, Magnolia Molcan, Connor
running on an industrial-strength mainframe computer Sempek, Bonnie Thomas, Ian A. Walker, and Julia
(IBM 370) from a character-based terminal (Televideo) White
connected via a very slow (2400 baud) modem to a Illustrating: Tom Bergstrom, Kate Hayes, and Amy
distant university (Stanford). Her drive, intensity, and Schwertman La Russa
dedication are characteristics that PPI staffers still exhi-
bit to this day. If Joanne had not set and maintained Calculation checking: Andrew Chan, Todd Fisher,
that company standard for over 10 years, it is doubtful Scott Miller, Allen Ng, Alex Valeyev, and Akira
that PPI would be where it is today. I’ll never forget her. Zamudio
Cover design: Amy Schwertman La Russa
Not including the time spent writing the new content for
this edition, the editorial and production process for Marketing: Casey Scott, marketing manager; Vanessa
producing this book has spanned 35 months. And, even Merina, director of Marketing
then, the process was less than linear, because I was
IT: Vijay Kumar, web developer; Megan Synnestvedt,
writing new content for the Reference Manual and the
IT department manager; Peter Fletcher, director of IT
Practice Problems books as PPI simultaneously worked
on previously submitted chapters. PPI received the last Management: Sarah Hubbard, director of Product
of my new content only a few months before the entire Development and Implementation; Cathy Schrott, pro-
book was completed. To make that schedule happen, duction services manager; Jennifer Lindeburg King,
more than 25 people at PPI worked on these books. Chelsea Logan, and Julia White, editorial project man-
Along the way, there have been two editorial project agers; Christine Eng, product development manager
managers directing the process. Jennifer Lindeburg
King kicked off the new edition by validating the orig- It is worth noting that Kate Hayes has been to this
inal content that had been fed into PPI’s integrated dance before, since she typeset the 9th, 10th, 11th, and
book development system. After bringing the preexist- 12th editions in TEX. She, Cathy Schrott (who mana-
ing content up to current PPI publication standards, ged the production of two earlier editions), and I have
she assembled the entire book for my “round 1” review. seen how book composition has changed over the years.
After maternity leave, she returned to validate the sys- Movable type, hot metal, cold type, phototypesetting,
tem’s final output. Every character, sentence, and page and most currently, TEX’s embedded verbose coding
has since been measured against her internal scale of and macros have been replaced by tags, algorithms,
“goodness.” and style sheets. We’ve survived, but the pace of the
changes has been challenging.
Julia White was this edition’s second editorial project In addition to Kate with five editions and Cathy with
manager. Her seemingly impossible task was to integrate three editions, other PPI contributors with two editions
the new and preexisting material, and to essentially get under their belts are Jennifer Lindeburg King, Amy
this book into the form that you are now reading. With Schwertman La Russa, Tom Bergstrom, and Sarah
dozens of chapters being worked simultaneously, she Hubbard.
coordinated the hugely diverse contributions of outside
engineering experts and production services as well as all This edition incorporates the comments, suggestions,
other PPI editors, engineers, illustrators, compositors, and errata submitted by many people who used the
proofreaders, and paginators. Here, I’ll list the other previous editions for their own preparations. As an
PPI people by function, in alphabetical order, and I hope author, I am humbled to know that these individuals
that each knows that I understand and appreciate his/ read the previous edition in such detail as to notice
her contribution. typos, illogic, and other errata, and that they
xiv M E C H A N I C A L E N G I N E E R I N G R E F E R E N C E M A N U A L
subsequently took the time to share their observations there isn’t a single new contributor whose name I inten-
with me. Their suggestions have been incorporated into tionally excluded. Still, I could have slipped up and
this edition, and their attention to detail will benefit you forgotten to mention you. I hope you’ll let me know if
and all future readers. The following is a partial list you should have been credited, but were inadvertently
(again in alphabetical order) of some of the readers left out. I’d appreciate the opportunity to list your
whose comments improved this book. name in the next printing of this edition.
Daniel Cogan; Christian Crew; Matthew Davidson; Near the end of the acknowledgments, after mentioning
Lisa Denke; Justin Dickson; Brandee McKim; Sara a lot of people who contributed to a book and, therefore,
Phillips; Ezekiel Sachs; Ross Schwend; and David could be blamed for a variety of types of errors, it is
common for an author to say something like, “I take
Woolley
responsibility for all of the errors you find in this book.”
The preface glosses over the significance of this edition Or, “All of the mistakes are mine.” This is certainly true,
being the first to have been created with PPI’s inte- given the process of publishing, since the author sees
grated book development and maintenance system. This and approves the final version before his/her book goes
system eliminates the constraints that have kept PPI to the printer. You would think that after 35 years of
from making substantial changes to the contents of its writing, I would have figured out (1) how to write with-
most massive books, including this one. As an author, out making mistakes, and (2) how to proofread without
I’ve been waiting for a long time to incorporate some missing those mistakes that are so obvious to readers.
“good stuff” that couldn’t be fit in because of such pub- However, such perfection continues to elude me. So, yes.
lishing limitations. But, now, I’m thrilled to be able to The finger points straight at me.
thank Stephen P. Andrew; C. Dale Buckner, PhD, PE, In the absence of perfection, all I can say is that I’ll do my
SECB; and Ken Shannon for accumulated suggestions best to respond to any suggestions and errata that you
that I held onto, but couldn’t implement, until now. report through PPI’s website, ppi2pass.com/errata.
Despite all of the new material, this edition retains I’d love to see your name in the acknowledgments for the
almost all of the material in earlier editions. There are next edition.
hundreds and hundreds of additional contributors men- Thank you, everyone! This edition wouldn’t exist with-
tioned by name in the acknowledgments of those earlier out you.
editions. I haven’t forgotten them, and their names will
live on in the tens of thousands of old editions that Michael R. Lindeburg, PE
remain in widespread circulation. For this edition,
Codes Used to Prepare This Book
. . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . ... . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . .
The documents, codes, and standards that I used to All standards produced by ASME, ASHRAE, ANSI,
prepare this new edition were the most current available ASTM, and similar organizations are identified by an
at the time. In the absence of any other specific need, edition, revision, or date. However, although NCEES
that was the best strategy for this book. lists “codes and standards” in its lists of mechanical
engineering PE exam topics, unlike for the civil engi-
Engineering practice is often constrained by law or con-
neering PE exam, no editions, revisions, or dates are
tract to using codes and standards that have already
specified. My conclusion is that the NCEES mechanical
been adopted or approved. However, newer codes and
engineering PE exam is not sensitive to changes in
standards might be available. For example, the adop-
codes, standards, regulations, or announcements in the
tion of building codes by states and municipalities often
Federal Register. That is the reason that I referred to
lags publication of those codes by several years. By the
the most current documents available as I prepared this
time the 2013 codes are adopted, the 2015 codes have
new edition.
been released. Federal regulations are always published
with future implementation dates. Contracts are signed The relationship of the exam to specific codes is dis-
with designs and specifications that were “best practice” cussed in more detail in the Introduction.
at some time in the past. Nevertheless, the standards are
referenced by edition, revision, or date. All of the work is
governed by unambiguous standards.
Introduction
. . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . ... . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . .
PART 1: HOW YOU CAN USE THIS know to pass the exam, particularly the afternoon
BOOK parts of the exam. You will need to assemble a
. . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . .. .
library of other references. This book is not a sub-
stitute for the experience, general knowledge, and
QUICKSTART
. . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . .. .
judgment that engineers are expected to demon-
strate on the exam. This book will help you learn
If you never read the material at the front of your books subjects. It won’t help you pass the exam if you go
anyway, and if you’re in a hurry to begin and only want into the exam unprepared or unqualified.
to read one paragraph, here it is:
. Become intimately familiar with this book. This
Most chapters in this book are independent. means knowing the order of the chapters, the
Start with any one and look through it. Use the approximate locations of important figures and
index extensively. Decide if you are going to work tables, what appendices are available, and so on.
problems in that topic. If so, solve as many prob-
lems in that topic as time allows. Don’t stop . Use the subject title tabs along the side of each page.
studying until the exam. Start right now! The tab names correspond to the exam organization.
Quickly! Good luck.
. Use Table 1 and Table 2 of this Introduction to learn
However, if you want to begin a thorough review, you which subjects in this book are (and are not) specific
should probably try to find out everything there is to exam subjects. Some chapters in this book are sup-
know about the PE exam. The rest of this Introduction portive and do not cover specific exam topics. How-
is for you. ever, these chapters provide background and support
for the other chapters.
. Some engineers read every page in a chapter. Some

IF YOU ARE A PRACTICING ENGINEER
. . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . .. . merely skim through a chapter and its appendices. In
either case, you must familiarize yourself with the
If you are a practicing engineer and have obtained this
subjects before starting to solve practice problems.
book as a general reference handbook, it will probably
sit in your bookcase until you have a specific need. . Identify and obtain a set of 10–30 solved practice
However, if you are preparing for the PE examination in problems for each of the exam subjects. I have
mechanical engineering, the following suggestions may written an accompanying book, Practice Problems
help. for the Mechanical Engineering PE Exam, for this
purpose. Other resources include the Mechanical
. Find out the current edition of this book. You might Engineering Practice Examination, books in the
be reading this book long after it was published. Six-Minute series, and the Mechanical PE Exam
Newer editions mean that older editions are no Cafe, all offered by PPI. You may use problem sets
longer appropriate for the current exam. Newer from your old textbooks, college notes, or review
editions mean that the codes, standards, and course if they are more convenient. Regardless of
regulations on which the exam is based are not the books you use, you should know that you will
represented in the older edition, that the encounter two types of practice problems. Some
exam body of knowledge has changed, and/ problems look like examination problems. They are
or the exam format and policies have changed. short and have multiple-choice answers. This type of
New editions are published for a reason, and it’s not problem is good for familiarizing yourself with the
reasonable for you to expect the older edition to exam format. However, it is not very effective for
serve your needs when it is out of date. exposing you to the integration of multiple concepts
in problem solving, for familiarizing you with this
. Be reasonable in what you expect from this book. book, and for making sure you have seen all of the
Much like any textbook, this book is a compilation “gotchas” that are possible in a subject. To address
of material designed to help you learn certain sub- those requirements, you’ll need some longer prob-
jects—in this case, subjects on the exam. This book lems. Practice Problems for the Mechanical Engi-
does not contain “everything” that you need to neering PE Exam contains both types of problems.
xviii M E C H A N I C A L E N G I N E E R I N G R E F E R E N C E M A N U A L
. Most of the problems in Practice Problems for the I have always tried to overprepare my students. For
Mechanical Engineering PE Exam are presented in that reason, the homework problems (i.e., example
both customary U.S. (English) and SI units. Initi- problems in this book and the practice problems in
ally, work through the problems in U.S. units. If you the companion Practice Problems for the Mechanical
have time at the end of your review, start over and Engineering PE Exam book) are often more difficult
solve all of the problems in SI units. and more varied than actual examination questions.
Also, you will appreciate the fact that it is more effi-
. Set a reasonable limit on the time you spend on each
cient to cover several procedural steps in one problem
subject. It isn’t necessary to solve an infinite number
than to ask simple “one-liners” or definition questions.
of practice problems. The number of practice prob-
That is the reason that the example and homework
lems you attempt will depend on how much time you
problems are often harder and longer than actual
have and how skilled you are in the subject.
exam problems.
. If it isn’t already your habit, practice carrying units
along in all calculations. Many errors are caused by, To do all the homework for some chapters requires
and many incorrect exam answer options are based approximately 15 to 20 hours. If you are covering one
on, common mistakes with units. Pounds don’t work or more chapters per week, that’s a lot of homework
in F = ma; ft3/sec doesn’t cancel gpm. When work- per week. “Capacity assignment” is the goal in my
ing in customary U.S. (English) units, you will find review courses. If you assign 20 hours of homework
equations in this book in which the quantity g/gc and a student is able to put in only 10 hours that
appears. For calculations at standard gravity, the week, that student will have worked to his or her
numerical value of this fraction is 1.00. Therefore, capacity. After the PE examination, that student will
it is necessary to incorporate this quantity only in honestly say that he or she could not have prepared
calculations with a nonstandard gravity or when you any more than he or she did in your course. For that
are being meticulous with units. reason, you have to assign homework on the basis of
what is required to become proficient in the subjects of
. Use the solutions to your practice problems to check
your lecture. You must resist assigning only the home-
your work. If your answer isn’t correct, figure out
work that you think can be completed in an arbitrary
why.
number of hours.
. To minimize time spent in searching for often-used
formulas and data, prepare a one-page summary of Homework assignments in my review courses are not
all the important formulas and information in each individually graded. Instead, students are permitted to
subject area. You can then use these summaries make use of existing solutions to learn procedures and
during the examination instead of searching in this techniques to the problems in their homework set, such
book. You can develop your own, or you may want as those in the companion Practice Problems for the
to consider Quick Reference for the Mechanical Mechanical Engineering PE Exam book, which contains
Engineering PE Exam, which PPI has published for solutions to all practice problems. However, each stu-
this type of use. dent must turn in a completed set of problems for credit
each week. Though I don’t correct the homework prob-
. Use the index extensively. Every significant term, lems, I address comments or questions emailed to me,
law, theorem, and concept has been indexed in every posted on the course forum, or written on the
conceivable way—backward and forward—using assignments.
fuzzy logic synonyms in anticipation of frantic exam
searches. If you don’t recognize a term used, look for I believe that students should start preparing for the PE
it in the index. Many engineers bring a separate copy exam at least six months before the examination date.
of the index with them to the exam. However, most wait until three or four months before
. Some subjects appear in more than one chapter. Use getting serious. Because of that, I have found that a
the index liberally to learn all there is to know about 13- or 14-week format works well for a live PE review
a particular subject. course. It’s a little rushed, but the course is over before
everyone gets bored with my jokes. Each week, there is a
three-hour meeting, which includes lecture and a short
break. Table 1 outlines a course format that might work
IF YOU ARE AN INSTRUCTOR
. . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . .. . for you. If you can add more course time, your students
will appreciate it. Another lecture covering heat trans-
If you are teaching a review course for the PE examina- fer, HVAC, or machine design would be wonderful.
tion, you can use the material in this book as a guide to However, I don’t think you can cover the full breadth
prepare your lectures. The first two editions of this book of material in much less time or in many fewer weeks.
consisted of a series of handouts prepared for the benefit
of my PE review courses. These editions were intended I have tried to order the subjects in a logical, progres-
to be compilations of all the long formulas, illustrations, sive manner, keeping my eye on “playing the high-
and tables of data that I did not have time to put on the probabilitysubjects.” For example, heat transfer and
chalkboard. You can use this edition in the same way. HVAC are dependent on thermodynamics principles,
I N T R O D U C T I O N xix
Table 1 Typical PE Exam Review Course Format

meeting subject covered chapters
1 Introduction to the Exam, Units, Mathematics 1, 3–12
2 Thermodynamics 22–24
3 Power Cycles 26–33
4 Compressible Fluid Flow 25
5 Heat Transfer 34–37
6 Fluids and Hydraulic Machines 14–19
7 Fans, Ductwork, and Terminal Devices 41
8 HVAC 38–44
9 Combustion 21
10 Engineering Materials and Statics 45–49
11 Mechanics of Materials 50–52
12 Mechanical Systems and Machine Design 53–56
13 Kinematics of Machinery 57–61
14 Engineering Economic Analysis 74
so they come after the thermodynamics chapters. Also, PART 2: EVERYTHING YOU EVER
machine design comes after statics, engineering materi- WANTED TO KNOW ABOUT THE
als, and strengths of materials.
PE EXAM
. . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. .
Lecture coverage of some examination subjects is neces-
sarily brief; other subjects are not covered at all. These
omissions are intentional; they are not the result of
scheduling omissions. Why? First, time is not on our WHAT IS THE FORMAT OF THE PE EXAM?
. . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. .
side in a review course. Second, some subjects rarely

contribute to the examination. Third, some subjects The NCEES PE examination in mechanical engineering
are not well-received by the students. For example, I consists of two four-hour sessions separated by a one-
have found that very few people study modeling and hour lunch period. The morning “breadth” (a.m.) ses-
systems analysis, material handling, and manufacturing sion is taken by all examinees. There are three afternoon
methods. Unless you have six months in which to teach “depth” (p.m.) modules: HVAC and refrigeration, mech-
your PE review, your students’ time can be better spent anical systems and materials (formerly known as
covering other subjects. “machine design”), and thermal and fluids systems.
(The depth modules may be referred to as “discipline-
All the skipped chapters and any related practice prob- specific,” or DS, modules, borrowing a term from the FE
lems are presented as floating assignments to be made exam.) You must be approved by your state licensing
up in the students’ “free time.” board before you can register for the exam using the
I strongly believe in exposing my students to a realistic “My NCEES” system on the NCEES website. You select
sample examination, but I no longer administer an in- your depth module when you register for the exam. At
class mock exam. Since the review course usually ends the exam, you will receive an examination booklet for
only a few days before the real PE examination, I hesi- the depth module you selected during registration.
tate to make students sit for several hours in the late Switching modules is not possible. Your answer sheet
evening to take a “final exam.” Rather, I distribute and will be scored based on the module you selected during
assign a take-home sample exam at the first meeting of registration.
the review course.
Both the morning and afternoon sessions contain
If the practice test is to be used as an indication of 40 questions in multiple-choice (i.e., “objective”) format.
preparedness, caution your students not to even look As this is a “no-choice” exam, you must answer all
at the sample exam prior to taking it. Looking at the questions in each session correctly to receive full credit.
sample examination, or otherwise using it to direct There are no optional questions.
their review, will produce unwarranted specialization
in subjects contained in the sample examination.
WHAT SUBJECTS ARE ON THE PE EXAM?
There are many ways to organize a PE review course, . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. .
depending on your available time, budget, intended

audience, facilities, and enthusiasm. However, all good NCEES has published a description of subjects on the
course formats have the same result: The students examination. Irrespective of the published examination
struggle with the workload during the course, and then structure, the exact number of questions that will
they breeze through the examination after the course. appear in each subject area cannot be predicted reliably.
xx M E C H A N I C A L E N G I N E E R I N G R E F E R E N C E M A N U A L
There is no guarantee that any single subject will occur assumptions or using plausible data, you will not gen-
in any quantity. One of the reasons for this is that some erally be required to come up with numerical data that
of the questions span several disciplines. You might might affect your success on the problem. Friction fac-
categorize and solve a steam flow question as a fluids tors and pipe roughness, thermal conductivities, U- and
problem, while NCEES might categorize it as a thermo- R- heat transfer factors, most pipe sizes, material
dynamics (ideal gas or compressible flow) problem. strengths and other properties, and relevant assump-
tions will be given in the question statement. There will
Table 2 describes the subjects in detail. Most examinees also be superfluous information in the majority of
find the list to be formidable in appearance. The per- questions.
centage breakdowns in Table 2 are according to
NCEES, but these percentages are approximate.
NCEES adds,
WHAT DOES “MOST NEARLY” REALLY
The examination is developed with questions MEAN?
. . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. .
that require a variety of approaches and meth-
odologies including design, analysis, application,
One of the more disquieting aspects of these questions is
and operations. Some questions may require
that the available answer choices are seldom exact.
knowledge of engineering economics. These areas
Answer choices generally have only two or three signifi-
are examples of the kinds of knowledge that will
cant digits. Exam questions ask, “Which answer choice
be tested but are not exclusive or exhaustive
is most nearly the correct value?” or they instruct you to
categories.
complete the sentence, “The value is approximately . . .”
As Table 2 shows, the subjects in morning and after- A lot of self-confidence is required to move on to the
noon sessions overlap. However, the depths of required next question when you don’t find an exact match for
knowledge between sessions are not the same. Therefore, the answer you calculated, or if you have had to split the
Table 2 provides some guidance as to just “what” each of difference because no available answer choice is close.
these subjects means.
NCEES describes it like this:
Many of the questions on NCEES exams require
WHAT IS THE TYPICAL QUESTION FORMAT?
. . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . .. . calculations to arrive at a numerical answer.
Depending on the method of calculation used, it
Almost all of the questions are standalone—that is, they is very possible that examinees working correctly
are completely independent. NCEES allows that some will arrive at a range of answers. The phrase
sets of questions may start with a statement of a sce- “most nearly” is used to accommodate answers
nario or “situation” that will apply to (typically) two to that have been derived correctly but that may be
five following questions. Such grouped questions are slightly different from the correct answer choice
increasingly rare, however. given on the exam. You should use good engi-
neering judgment when selecting your choice of
Each of the questions will have four answer options, answer. For example, if the question asks you to
labeled “A,” “B,” “C,” and “D.” If the answer options calculate an electrical current or determine the
are numerical, they will be displayed in increasing value. load on a beam, you should literally select the
One of the answer options is correct (or, will be “most answer option that is most nearly what you cal-
nearly correct,” as described in the following section). culated, regardless of whether it is more or less
The remaining answer options are incorrect and may than your calculated value. However, if the ques-
consist of one or more “logical distractors,” the term tion asks you to select a fuse or circuit breaker to
used by NCEES to designate incorrect options that look protect against a calculated current or to size a
correct. beam to carry a load, you should select an answer
NCEES intends the questions to be unrelated. Ques- option that will safely carry the current or load.
tions are independent or start with new given data. A Typically, this requires selecting a value that is
mistake on one of the questions shouldn’t cause you to closest to but larger than the current or load.
get a subsequent question wrong. However, considerable The difference is significant. Suppose you were asked to
time may be required to repeat previous calculations calculate “most nearly” the volumetric pure airflow
with a new set of given data. required to dilute a contaminated air stream to an
acceptable concentration. Suppose, also, that you cal-
culated the answer to be 823 cfm. If the answer choices
HOW MUCH “LOOK-UP” IS REQUIRED ON THE were (A) 600 cfm, (B) 800 cfm, (C) 1000 cfm, and
EXAM?
. . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . .. . (D) 1200 cfm, you would go with answer choice (B),
because it is most nearly what you calculated. If, how-
Since the questions are multiple choice in design, all ever, you were asked to select a fan or duct with the
required data will appear in the situation statement. same rated capacities, you would have to go with
Since the examination would be unfair if it was possible choice (C), because an 800 cfm fan wouldn’t be suffi-
to arrive at an incorrect answer after making valid cient. Got it?
I N T R O D U C T I O N xxi
Table 2 Detailed Analysis of Tested Subjectsa,b
MORNING SESSION
(40 multiple-choice questions)
Basic Engineering Practice (30%)
Engineering terms and symbols; economic analysis; project management; interpretation of technical drawings; electrical
concepts; units and conversions
Mechanical Systems and Materials (20%)
Principles (13%): statics and dynamics; strength of materials; stress analysis; fatigue theory
Applications (7%): mechanical components (e.g., springs, gears, pressure vessels); joints and fasteners (e.g., welding, bolts,
adhesives); vibration and dynamic analysis; materials selection (e.g., corrosion, weight, strength)
Hydraulics and Fluids (17%)
Principles (7%): compressible and incompressible flow
Applications (10%): hydraulic and fluid equipment (e.g., pumps, turbines, compressors); piping systems and components
Energy/Power Systems (15%)
Principles (7%): thermodynamic cycles and properties; energy and mass balances; heat transfer; combustion
Applications (8%): power conversion systems; energy/power equipment (e.g., turbines, boilers, engines); heat exchangers
HVAC/Refrigeration (18%)
Principles (10%): psychrometrics; refrigeration cycles; heat transfer
Applications (8%): HVAC and refrigeration systems and components (e.g., air handlers, compressors); heating and cooling loads
AFTERNOON SESSIONS
(40 multiple-choice questions per exam)
HVAC AND REFRIGERATION DEPTH EXAM

Principles (55%)
Thermodynamics (7%): cycles; properties; compression processes
Psychrometrics (15%): heating and cooling cycles; humidification and dehumidification; heating and cooling loads
Heat Transfer (13%)
Fluid Mechanics (7%)
Compressible Flow (3%)
Energy Balances (10%)
Applications (45%)
Equipment and components (20%): cooling towers and fluid coolers; boilers and furnaces; condensers; pumps, compressors, and fans;
evaporators and chillers; cooling and heating coils; control systems components; refrigerants; refrigeration components
Systems (18%): air distribution; fluid distribution; refrigeration; energy recovery
Supportive knowledge (7%): codes and standards; air quality and ventilation; vibration control; acoustics; economic analysis;
electrical concepts
MECHANICAL SYSTEMS AND MATERIALS DEPTH EXAM
Principles (60%)
Statics (15%): free body diagrams; friction; centroids; inertia
Kinematics (7%): linear and rotational motion; velocity; acceleration
Dynamics (10%): particle and rigid body
Materials properties (10%): physical; chemical; mechanical
Strength of materials (18%): stress and strain; shear; bending; buckling; torsion
Applications (40%)
Mechanical components (10%): pressure vessels; bearings; gears; springs; belts, pulleys, and chains; clutches and brakes; power
screws; shafts and keys; mechanisms; mechatronics
Joints and fasteners (10%): welding and brazing; bolts, screws, and rivets; adhesives and soldering; others (e.g., pipe threads,
snap rings, interference fit)
Vibration/dynamic analysis (10%): natural frequencies; damping; forced vibrations; vibration isolation; dynamic analysis
Materials and process (10%): materials selection; manufacturing processes; fits and tolerances; economic analysis and project
management; quality control
(continued)
xxii M E C H A N I C A L E N G I N E E R I N G R E F E R E N C E M A N U A L
Table 2 Detailed Analysis of Tested Subjectsa,b (continued)
THERMAL AND FLUIDS SYSTEMS DEPTH EXAM

Principles (45%)
Materials properties (5%): density; viscosity
Fluid mechanics (10%): compressible and incompressible fluids
Heat transfer principles (10%): convection; conduction; radiation
Mass balance principles (7%): evaporation; dehumidification; combustion
Thermodynamics (10%): thermodynamic cycles and properties; energy balances; combustion
Related principles (3%): strength of materials; fatigue theory; statics and dynamics; stress analysis; psychrometrics; welding; safety;
quality control and assurance
Applications (55%)
Equipment (18%): pumps; turbines; compressors, fans, and blowers; boilers and steam generators; engines and drive trains; pressure
vessels; heat exchangers, condensers, and feedwater heaters; cooling towers; control devices
Systems (32%): power hydraulics; pneumatic power; fluid distribution; power conversion; energy recovery; cooling and heating
cycles; power cycles
Codes and standards (5%)
a
Considerable overlap, duplication, and flexibility exists in each topic.
b
NCEES may occasionally revise exam subjects somewhat. For the most current information, visit the Exam FAQs section of PPI’s website,
ppi2pass.com/mefaq.
HOW MUCH MATHEMATICS IS NEEDED FOR Basic statistical analysis of observed data may be neces-
THE EXAM?
. . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . .. .
sary. Statistical calculations are generally limited to
finding means, medians, standard deviations, variances,
percentiles, and confidence limits. Since the problems
There are no pure mathematics questions (algebra, are multiple choice, you won’t have to draw a histo-
geometry, trigonometry, etc.) on the exam. However, gram, although you might have to interpret one. Usu-
you will need to apply your knowledge of these subjects ally, the only population distribution you need to be
to the exam questions. familiar with is the normal curve. Probability, reliabil-
ity, hypothesis testing, and statistical quality control
Generally, only simple algebra, trigonometry, and geom-
are not explicit exam subjects, though their concepts
etry are needed on the PE exam. You will need to use
may appear peripherally in some problems. You will
the trigonometric, logarithm, square root, exponentia-
not have to use linear or nonlinear regression and other
tion, and similar buttons on your calculator. There is no
curve fitting techniques to correlate data.
need to use any other method for these functions.
Quantitative optimization methods, such as linear,
Except for simple quadratic equations, you will prob- dynamic, and integer programming, generally asso-
ably not need to find the roots of polynomial equations. ciated with the field of operations research are not exam
For second-order (quadratic) equations, the exam does subjects.
not care if you find roots by factoring, completing the
square, using the quadratic equation, graphing, or using The PE exam is concerned with numerical answers, not
your calculator’s root finder. Occasionally, it will be with proofs or derivations. You will not be asked to
convenient to use the equation-solving capability of prove or derive formulas, use deductive reasoning, or
your calculator. However, other solution methods will validate theorems, corollaries, or lemmas.
always exist.
Inasmuch as first assumptions can significantly affect
There is essentially no use of calculus on the exam. the rate of convergence, problems requiring trial-and-
Rarely, you may need to take a simple derivative to find error solutions are unlikely. Rarely, a calculation may
a maximum or minimum of some simple algebraic func- require an iterative solution method. Generally, there is
tion. Even rarer is the need to integrate to find an no need to complete more than two iterations. You will
average, moment of inertia, statical moment, or shear not need to program your calculator to obtain an
flow. “exact” answer. Nor will you generally need to use com-
plex numerical methods.
There is essentially no need to solve differential equa-
tions. Questions involving radioactive decay, seismic
vibrations, control systems, chemical reactions, and HOW ABOUT ENGINEERING ECONOMICS?
. . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. .
fluid mixing have appeared from time to time. However,
these applications are extremely rare, have usually been For most of the early years of engineering licensing,
first-order, and could usually be handled without having questions on engineering economics appeared frequently
to solve differential equations. on the examinations. This is no longer the case.
I N T R O D U C T I O N xxiii
However, in its outline of exam subjects, NCEES notes: you won’t encounter the phrase “ethical obligation” in
“Some questions may require knowledge of engineering the exam.
economics.” What this means is that engineering eco-
nomics concepts might appear in several questions on
the exam, or the subject might be totally absent. While WHAT ABOUT CODES AND STANDARDS?
. . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. .
the degree of engineering economics knowledge has

decreased somewhat, the basic economic concepts (e.g., NCEES lists “codes and standards” in its lists of exam
time value of money, present worth, non-annual com- topics without identifying any specific codes and stan-
pounding, comparison of alternatives, etc.) are still valid dards. For that reason, at least for the mechanical
test subjects. engineering PE exam, “codes and standards” seems to
imply “knowledge about codes and standards,” as
If engineering economics is incorporated into other ques- opposed to “possession of and reference to the codes
tions, its “disguise” may be totally transparent. For and standards” during the exam. The distinction is sig-
example, you might need to compare the economics of nificant, because (without a specific list) it would be
buying and operating two blowers for remediation of a unreasonably expensive to purchase every code and
hydrocarbon spill—blowers whose annual costs must be standard affecting mechanical engineers. Among others,
calculated from airflow rates and heads. Also, you may ASME, ASTM, ANSI, ASHRAE, SAE, NFPA, NEC,
need to use engineering economics concepts and tables AGMA, EPA, OSHA, and other U.S. organizations
in problems that don’t even mention “dollars” (e.g., publish numerous documents, as do Canada and the
when you need to predict future water demand, popula- European Union (EU).
tion, or traffic volume).
There are a few noteworthy exceptions: ASME Y14.5
(Dimensioning and Tolerancing); ASME Boiler and
WHAT ABOUT FIRE PROTECTION Pressure Vessel Code (BPVC) Sec. VIII, Div. 1;
ENGINEERING?
. . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . .. .
ASHRAE Standard 62.1 (Ventilation for Acceptable
Indoor Air Quality); TEMA’s Standards of the Tubular
At one time, fire protection was a topic on the mechan- Exchanger Manufacturers Association; and, OSHA
ical engineering PE exam. Numerical questions dealt CFR 29. Depending on your afternoon discipline, one
with sprinkler capacity, sprinkler layout, fire pumps, or more of these publications could be valuable.
hydrants, standpipes, hose and nozzle flow rate, and
Inasmuch as fire protection is no longer a specific topic
occupancy categories. This topic disappeared when the
on the mechanical PE exam, none of the NFPA pub-
mechanical engineering PE exam adopted the breadth-
lications should be needed. A useful standard for non-
and-depth format. However, piping, pumps, valve, and
fatigue applications, ASME’s Code for Design of
controls for fire protection are easily categorized into
Transmission Shafting (ASA-B17c), is obsolete and is
other exam topics. The fire protection chapter in this
unlikely to be needed during the exam.
book covers basic material that might still be useful on
the exam.
IS THE EXAM TRICKY?
. . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. .
WHAT ABOUT NUCLEAR ENGINEERING?

. . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . .. . Other than providing superfluous data, the PE exam is
not a “tricky exam.” The exam does not overtly try to
At one time, nuclear engineering problems appeared
get you to fail. Examinees manage to fail on a regular
regularly on the mechanical engineering PE exam.
basis with perfectly straightforward questions. The
These problems dealt with shielding, health safety, core
exam questions are difficult in their own right. NCEES
power development, decay, liquid metal flow and heat
does not need to provide misleading or conflicting state-
transfer, and core design. Such problems disappeared
ments. However, you will find that commonly made
when the nuclear engineering PE exam became avail-
mistakes are represented in the available answer choices.
able. Problems involving nuclear reactor environments
Thus, the alternative answers (known as distractors)
continue to appear, but these can always be solved with
will be logical.
“traditional” heat transfer, thermodynamic, power
cycle, and fluid machinery concepts. Questions are generally practical, dealing with common
and plausible situations that you might experience in
your job. You will not be asked to determine the
WHAT ABOUT PROFESSIONALISM AND radiated heat transfer from the side of a spacecraft at
ETHICS?
. . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . .. . night after it has landed on a Jovian moon with a
methane atmosphere.
For many decades, NCEES has considered adding pro-
fessionalism and ethics questions to the PE exam. How-
ever, these subjects are not part of the test outline, and DOES NCEES WRITE EXAM QUESTIONS
there has yet to be an ethics question in the exam. AROUND THIS BOOK?
. . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. .
Professional practice questions dealing with obligations
related to contracts, bidding, estimating, inspection, Only NCEES knows what NCEES uses to write its
and regulations sometimes get pretty close. However, exam questions. However, it is irrelevant, because this
xxiv M E C H A N I C A L E N G I N E E R I N G R E F E R E N C E M A N U A L
book is not intended to (1) be everything you need to (watts) and water concentration (mg/L) questions.
pass the exam, (2) expose exam secrets or exam ques- Either system can be used for fluids, stress analysis,
tions, or (3) help you pass when you don’t qualify to and thermodynamics.
pass. NCEES knows about this book, but worrying
about NCEES writing exam questions based on infor- Unlike this book, the exam does not differentiate
mation that is or is not in this book means you are between lbf and lbm (pounds-force and pounds-mass).
placing too much dependency on this book. This book, Similarly, the exam does not follow this book’s practice
for example, will teach you how to use aspects of many of meticulously separating the concepts of mass and
standards and codes. Expecting that this book will weight, density and specific weight, and gravity, g, and
replace those standards and codes is unrealistic. This the gravitational constant, gc.
book will provide instruction in certain principles.
Expecting that you will not need to learn anything else
is unrealistic. This book presents many facts, defini- WHY DOES NCEES REUSE SOME
tions, and numerical values. Expecting that you will QUESTIONS?
. . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. .
not need to know other facts, definitions, and numerical

values is unrealistic. What NCEES uses to write exam NCEES reuses some of the more reliable questions
questions won’t have any effect on what you need to do from each exam. The percentage of repeat questions
to prepare for the exam. isn’t high—no more than 25% of the exam. NCEES
repeats questions in order to equate the performance
of one group of examinees with the performance of an
WHAT MAKES THE QUESTIONS DIFFICULT?
. . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . .. . earlier group. The repeated questions are known as
equaters, and together, they are known as the equat-
Some questions are difficult because the pertinent the- ing subtest.
ory is not obvious. There may be only one acceptable
procedure, and it may be heuristic (or defined by a code) Occasionally, a new question appears on the exam
such that nothing else will be acceptable. For example, if that very few of the examinees do well on. Usually,
you don’t know the AGMA procedure for designing the reason for this is that the subject is too obscure or
gears, no other knowledge of gear design is going to be the question is too difficult. Questions on control sys-
helpful for an AGMA question. tems and some engineering management subjects
(e.g., linear programming) fall into this category.
Some questions are difficult because the data needed are Also, there have been cases where a low percentage
hard to find. Some data just aren’t available unless you of the examinees get the answer correct because the
happen to have brought the right reference book. Sol- question was inadvertently stated in a poor or confus-
ving some HVAC problems depends on having climato- ing manner. Questions that everyone gets correct are
logical data for a specific location and performance also considered defective.
characteristics of specific construction types.
NCEES tracks the usage and “success” of each of the
Some questions are difficult because they defy the exam questions. “Rogue” questions are not repeated
imagination. Problems involving epicyclical gear trains without modification. This is one of the reasons histor-
can be like this. If you cannot visualize the operation of ical analysis of question types shouldn’t be used as the
the mechanism . . . if you cannot get an intuitive basis of your review.
feeling about what is going on, you probably cannot
analyze it.
Some questions are difficult because the computational DOES NCEES USE THE EXAM TO PRE-TEST
burden is high, and they just take a long time. Convec- FUTURE QUESTIONS?
. . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. .
tive heat transfer, HVAC, and pipe networks analyzed
with the Hardy-Cross method fall into this category. NCEES does not use the PE exam to “pre-test” or
qualify future questions. (It does use this procedure on
Some questions are difficult because the terminology is the FE exam, however.) All of the questions you work
obscure, and you just don’t know what the terms mean. will contribute toward your final score.
This can happen in almost any subject.
DOES THE PE EXAM USE SI UNITS?

. . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . .. .
ARE THE EXAMPLE PROBLEMS IN THIS
BOOK REPRESENTATIVE OF THE EXAM?
. . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. .
The PE exam in mechanical engineering primarily uses

customary U.S. units (also known as “English units,” The example problems in this book are intended to be
“inch-pound units,” and “British units”), although SI instructional and informative. They were written to
and a variety of other metric systems are also used. illustrate how their respective concepts can be imple-
Questions use the units that correspond to commonly mented. Example problems are not intended to repre-
accepted industry standards. Metric units are used in sent exam problems or provide guidance on what you
chemical-related subjects, including electrical power should study.
I N T R O D U C T I O N xxv
ARE THE PRACTICE PROBLEMS books. Since this book is not a substitute for your own
REPRESENTATIVE OF THE EXAM?
. . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . .. .
experience and knowledge, without a doubt, there are
many things that you will need that are not in this book.
The practice problems in the companion Practice Prob- But there are not so many that you need to bring your
lems for the Mechanical Engineering PE Exam book entire company’s library. The examination is very fast-
were chosen to cover the most likely exam subjects. paced. You will not have time to use books with which
Some of the practice problems are multiple choice, and you are not thoroughly familiar. The exam doesn’t
some require free-format solutions. However, they are require you to know obscure solution methods or to
generally more comprehensive and complex than actual use difficult-to-find data. You won’t need articles
exam problems, regardless of their formats. printed in an industry magazine; you won’t need doc-
Practice problems in the companion book were selected toral theses or industry proceedings; and, you won’t
to complement subjects in the Mechanical Engineering need to know about recent industry events.
Reference Manual. Over the many editions of both So, it really is unnecessary to bring a large quantity of
books, the practice problems have developed into a books with you. Essential books are identified in Table 3
comprehensive review of the most important mechanical in this Introduction, and you should be able to decide
engineering subjects covered on the exam. which support you need for the areas in which you
All of the practice problems are original. Since NCEES intend to work. This book and five to ten other refer-
does not release old exams, and since examinees are ences of your choice should be sufficient for most of the
sworn to secrecy before taking the exam, none of the questions you answer.1
practice problems are actual exam problems.
MAY TABS BE PLACED ON PAGES?
. . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. .
WHAT REFERENCE MATERIAL IS

It is common to tab pages in your books in an effort to
PERMITTED IN THE EXAM?
. . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . .. . reduce the time required to locate useful sections. Inas-
The PE examination is an open-book exam. Most states much as some states consider Post-it® notes to be “loose
do not have any limits on the numbers and types of paper,” your tabs should be of the more permanent
books you can use. Personal notes in a three-ring binder variety. Although you can purchase tabs with gummed
and other semipermanent covers can usually be used. attachment points, it is also possible simply to use
transparent tape to securely attach the Post-its you
Some states use a “shake test” to eliminate loose papers have already placed in your books.
from binders. Make sure that nothing escapes from your
binders when they are inverted and shaken.
MAY YOU WRITE AND MARK IN YOUR
The references you bring into the examination room in BOOKS?
. . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. .
the morning do not have to be the same as the references
you use in the afternoon. However, you cannot share During your preparation, you may write anything you
books with other examinees during the exam. want, anywhere in your books, including this one. You
A few states do not permit collections of solved prob- can use pencil, pen, or highlighter in order to further
lems such as Schaum’s Outline Series, sample exams, your understanding of the content. However, during the
and solutions manuals. A few states maintain a formal exam, you must avoid the appearance of taking notes
list of banned books. about the exam. This means that you should only write
on the scratch paper that is provided. During the exam,
Strictly speaking, loose paper and scratch pads are not other than drawing a line across a wide table of num-
permitted in the examination. Certain types of pre- bers, or using your pencil to follow a line on a graph, you
printed graphs and logarithmically scaled graph papers should not write in your books.
(which are almost never needed) should be three-hole
punched and brought in a three-ring binder. An excep-
tion to this restriction may be made for laminated and WHAT ABOUT CALCULATORS?
. . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. .
oversize charts, graphs, and tables (e.g., Mollier dia-

grams and psychrometric charts) that are commonly The exam requires use of a scientific calculator. How-
needed for particular types of questions. However, there ever, it may not be obvious that you should bring a
aren’t many such items for the mechanical PE exam. spare calculator with you to the examination. It is
always unfortunate when an examinee is not able to
finish because his or her calculator was dropped or
HOW MANY BOOKS SHOULD YOU BRING?
. . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . .. .
stolen or stopped working for some unknown reason.
1
Except for codes and standards, you shouldn’t need For decades, this Introduction has recommended that you bring an
many books in the examination, particularly in the engineering/scientific dictionary with you, but this recommendation is
no longer valid. Printed engineering/scientific dictionaries appear to
morning breadth section. The trouble is, you can’t know be things of the past. Those that still exist are not very good, and none
in advance which ones you will need. That’s the reason are targeted enough to be helpful with the modern afternoon depth
why many examinees show up with boxes and boxes of examinations.
xxvi M E C H A N I C A L E N G I N E E R I N G R E F E R E N C E M A N U A L
To protect the integrity of its exams, NCEES has communication device, you should expect to be politely
banned communicating and text-editing calculators excluded from the remainder of the examination.
from the exam site. NCEES provides a list of calculator
models acceptable for use during the exam. Calculators
not included in the list are not permitted. Check the HOW YOU SHOULD GUESS
. . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. .
current list of permissible devices at the PPI website
(ppi2pass.com/calculators). Contact your state There is no deduction for incorrect answers, so guessing
board to determine if nomographs and specialty slide is encouraged. However, since NCEES produces defen-
rules are permitted. sible licensing exams, there is no pattern to the place-
The exam has not been optimized for any particular ment of correct responses. Since the quantitative
brand or type of calculator. In fact, for most calcula- responses are sequenced according to increasing values,
tions, a $15 scientific calculator will produce results as the placement of a correct answer among other numer-
satisfactory as those from a $200 calculator. There are ical distractors is a function of the distractors, not of
definite benefits to having built-in statistical functions, some statistical normalizing routine. Therefore, it is
graphing, unit-conversion, and equation-solving cap- irrelevant whether you choose all “A,” “B,” “C,” or “D”
abilities. However, these benefits are not so great as to when you get into guessing mode during the last minute
give anyone an unfair advantage. or two of the exam period.
It is essential that a calculator used for the mechanical The proper way to guess is as an engineer. You should
PE examination have the following functions. use your knowledge of the subject to eliminate illogi-
cal answer choices. Illogical answer choices are those
. trigonometric and inverse trigonometric functions that violate good engineering principles, that are out-
side normal operating ranges, or that require extraor-
. hyperbolic and inverse hyperbolic functions dinary assumptions. Of course, this requires you to
have some basic understanding of the subject in the
. p first place.
pffiffiffi
. x and x 2 Otherwise, it’s back to random guessing. That’s the
reason that the minimum passing score is higher
. both common and natural logarithms than 25%.
. yx and ex You won’t get any points using the “test-taking skills”
that helped you in college—the skills that helped with
For maximum speed and utility, your calculator should tests prepared by amateurs. You won’t be able to elim-
also have or be programmed for the following functions. inate any [verb] answer choices from “Which [noun] . . .”
questions. You won’t find problems with options of the
. interpolation “more than 50” and “less than 50” variety. You won’t
find one answer choice among the four that has a differ-
. extracting roots of quadratic and higher-order ent number of significant digits, or has a verb in a
equations different tense, or has some singular/plural discrepancy
with the stem. The distractors will always match the
. calculating factors for economic analysis questions
stem, and they will be logical.
You may not share calculators with other examinees. Be
sure to take your calculator with you whenever you
HOW IS THE EXAM GRADED AND SCORED?
leave the examination room for any length of time. . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. .
Laptop, palmtop, and tablet computers (including the The maximum number of points you can earn on the
iPad®), and electronic readers (e.g., Nook® and mechanical engineering PE exam is 80. The minimum
Kindle™), are not permitted in the examination. Their number of points for passing (referred to by NCEES as
use has been considered, but no states actually permit the cut score) varies from exam to exam. The cut score
them. However, considering the nature of the exam is determined through a rational procedure, without the
questions, it is very unlikely that these devices would benefit of knowing examinees’ performance on the exam.
provide any advantage. That is, the exam is not graded on a curve. The cut
score is selected based on what you are expected to
know, not based on passing a certain percentage of
ARE CELL PHONES PERMITTED?
. . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . .. . engineers.
You may not possess or use a walkie-talkie, cell phone, Each of the questions is worth one point. Grading is
or other communications or text-messaging device dur- straightforward, since a computer grades your score
ing the exam, regardless of whether it is on. You won’t sheet. Either you get the question right or you don’t.
be frisked upon entrance to the exam, but should a If you mark two or more answers for the same problem,
proctor discover that you are in possession of a no credit is given for the problem.
I N T R O D U C T I O N xxvii
You will receive the results of your examination from WHAT IS THE HISTORICAL PASSING RATE?
. . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. .
your state board (not NCEES) by mail. Eight to ten
weeks will pass before NCEES releases the results to Before the mechanical engineering PE exam became
the state boards. However, the state boards take vary- a no-choice, breadth-and-depth (B&D) exam with
ing amounts of additional time before notifying exam- multiple-choice questions, the passing rate for first-
inees. You should allow three to four months for timers varied considerably. It might have been 40%
notification. for one exam and 80% for the next. The passing rate
for repeat examinees was even lower. The no-choice,
Your score may or may not be revealed to you, depend- objective, B&D format has reduced the variability in
ing on your state’s procedure. Even if the score is the passing rate considerably. Within a few percentage
reported to you, it may have been scaled or normalized points, 65–70% of first-time takers pass the mechanical
to 100%. It may be difficult to determine whether the engineering PE exam. The passing rate for repeat exam
reported score is out of 80 points or is out of 100%. takers is approximately half of the first-time taker
If you fail, you will also receive a diagnostic report passing rate.
showing your performance in each subject area.
CHEATING AND EXAM SUBVERSION
. . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. .
HOW IS THE CUT SCORE ESTABLISHED?

. . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . .. . There aren’t very many ways to cheat on an open-book
test. The proctors are well trained in spotting the few
The raw cut score may be established by NCEES before ways that do exist. It goes without saying that you
or after the exam is administered. Final adjustments should not talk to other examinees in the room, nor
may be made following the exam date. should you pass notes back and forth. You should not
write anything into your books or take notes on the
NCEES uses a process known as the modified Angoff contents of the exam. You shouldn’t use your cell phone.
procedure to establish the cut score. This procedure The number of people who are released to use the
starts with a small group (the cut score panel) of profes- restroom may be limited to prevent discussions.
sional engineers and educators selected by NCEES.
Each individual in the group reviews each problem and NCEES regularly reuses good problems that have
makes an estimate of its difficulty. Specifically, each appeared on previous exams. Therefore, examination
individual estimates the number of minimally qualified integrity is a serious issue with NCEES, which goes to
engineers out of a hundred examinees who should know great lengths to make sure nobody copies the questions.
the correct answer to the problem. (This is equivalent to You may not keep your exam booklet or scratch paper,
predicting the percentage of minimally qualified engi- enter text of questions into your calculator, or copy
neers who will answer correctly.) problems into your own material.
Next, the panel assembles, and the estimates for each NCEES has become increasingly unforgiving about loss
problem are openly compared and discussed. Even- of its intellectual property. NCEES routinely prosecutes
tually, a consensus value is obtained for each. When violators and seeks financial redress for loss of its exam-
the panel has established a consensus value for every ination problems, as well as invalidating any engineering
problem, the values are summed and divided by 100 to license you may have earned by taking one of its exam-
establish the cut score. inations while engaging in prohibited activities. Your
Various minor adjustments can be made to account for state board may impose additional restrictions on your
examinee population (as characterized by the average right to retake any examination if you are convicted of
performance on any equater questions) and any flawed such activities. In addition to tracking down the sources
problems. Rarely, security breaches result in compro- of any examination problem compilations that it
mised problems or examinations. How equater ques- becomes aware of, NCEES is also aggressive in pursuing
tions, examination flaws, and security issues affect and prosecuting examinees who disclose the contents of
examinee performance is not released by NCEES to the exam in internet forum and “chat” environments.
the public. Your constitutional rights to free speech and expression
will not protect you from civil prosecution for violating
the nondisclosure agreement that NCEES requires you
to sign before taking the examination. If you wish to
ARE ALL OF THE DEPTH MODULES participate in a dialog about a particular exam subject,
EQUAL IN DIFFICULTY?
. . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . .. . you must do so in such a manner that does not violate
the essence of your nondisclosure agreement. This
Nothing in the modified Angoff procedure ensures that requires decoupling your discussion from the examina-
the cut score will be the same in all of the depth mod- tion and reframing the question to avoid any examina-
ules. Thus, each depth module may have a different cut tion particulars.
score. The easier the questions, the higher the cut score
will be. Accordingly, the cut scores and passing rates are The proctors are concerned about exam subversion,
different for each depth module. which generally means activity that might invalidate
xxviii M E C H A N I C A L E N G I N E E R I N G R E F E R E N C E M A N U A L
the examination or the examination process. The most Some engineers plan on modeling their solutions from
common form of exam subversion involves trying to similar problems they have found in textbooks, collec-
copy exam problems for future use. However, in their tions of solutions, and old exams. These engineers often
zeal to enforce and protect, proctors have shown spend a lot of time compiling and indexing the example
unforgiving intolerance of otherwise minor infractions and sample problem types in all of their books. This is
such as using your own pencil, using a calculator not not a legitimate preparation method, and it is almost
on the approved list, possessing a cell phone, or con- never successful.
tinuing to write for even an instant after “pencils
down” is called. For such infractions, you should
expect to have the results of your examination invali- DO YOU NEED A CLASSROOM
dated, and all of your pleas and arguments in favor or REVIEW COURSE?
. . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. .
forgiveness to be ignored. Even worse, since you will
summarily be considered to have cheated, your state Approximately 60% of first-time PE examinees take an
board will most likely prohibit you from retaking the instructor-led review course of some form. Live class-
exam for a number of examination cycles. There is no room and internet courses, as well as previously
mercy built into the NCEES and state board recorded lessons of various types, are available for some
procedures. or all of the exam topics. Live courses and instructor-
moderated internet courses provide several significant
advantages over self-directed study, some of which may
PART 3: HOW TO PREPARE FOR AND apply to you.
PASS THE PE EXAM IN MECHANICAL . A course structures and paces your review. It ensures
ENGINEERING
. . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . .. . that you keep going forward without getting bogged
down in one subject.
WHAT SHOULD YOU STUDY? . A course focuses you on a limited amount of mate-
. . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . .. .
rial. Without a course, you might not know which
The exam covers many diverse subjects. Strictly speak- subjects to study.
ing, you don’t have to study every subject on the exam
. A course provides you with the questions you need to
in order to pass. However, the more subjects you study,
the more you’ll improve your chances of passing. You solve. You won’t have to spend time looking for
should decide early in the preparation process which them.
subjects you are going to study. The strategy you select . A course spoon-feeds you the material. You may not
will depend on your background. Following are the four need to read the book!
most common strategies.
. The course instructor can answer your questions
A broad approach is the key to success for examinees when you are stuck.
who have recently completed their academic studies.
This strategy is to review the fundamentals in a broad You probably already know if any of these advantages
range of undergraduate subjects (which means study- apply to you. A review course will be less valuable if you
ing all or most of the chapters in this book). The are thorough, self-motivated, and highly disciplined.
examination includes enough fundamentals problems
to make this strategy worthwhile. Overall, it’s the best
approach. HOW LONG SHOULD YOU STUDY?
. . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. .
Engineers who have little time for preparation tend to We’ve all heard stories of the person who didn’t crack a
concentrate on the subject areas in which they hope to book until the week before the exam and still passed it
find the most problems. By studying the list of exam- with flying colors. Yes, these people really exist. How-
ination subjects, some have been able to focus on those ever, I’m not one of them, and you probably aren’t
subjects that will give them the highest probability of either. In fact, after having taught thousands of engi-
finding enough problems that they can answer. This neers in my own classes, I’m convinced that these people
strategy works as long as the examination cooperates are as rare as the ones who have taken the exam five
and has enough of the types of questions they need. Too times and still can’t pass it.
often, though, examinees who pick and choose subjects
to review can’t find enough problems to complete the A thorough review takes approximately 300 hours.
exam. Most of this time is spent solving problems. Some of
it may be spent in class; some is spent at home. Some
Engineers who have been away from classroom work for examinees spread this time over a year. Others try to
a long time tend to concentrate on the subjects in which cram it all into two months. Most classroom review
they have had extensive experience, in the hope that the courses last for three or four months. The best time to
exam will feature lots of problems in those subjects. This start studying will depend on how much time you can
method is seldom successful. spend per week.
I N T R O D U C T I O N xxix
WHAT THE WELL-HEELED MECHANICAL DON’T FORGET THE DOWNLOADS

. . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. .
ENGINEER SHOULD BEGIN ACCUMULATING
. . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . .. .
Many of the tables and appendices in this book are
There are many references and resources that you representative abridgments with just enough data to
should begin to assemble for review and for use in the (a) do the practice problems in the companion book
examination. and (b) give you a false sense of security. You can
download or link to additional data, explanations, and
It is unlikely that you could pass the PE exam without references by visiting PPI’s website, ppi2pass.com/
accumulating other books and resources. There cer- online-resources.
tainly isn’t much margin for error if you show up with
only one book. True, references aren’t needed to answer
many fluids, thermodynamics, and combustion ques-
tions. However, there are many afternoon depth ques- WHAT YOU WON’T NEED
. . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. .
tions that require knowledge, data, and experience that
are presented and described only in codes, standards, Generally, people bring too many things to the exam-
and references dedicated to a single subject. You would ination. One general rule is that you shouldn’t bring
have to be truly lucky to go in “bare,” find the right mix books that you have not looked at during your review.
of questions, and pass. If you didn’t need a book while doing the practice
Few examinees are able to accumulate all of the refer- problems in this book, you won’t need it during the
ences needed to support the exam’s entire body of exam.
knowledge. The accumulation process is too expensive There are some other things that you won’t need.
and time-consuming, and the sources are too diverse.
Like purchasing an insurance policy, what you end up . Books on basic and introductory subjects: You won’t
with will be more a function of your budget than of your need books that cover trigonometry, geometry, or
needs. In some cases, one book will satisfy several needs. calculus.
The list in Table 3 was compiled from more than
. Books that cover background engineering subjects
70 administrations of the mechanical engineering PE
exam. The books and other items listed are regularly that appear on the exam, such as fluids, thermody-
cited by examinees as being particularly useful to them. namics, and chemistry: The exam is more concerned
This listing only includes the major “named” books that with the applications of these bodies of knowledge
have become standard references in the industry. These than with the bodies of knowledge themselves.
books are in addition to any textbooks or resources that . Books on non-exam subjects: Such subjects as draft-
you might choose to bring. Some of the items (partic-
ing, operations research, materials science, structural
ularly anything in loose-sheet form) may not be per-
analysis, seismic design, history, the English lan-
mitted in the examination room but will still be
guage, geography, and philosophy are not part of
valuable during your studies. In some cases, one book
the exam.
will satisfy several needs. For example, ASHRAE’s
Handbook of Fundamentals contains a lot of useful data . Books on mathematical analysis, numerical analysis,
for fluids, thermodynamics, HVAC, and heat transfer or extensive mathematics tabulations
problems.
. Extensive collections of properties: You will not be
expected to know the properties and characteris-
ADDITIONAL REVIEW MATERIAL
. . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . .. . tics of chemical compounds, obscure or exotic
alloys, uncommon liquids and gases, or biological
In addition to this book and its accompanying Practice organisms. Most characteristics affecting perfor-
Problems for the Mechanical Engineering PE Exam, mance are provided as part of the question
PPI can provide you with many targeted references statement.
and study aids, some of which are listed here. All of
these books have stood the test of time, which means . Building, plumbing, electrical, or fire codes
that examinees continually report their usefulness and
that PPI keeps them up-to-date. . Obscure books and materials: Books that are in for-
eign languages, doctoral theses, and papers pre-
. Mechanical Engineering Practice Examination sented at technical societies won’t be needed during
. Quick Reference for the Mechanical Engineering PE the exam.
Exam
. Old textbooks or obsolete, rare, and ancient books:
. Engineering Unit Conversions NCEES exam committees are aware of which text-
. Mechanical Engineering Solved Problems books are in use. Material that is available only in
out-of-print publications and old editions won’t be
. PPI books in the Six-Minute series used.
xxx M E C H A N I C A L E N G I N E E R I N G R E F E R E N C E M A N U A L
Table 3 What the Well-Heeled Mechanical Engineer Would Take to the Exam
P.M. session
HVAC and mechanical systems thermal and
A.M. session refrigeration and materials fluids systems
psychrometric chartsa X X X
rulerb X X X X
steam tablesc X X X
Mollier diagramsd X X X
air tablese X X
compressible flow tablesf X
Marks’ Handbookg X X X X
Machinery’s Handbookh X X
TEMA Standardsi X X X
detailed heat transfer bookj X X X
detailed HVAC bookk X X X
extensive refrigerant datal X X X
machine design bookm X X
Formulas for Stress and Strainn X X
detailed fluids data booko X X X
NFPA Standardsp X X
management science bookq X
English dictionaryr X X X X
book of unit conversions X X X X
various ASHRAE standardss X X
a
psychrometric charts: approximately 10 for normal temperature and pressure, and several each for low-pressure, low-temperature, and high-
temperature problems. (Available directly from ASHRAE.)
b
ruler: long, flexible, clear plastic ruler marked in tenths of an inch or in centimeters and millimeters.
c
steam tables: detailed tables in both English and SI units (e.g., the old Steam Tables by Keenan and Keyes or ASME Steam Tables).
d
Mollier diagrams: large diagrams in both English and SI units (as contained in the old Steam Tables by Keenan and Keyes or in the ASME Steam
Tables; alternatively, the stand-alone ASME Mollier Diagram).
e
air tables: detailed tables in both English and SI units (e.g., the old Gas Tables by Keenan and Kaye).
f
compressible flow tables: isentropic flow and normal shock factors for various ratios of specific heats (as contained in Gas Tables by Keenan and
Kaye)
g
Marks’ Standard Handbook for Mechanical Engineers: any reasonably current edition.
h
Machinery’s Handbook: any reasonably current edition with AGMA gear data.
i
Standards of the Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers Association (“TEMA Standards”): specifically for the heat exchanger correction factors.
j
heat transfer book: with the following charts, figures, or tables: charts for solving transient heat flow problems (simple solids other than spheres);
radiation arrangement factors, Fa; and correction factors, Fc, for multiple-pass heat exchangers (counterflow, crossflow, etc.), same as contained in
TEMA Standards.
k
HVAC book: the gold standard is the three-volume set of ASHRAE Handbooks. There are two fallback positions: (1) One of the three handbooks,
ASHRAE’s Handbook of Fundamentals, with the following charts, figures, or tables of data: outside design conditions versus geographic location
(including winter design temperature; winter degree days; summer design temperature; summer degree days; average temperature swing; wind
velocity; k- or U-values for various wall constructions; infiltration coefficients; heat loss coefficient for the slab-edge method; equivalent temperature
differences and related CLTD support tables; cooling load factors (various)); (2) ASHRAE’s ASHRAE Pocket Guide for Air Conditioning, Heating,
Ventilation, Refrigeration, Inch-Pound edition (provides abbreviated construction and weather data).
l
refrigerant data: A collection of thermodynamic property data for common refrigerants, notably R-134a, R-11, R-12, R-22, and ammonia. Data
should be available in customary U.S. units in the form of saturation tables (by temperature and pressure both), T-s charts, and p-h charts.
(ASHRAE’s Handbook of Fundamentals contains a complete collection.)
m
machine design book: such as Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design. Since basic machine design changes slowly, it is not necessary to have the
latest edition. Machine design books will cover the topic that NCEES has renamed “mechanical systems and materials.”
n
Roark’s Formulas for Stress and Strain by Young, Budynas, and Sadegh. This is good for obscure configurations requiring stress or vibration
analysis. Any reasonably current edition.
o
fluids data book: such as Crane’s Flow of Fluids Through Valves, Fittings, and Pipe (Technical Paper 410 ), Flowserve’s Cameron Hydraulic Data, or
Colt Industries’ Hydraulic Handbook.
(continued)
I N T R O D U C T I O N xxxi
Table 3 What the Well–Heeled Mechanical Engineer Would Take to the Exam (continued)
p
NFPA Standards: Fire Code (NFPA 1, which incorporates the publication published separately as NFPA 230 (Fire Protection of Storage); National
Fire Protection Association Standards NFPA 13 (Installation of Sprinkler Systems), NFPA 14 (Installation of Standpipe and Hose Systems),
NFPA 20 (Installation of Stationary Pumps for Fire Protection) and NFPA 291 (Recommended Practice for Fire Flow Testing and Marking of
Hydrants), or suitable substitutes such as Fire and Explosion Protection Systems from PPI.
q
management science book: such as Schaum’s Quantitative Business Analysis. Quantitative business analysis, industrial engineering, or operations
research textbook covering linear programming, models for assembly line balancing, plant location, plant layout, queuing theory, Markov chains,
and simple simulations.
r
standard English dictionary: any available.
s
For example, ASHRAE Standard 62.1 is invaluable for ventilation problems. Old editions of this standard may be available for free download from
the ASHRAE website.
. Handbooks in other disciplines: You probably won’t Furthermore, NCEES sometimes constructs its sample
need a civil, electrical, or industrial engineering questions books from questions that have been pulled
handbook. from active use for various reasons, including poor per-
formance. Such marginal questions, while accurately
. The Handbook of Chemistry and Physics reflecting the format of the examination, are not always
representative of actual exam subjects.
. Crafts- and trades-oriented books: The exam does
not expect you to have detailed knowledge of trades
or manufacturing operations (e.g., carpentry, plumb- WHAT SHOULD YOU MEMORIZE?
. . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. .
ing, electrical wiring, roofing, sheetrocking, foundry,
metal turning, sheet-metal forming, or designing jigs You get lucky here, because it isn’t necessary to actually
and fixtures). memorize anything. The exam is open-book, so you can
look up any procedure, formula, or piece of information
. Manufacturer’s literature and catalogs: No part of that you need. You can speed up your problem-solving
the exam requires you to be familiar with products response time significantly if you don’t have to look up
that are proprietary to any manufacturer. the conversion from ft-lbf/sec to horsepower, the defini-
tion of the sine of an angle, and the chemical formula for
. U.S. government publications: With the exceptions carbon dioxide, but you don’t even have to memorize
of the publications mentioned and referenced in this these simple things. As you work practice problems in
book, no government publications are required in the companion book, you will automatically memorize
the PE exam. the things that you come across more than a few times.
. The text of federal acts, policies, and treaties such as

the Clean Air Act, Clean Water Act, Resource DO YOU NEED A REVIEW SCHEDULE?
. . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. .
Recovery and Conservation Act, Oil Pollution Act,

Atomic Energy Act, and Nuclear Waste Policy Act. It is important that you develop and adhere to a review
outline and schedule. Once you have decided which
. Your state’s laws: The PE exam is a national subjects you are going to study, you can allocate the
exam. Nothing unique to your state will appear available time to those subjects in a manner that makes
on it. (However, federal legislation affecting engi- sense to you. If you are not taking a classroom review
neers, particularly in environmental areas, is fair course (where the order of preparation is determined by
game.) the lectures), you should make an outline of subjects for
self-study to use for scheduling your preparation. A fill-
. Local, state, or national building codes in-the-dates schedule is provided in Table 4 at the end of
this Introduction.
SHOULD YOU LOOK FOR OLD EXAMS?

. . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . .. .
A SIMPLE PLANNING SUGGESTION
. . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. .
The traditional approach to preparing for standard-
ized tests includes working sample tests. However, Designate some location (a drawer, a corner, a card-
NCEES does not release old tests or questions after board box, or even a paper shopping bag left on the
they are used. Therefore, there are no official questions floor) as your “exam catch-all.” Use your catch-all dur-
or tests available from legitimate sources. NCEES pub- ing the months before the exam when you have revela-
lishes booklets of sample questions and solutions to tions about things you should bring with you. For
illustrate the format of the exam. However, these ques- example, you might realize that the plastic ruler
tions have been compiled from various previous exams, marked off in tenths of an inch that is normally kept
and the resulting publication is not a true “old exam.” in the kitchen junk drawer can help you with some
xxxii M E C H A N I C A L E N G I N E E R I N G R E F E R E N C E M A N U A L
psychrometric chart questions. Or, you might decide Prepare a separate copy of this book’s index. You can
that a certain book is particularly valuable. Or, that it photocopy the actual index; alternatively, you may
would be nice to have dental floss after lunch. Or, that download the index to the current edition of this book
large rubber bands and clips are useful for holding at ppi2pass.com/mermindex.
books open.
If it’s convenient, visit the exam location in order to find
It isn’t actually necessary to put these treasured items in the building, parking areas, examination room, and
the catch-all during your preparation. You can, of restrooms. If it’s not convenient, you may find driving
course, if it’s convenient. But if these items will have directions and/or site maps on the web.
other functions during the time before the exam, at least Take the battery cover off your calculator and check to
write yourself a note and put the note into the catch-all. make sure you are bringing the correct size replacement
When you go to pack your exam kit a few days before batteries. Some calculators require a different kind of
the exam, you can transfer some items immediately, and battery for their “permanent” memories. Put the cover
the notes will be your reminders for the other items that back on and secure it with a piece of masking tape.
are back in the kitchen drawer. Write your name on the tape to identify your calculator.
If your spare calculator is not the same as your primary
HOW YOU CAN MAKE YOUR REVIEW calculator, spend a few minutes familiarizing yourself
REALISTIC with how it works. In particular, you should verify that
. . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . .. .
your spare calculator is functional.
In the exam, you must be able to quickly recall solution
procedures, formulas, and important data. You must
remain sharp for eight hours or more. When you played PREPARE YOUR CAR
. . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. .
a sport back in school, your coach tried to put you in
game-related situations. Preparing for the PE exam [ ] Gather snow chains, shovel, and tarp to lie on while
isn’t much different from preparing for a big game. installing chains.
Some part of your preparation should be realistic and [ ] Check tire pressures.
representative of the examination environment.
[ ] Check your spare tire.
There are several things you can do to make your review [ ] Check for tire installation tools.
more representative. For example, if you gather most of [ ] Verify that you have the vehicle manual.
your review resources (i.e., books) in advance and try to [ ] Check fluid levels (oil, gas, water, brake fluid,
use them exclusively during your review, you will transmission fluid, window-washing solution).
become more familiar with them. (Of course, you can [ ] Fill up with gas.
also add to or change your references if you find [ ] Check battery and charge if necessary.
inadequacies.)
[ ] Know something about your fuse system (where
Learning to use your time wisely is one of the most they are, how to replace them, etc.).
important lessons you can learn during your review. [ ] Assemble all required maps.
You will undoubtedly encounter questions that end up [ ] Fix anything that might slow you down (missing
taking much longer than you expected. In some wiper blades, etc.).
instances, you will cause your own delays by spending [ ] Check your taillights.
too much time looking through books for things you [ ] Affix the recently arrived DMV license sticker.
need (or just by looking for the books themselves!).
[ ] Fix anything that might get you pulled over on the
Other times, the questions will entail too much work.
Learn to recognize these situations so that you can make way to the exam (burned-out taillight or headlight,
an intelligent decision about skipping such questions in broken lenses, bald tires, missing license plate, noisy
the exam. muffler).
[ ] Treat the inside windows with anti-fog solution.
[ ] Put a roll of paper towels in the back seat.
WHAT TO DO A FEW DAYS BEFORE [ ] Gather exact change for any bridge tolls or toll
THE EXAM
. . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . .. .
roads.
[ ] Find your electronic toll tag (FasTrak®/E-Z Pass®,
There are a few things you should do a week or so before etc.).
the examination. You should arrange for childcare and [ ] Put $20 in your glove box.
transportation. Since the examination does not always [ ] Check for current registration and proof of
start or end at the designated time, make sure that your insurance.
childcare and transportation arrangements are flexible. [ ] Locate a spare door and ignition key.
Check PPI’s website for last-minute updates and errata [ ] Find your AAA or other roadside-assistance cards
to any PPI books you might have and are bringing to and phone numbers.
the exam. [ ] Plan out alternate routes.
I N T R O D U C T I O N xxxiii
The second kit consists of the following items and

PREPARE YOUR EXAM KITS
. . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . .. . should be left in a separate bag or box in your car in
case they are needed.
Second in importance to your scholastic preparation is
the preparation of your two examination kits. The first [ ] copy of your application
kit consists of a bag, box (plastic milk crates hold up [ ] proof of delivery
better than cardboard in the rain), or wheeled travel [ ] light lunch
suitcase containing items to be brought with you into [ ] beverage in thermos or cans
the examination room. [ ] sunglasses
[ ] letter admitting you to the examination [ ] extra pair of prescription glasses
[ ] photographic identification (e.g., driver’s license) [ ] raincoat, boots, gloves, hat, and umbrella
[ ] this book [ ] street map of the examination area
[ ] a separate, bound copy of this book’s index [ ] parking permit
(a printable copy can be downloaded at [ ] battery-powered desk lamp
ppi2pass.com/mermindex) [ ] your cell phone
[ ] other textbooks and reference books [ ] length of rope
[ ] regular dictionary The following items cannot be used during the examina-
[ ] review course notes in a three-ring binder tion and should be left at home.
[ ] cardboard boxes or plastic milk crates to use as
bookcases [ ] personal pencils and erasers (NCEES distributes
[ ] primary calculator mechanical pencils at the exam.)
[ ] spare calculator [ ] fountain pens
[ ] instruction booklets for your calculators [ ] radio, CD player, or iPod™
[ ] extra calculator batteries [ ] battery charger
[ ] straightedge and rulers [ ] extension cords
[ ] protractor [ ] scratch paper
[ ] scissors [ ] note pads
[ ] stapler [ ] drafting compasses
[ ] transparent tape [ ] circular (“wheel”) slide rules
[ ] psychrometric charts (punched in a three-ring
binder) PREPARE FOR THE WORST
. . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. .
[ ] magnifying glass
[ ] small (jeweler’s) screwdriver for fixing your glasses All of the occurrences listed in this section have hap-
or for removing batteries from your calculator pened to examinees. Granted, you cannot prepare for
[ ] unobtrusive (quiet) snacks or candies, already every eventuality. But, even though each of these occur-
unwrapped rences taken individually is a low-probability event,
[ ] two small plastic bottles of water taken together, they are worth considering in advance.
[ ] travel pack of tissue (keep in your pocket) . Imagine getting a flat tire, getting stuck in traffic, or
[ ] handkerchief running out of gas on the way to the exam.
[ ] headache remedy . Imagine rain and snow as you are carrying your
[ ] personal medication cardboard boxes of books into the exam room.
[ ] $5.00 in assorted coinage Would plastic trash bags be helpful?
[ ] spare contact lenses and wetting solution
[ ] backup reading glasses . Imagine arriving late. Can you get into the exam
[ ] eye drops without having to make two trips from your car?
[ ] light, comfortable sweater . Imagine having to park two blocks from the exam
[ ] loose shoes or slippers site. How are you going to get everything to the
[ ] cushion for your chair exam room? Can you actually carry everything that
[ ] earplugs far? Could you use a furniture dolly, a supermarket
[ ] wristwatch with alarm basket, or perhaps a helpmate?
[ ] several large trash bags (“raincoats” for your boxes . Imagine a Star Trek convention, square-dancing con-
of books) test, construction, or auction in the next room.
[ ] roll of paper towels . Imagine a site without any heat, with poor lighting,
[ ] wire coat hanger (to hang up your jacket or to get or with sunlight streaming directly into your eyes.
back into your car in an emergency)
[ ] extra set of car keys on a string around your neck . Imagine a hard folding chair and a table with one
short leg.
xxxiv M E C H A N I C A L E N G I N E E R I N G R E F E R E N C E M A N U A L
. Imagine a site next to an airport with frequent take- WHAT TO DO THE DAY OF THE EXAM
. . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. .
offs, or next to a construction site with a pile driver,
or next to the NHRA’s Drag Racing Championship. Turn off the quarterly and hourly alerts on your wrist-
watch. Leave your pager or cell phone at home. If you
. Imagine a seat where someone nearby chews gum
must bring them, change them to silent mode. Bring or
with an open mouth; taps his pencil or drums her buy a morning newspaper.
fingers; or wheezes, coughs, and sneezes for eight
hours. You should arrive at least 30 minutes before the exam-
. Imagine the distraction of someone crying or of proc- ination starts. This will allow time for finding a conve-
nient parking place, bringing your materials to the
tors evicting yelling and screaming examinees who
examination room, making room and seating changes,
have been found cheating.
and calming down. Be prepared, though, to find that
. Imagine the tragedy of another examinee’s serious the examination room is not open or ready at the desig-
medical emergency. nated time.
. Imagine a delay of an hour while they find someone Once you have arranged the materials around you on
to unlock the building, turn on the heat, or wait for your table, take out your morning newspaper and look
the head proctor to bring instructions. cool. (Only nervous people work crossword puzzles.)
. Imagine a power outage occurring sometime during
the exam.
WHAT TO DO DURING THE EXAM
. . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. .
. Imagine a proctor who (a) tells you that one of your
favorite books can’t be used in the exam, (b) accuses All of the procedures typically associated with timed,
you of cheating, or (c) calls “time up” without giving proctored, computer-graded assessment tests will be in
you any warning. effect when you take the PE examination.
. Imagine not being able to get your lunch out of your The proctors will distribute the examination booklets
car or find a restaurant. and answer sheets if they are not already on your tables.
. Imagine getting sick or nervous in the exam. However, you should not open the booklets until
instructed to do so. You may read the information on
. Imagine someone stealing your calculator during the front and back covers, and you should write your
lunch. name in any appropriate blank spaces.
Listen carefully to everything the proctors say. Do not
ask your proctors any engineering questions. Even if
they are knowledgeable in engineering, they will not be
WHAT TO DO THE DAY BEFORE THE EXAM
. . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . .. .
permitted to answer your questions.
Take the day before the examination off from work to Answers to questions are recorded on an answer sheet
relax. Do not cram the last night. A good night’s sleep is contained in the test booklet. The proctors will guide
the best way to start the examination. If you live a you through the process of putting your name and other
considerable distance from the examination site, con- biographical information on this sheet when the time
sider getting a hotel room in which to spend the night. comes, which will take approximately 15 minutes. You
Practice setting up your examination work environ- will be given the full four hours to answer questions.
ment. Carry your boxes to the kitchen table. Arrange Time to initialize the answer sheet is not part of your
your “bookcases” and supplies. Decide what stays on the four hours.
floor in boxes and what gets an “honored position” on The common suggestions to “completely fill the bubbles
the tabletop. and erase completely” apply here. NCEES provides each
Use your checklist to make sure you have everything. examinee with a mechanical pencil with HB lead. Use of
Make sure your exam kits are packed and ready to go. ballpoint pens and felt-tip markers is prohibited for
Wrap your boxes in plastic bags in case it’s raining when several reasons.
you carry them from the car to the exam room. If you finish the exam early and there are still more than
Calculate your wake-up time and set the alarms on two 30 minutes remaining, you will be permitted to leave the
bedroom clocks. Select and lay out your clothing items. room. If you finish less than 30 minutes before the end of
(Dress in layers.) Select and lay out your breakfast the exam, you may be required to remain until the end.
items. This is done to be considerate of the people who are still
working.
If it’s going to be hot on exam day, put your (plastic)
bottles of water in the freezer. Be prepared to stop working immediately when the
proctors call “pencils down” or “time is up.” Continuing
Make sure you have gas in your car and money in your to work for even a few seconds will completely invalidate
wallet. your examination.
I N T R O D U C T I O N xxxv
When you leave, you must return your exam booklet. SOLVE QUESTIONS CAREFULLY
. . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. .
You may not keep the exam booklet for later review.
Many points are lost to carelessness. Keep the following
If there are any questions that you think were flawed, in items in mind when you are solving the end-of-chapter
error, or unsolvable, ask a proctor for a “reporting form” questions. Hopefully, these suggestions will be auto-
on which you can submit your comments. Follow your matic in the exam.
proctor’s advice in preparing this document.
[ ]
Did you recheck your mathematical equations?
[ ]
Do the units cancel out in your calculations?
WHAT ABOUT EATING AND DRINKING IN [ ]
Did you convert between radius and diameter?
THE EXAM ROOM?
. . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . .. .
[ ]
Did you convert between feet and inches?
The official rule is probably the same in every state: no [ ]
Did you convert from gage to absolute pressures?
eating or drinking in the exam. That makes sense, for a [ ]
Did you convert between pounds and kips, or kPa
number of reasons. Some exam sites don’t want (or and Pa?
don’t permit) stains and messes. Others don’t want [ ] Did you use the universal gas constant that
crumbs to attract ants and rodents. Your table partners corresponds to the set of units used in the
don’t want spills or smells. Nobody wants the distrac- calculation?
tions. Your proctors can’t give you a new exam booklet [ ] Did you recheck all data obtained from other
when the first one is ruined with coffee. sources, tables, and figures? (In finding the friction
How this rule is administered varies from site to site and factor, did you enter the Moody diagram at the
from proctor to proctor. Some proctors enforce the letter correct Reynolds number?)
of law, threatening to evict you from the exam room
when they see you chewing gum. Others may permit you
to have bottled water, as long as you store the bottles on SHOULD YOU TALK TO OTHER EXAMINEES
the floor where any spills will not harm what’s on the AFTER THE EXAM?
. . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. .
table. No one is going to let you crack peanuts while you
work on the exam, but I can’t see anyone complaining The jury is out on this question. People react quite
about a hard candy melting away in your mouth. You’ll differently to the examination experience. Some people
just have to find out when you get there. are energized. Most are exhausted. Some people need to
unwind by talking with other examinees, describing
HOW TO SOLVE MULTIPLE-CHOICE every detail of their experience, and dissecting every
QUESTIONS
. . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . .. .
examination question. Other people need lots of quiet
space, and prefer to just get into a hot tub to soak and
When you begin each session of the exam, observe the sulk. Most engineers, apparently, are in this latter
following suggestions: category.
. Use only the pencil provided. Since everyone who took the exam has seen it, you will
. Do not spend an inordinate amount of time on any not be violating your “oath of silence” if you talk about
single question. If you have not answered a question the details with other examinees immediately after the
in a reasonable amount of time, make a note of it and exam. It’s difficult not to ask how someone else
move on. approached a question that had you completely
stumped. However, keep in mind that it is very disquiet-
. Set your vibrating wristwatch alarm for five minutes ing to think you answered a question correctly, only to
before the end of each four-hour session, and use that have someone tell you where you went wrong.
remaining time to guess at all of the remaining ques-
tions. Odds are that you will be successful with To ensure you do not violate the nondisclosure agree-
about 25% of your guesses, and these points will ment you signed before taking the exam, make sure you
more than make up for the few points that you might do not discuss any exam particulars with people who
earn by working during the last five minutes. have not also taken the exam.
. Make mental notes about any questions for which

you cannot find a correct response, that appears to AFTER THE EXAM
. . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. .
have two correct responses, or that you believe have

Yes, there is something to do after the exam. Most
some technical flaw. Errors in the exam are rare, but
people return home, throw their exam “kits” into the
they do occur. Such errors are usually discovered
corner, and collapse. A week later, when they can bear
during the scoring process and discounted from the
examination, so it is not necessary to tell your proc- to think about the experience again, they start integrat-
tor, but be sure to mark the one best answer before ing their exam kits back into their normal lives. The
moving on. calculators go back into the desk, the books go back on
the shelves, the $5.00 in change goes back into the piggy
. Make sure all of your responses on the answer sheet bank, and all of the miscellaneous stuff you brought
are dark and completely fill the bubbles. with you to the exam is put back wherever it came from.
Another random document with
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DANCE ON STILTS AT THE GIRLS’ UNYAGO, NIUCHI
Newala, too, suffers from the distance of its water-supply—at least

the Newala of to-day does; there was once another Newala in a lovely
valley at the foot of the plateau. I visited it and found scarcely a trace
of houses, only a Christian cemetery, with the graves of several
missionaries and their converts, remaining as a monument of its
former glories. But the surroundings are wonderfully beautiful. A
thick grove of splendid mango-trees closes in the weather-worn
crosses and headstones; behind them, combining the useful and the
agreeable, is a whole plantation of lemon-trees covered with ripe
fruit; not the small African kind, but a much larger and also juicier
imported variety, which drops into the hands of the passing traveller,
without calling for any exertion on his part. Old Newala is now under
the jurisdiction of the native pastor, Daudi, at Chingulungulu, who,
as I am on very friendly terms with him, allows me, as a matter of
course, the use of this lemon-grove during my stay at Newala.
FEET MUTILATED BY THE RAVAGES OF THE “JIGGER”
(Sarcopsylla penetrans)
The water-supply of New Newala is in the bottom of the valley,

some 1,600 feet lower down. The way is not only long and fatiguing,
but the water, when we get it, is thoroughly bad. We are suffering not
only from this, but from the fact that the arrangements at Newala are
nothing short of luxurious. We have a separate kitchen—a hut built
against the boma palisade on the right of the baraza, the interior of
which is not visible from our usual position. Our two cooks were not
long in finding this out, and they consequently do—or rather neglect
to do—what they please. In any case they do not seem to be very
particular about the boiling of our drinking-water—at least I can
attribute to no other cause certain attacks of a dysenteric nature,
from which both Knudsen and I have suffered for some time. If a
man like Omari has to be left unwatched for a moment, he is capable
of anything. Besides this complaint, we are inconvenienced by the
state of our nails, which have become as hard as glass, and crack on
the slightest provocation, and I have the additional infliction of
pimples all over me. As if all this were not enough, we have also, for
the last week been waging war against the jigger, who has found his
Eldorado in the hot sand of the Makonde plateau. Our men are seen
all day long—whenever their chronic colds and the dysentery likewise
raging among them permit—occupied in removing this scourge of
Africa from their feet and trying to prevent the disastrous
consequences of its presence. It is quite common to see natives of
this place with one or two toes missing; many have lost all their toes,
or even the whole front part of the foot, so that a well-formed leg
ends in a shapeless stump. These ravages are caused by the female of
Sarcopsylla penetrans, which bores its way under the skin and there
develops an egg-sac the size of a pea. In all books on the subject, it is
stated that one’s attention is called to the presence of this parasite by
an intolerable itching. This agrees very well with my experience, so
far as the softer parts of the sole, the spaces between and under the
toes, and the side of the foot are concerned, but if the creature
penetrates through the harder parts of the heel or ball of the foot, it
may escape even the most careful search till it has reached maturity.
Then there is no time to be lost, if the horrible ulceration, of which
we see cases by the dozen every day, is to be prevented. It is much
easier, by the way, to discover the insect on the white skin of a
European than on that of a native, on which the dark speck scarcely
shows. The four or five jiggers which, in spite of the fact that I
constantly wore high laced boots, chose my feet to settle in, were
taken out for me by the all-accomplished Knudsen, after which I
thought it advisable to wash out the cavities with corrosive
sublimate. The natives have a different sort of disinfectant—they fill
the hole with scraped roots. In a tiny Makua village on the slope of
the plateau south of Newala, we saw an old woman who had filled all
the spaces under her toe-nails with powdered roots by way of
prophylactic treatment. What will be the result, if any, who can say?
The rest of the many trifling ills which trouble our existence are
really more comic than serious. In the absence of anything else to
smoke, Knudsen and I at last opened a box of cigars procured from
the Indian store-keeper at Lindi, and tried them, with the most
distressing results. Whether they contain opium or some other
narcotic, neither of us can say, but after the tenth puff we were both
“off,” three-quarters stupefied and unspeakably wretched. Slowly we
recovered—and what happened next? Half-an-hour later we were
once more smoking these poisonous concoctions—so insatiable is the
craving for tobacco in the tropics.
Even my present attacks of fever scarcely deserve to be taken
seriously. I have had no less than three here at Newala, all of which
have run their course in an incredibly short time. In the early
afternoon, I am busy with my old natives, asking questions and
making notes. The strong midday coffee has stimulated my spirits to
an extraordinary degree, the brain is active and vigorous, and work
progresses rapidly, while a pleasant warmth pervades the whole
body. Suddenly this gives place to a violent chill, forcing me to put on
my overcoat, though it is only half-past three and the afternoon sun
is at its hottest. Now the brain no longer works with such acuteness
and logical precision; more especially does it fail me in trying to
establish the syntax of the difficult Makua language on which I have
ventured, as if I had not enough to do without it. Under the
circumstances it seems advisable to take my temperature, and I do
so, to save trouble, without leaving my seat, and while going on with
my work. On examination, I find it to be 101·48°. My tutors are
abruptly dismissed and my bed set up in the baraza; a few minutes
later I am in it and treating myself internally with hot water and
lemon-juice.
Three hours later, the thermometer marks nearly 104°, and I make
them carry me back into the tent, bed and all, as I am now perspiring
heavily, and exposure to the cold wind just beginning to blow might
mean a fatal chill. I lie still for a little while, and then find, to my
great relief, that the temperature is not rising, but rather falling. This
is about 7.30 p.m. At 8 p.m. I find, to my unbounded astonishment,
that it has fallen below 98·6°, and I feel perfectly well. I read for an
hour or two, and could very well enjoy a smoke, if I had the
wherewithal—Indian cigars being out of the question.
Having no medical training, I am at a loss to account for this state
of things. It is impossible that these transitory attacks of high fever
should be malarial; it seems more probable that they are due to a
kind of sunstroke. On consulting my note-book, I become more and
more inclined to think this is the case, for these attacks regularly
follow extreme fatigue and long exposure to strong sunshine. They at
least have the advantage of being only short interruptions to my
work, as on the following morning I am always quite fresh and fit.
My treasure of a cook is suffering from an enormous hydrocele which
makes it difficult for him to get up, and Moritz is obliged to keep in
the dark on account of his inflamed eyes. Knudsen’s cook, a raw boy
from somewhere in the bush, knows still less of cooking than Omari;
consequently Nils Knudsen himself has been promoted to the vacant
post. Finding that we had come to the end of our supplies, he began
by sending to Chingulungulu for the four sucking-pigs which we had
bought from Matola and temporarily left in his charge; and when
they came up, neatly packed in a large crate, he callously slaughtered
the biggest of them. The first joint we were thoughtless enough to
entrust for roasting to Knudsen’s mshenzi cook, and it was
consequently uneatable; but we made the rest of the animal into a
jelly which we ate with great relish after weeks of underfeeding,
consuming incredible helpings of it at both midday and evening
meals. The only drawback is a certain want of variety in the tinned
vegetables. Dr. Jäger, to whom the Geographical Commission
entrusted the provisioning of the expeditions—mine as well as his
own—because he had more time on his hands than the rest of us,
seems to have laid in a huge stock of Teltow turnips,[46] an article of
food which is all very well for occasional use, but which quickly palls
when set before one every day; and we seem to have no other tins
left. There is no help for it—we must put up with the turnips; but I
am certain that, once I am home again, I shall not touch them for ten
years to come.
Amid all these minor evils, which, after all, go to make up the
genuine flavour of Africa, there is at least one cheering touch:
Knudsen has, with the dexterity of a skilled mechanic, repaired my 9
× 12 cm. camera, at least so far that I can use it with a little care.
How, in the absence of finger-nails, he was able to accomplish such a
ticklish piece of work, having no tool but a clumsy screw-driver for
taking to pieces and putting together again the complicated
mechanism of the instantaneous shutter, is still a mystery to me; but
he did it successfully. The loss of his finger-nails shows him in a light
contrasting curiously enough with the intelligence evinced by the
above operation; though, after all, it is scarcely surprising after his
ten years’ residence in the bush. One day, at Lindi, he had occasion
to wash a dog, which must have been in need of very thorough
cleansing, for the bottle handed to our friend for the purpose had an
extremely strong smell. Having performed his task in the most
conscientious manner, he perceived with some surprise that the dog
did not appear much the better for it, and was further surprised by
finding his own nails ulcerating away in the course of the next few
days. “How was I to know that carbolic acid has to be diluted?” he
mutters indignantly, from time to time, with a troubled gaze at his
mutilated finger-tips.
Since we came to Newala we have been making excursions in all
directions through the surrounding country, in accordance with old
habit, and also because the akida Sefu did not get together the tribal
elders from whom I wanted information so speedily as he had
promised. There is, however, no harm done, as, even if seen only
from the outside, the country and people are interesting enough.
The Makonde plateau is like a large rectangular table rounded off
at the corners. Measured from the Indian Ocean to Newala, it is
about seventy-five miles long, and between the Rovuma and the
Lukuledi it averages fifty miles in breadth, so that its superficial area
is about two-thirds of that of the kingdom of Saxony. The surface,
however, is not level, but uniformly inclined from its south-western
edge to the ocean. From the upper edge, on which Newala lies, the
eye ranges for many miles east and north-east, without encountering
any obstacle, over the Makonde bush. It is a green sea, from which
here and there thick clouds of smoke rise, to show that it, too, is
inhabited by men who carry on their tillage like so many other
primitive peoples, by cutting down and burning the bush, and
manuring with the ashes. Even in the radiant light of a tropical day
such a fire is a grand sight.
Much less effective is the impression produced just now by the
great western plain as seen from the edge of the plateau. As often as
time permits, I stroll along this edge, sometimes in one direction,
sometimes in another, in the hope of finding the air clear enough to
let me enjoy the view; but I have always been disappointed.
Wherever one looks, clouds of smoke rise from the burning bush,
and the air is full of smoke and vapour. It is a pity, for under more
favourable circumstances the panorama of the whole country up to
the distant Majeje hills must be truly magnificent. It is of little use
taking photographs now, and an outline sketch gives a very poor idea
of the scenery. In one of these excursions I went out of my way to
make a personal attempt on the Makonde bush. The present edge of
the plateau is the result of a far-reaching process of destruction
through erosion and denudation. The Makonde strata are
everywhere cut into by ravines, which, though short, are hundreds of
yards in depth. In consequence of the loose stratification of these
beds, not only are the walls of these ravines nearly vertical, but their
upper end is closed by an equally steep escarpment, so that the
western edge of the Makonde plateau is hemmed in by a series of
deep, basin-like valleys. In order to get from one side of such a ravine
to the other, I cut my way through the bush with a dozen of my men.
It was a very open part, with more grass than scrub, but even so the
short stretch of less than two hundred yards was very hard work; at
the end of it the men’s calicoes were in rags and they themselves
bleeding from hundreds of scratches, while even our strong khaki
suits had not escaped scatheless.
NATIVE PATH THROUGH THE MAKONDE BUSH, NEAR

MAHUTA
I see increasing reason to believe that the view formed some time
back as to the origin of the Makonde bush is the correct one. I have
no doubt that it is not a natural product, but the result of human
occupation. Those parts of the high country where man—as a very
slight amount of practice enables the eye to perceive at once—has not
yet penetrated with axe and hoe, are still occupied by a splendid
timber forest quite able to sustain a comparison with our mixed
forests in Germany. But wherever man has once built his hut or tilled
his field, this horrible bush springs up. Every phase of this process
may be seen in the course of a couple of hours’ walk along the main
road. From the bush to right or left, one hears the sound of the axe—
not from one spot only, but from several directions at once. A few
steps further on, we can see what is taking place. The brush has been
cut down and piled up in heaps to the height of a yard or more,
between which the trunks of the large trees stand up like the last
pillars of a magnificent ruined building. These, too, present a
melancholy spectacle: the destructive Makonde have ringed them—
cut a broad strip of bark all round to ensure their dying off—and also
piled up pyramids of brush round them. Father and son, mother and
son-in-law, are chopping away perseveringly in the background—too
busy, almost, to look round at the white stranger, who usually excites
so much interest. If you pass by the same place a week later, the piles
of brushwood have disappeared and a thick layer of ashes has taken
the place of the green forest. The large trees stretch their
smouldering trunks and branches in dumb accusation to heaven—if
they have not already fallen and been more or less reduced to ashes,
perhaps only showing as a white stripe on the dark ground.
This work of destruction is carried out by the Makonde alike on the
virgin forest and on the bush which has sprung up on sites already
cultivated and deserted. In the second case they are saved the trouble
of burning the large trees, these being entirely absent in the
secondary bush.
After burning this piece of forest ground and loosening it with the
hoe, the native sows his corn and plants his vegetables. All over the
country, he goes in for bed-culture, which requires, and, in fact,
receives, the most careful attention. Weeds are nowhere tolerated in
the south of German East Africa. The crops may fail on the plains,
where droughts are frequent, but never on the plateau with its
abundant rains and heavy dews. Its fortunate inhabitants even have
the satisfaction of seeing the proud Wayao and Wamakua working
for them as labourers, driven by hunger to serve where they were
accustomed to rule.
But the light, sandy soil is soon exhausted, and would yield no
harvest the second year if cultivated twice running. This fact has
been familiar to the native for ages; consequently he provides in
time, and, while his crop is growing, prepares the next plot with axe
and firebrand. Next year he plants this with his various crops and
lets the first piece lie fallow. For a short time it remains waste and
desolate; then nature steps in to repair the destruction wrought by
man; a thousand new growths spring out of the exhausted soil, and
even the old stumps put forth fresh shoots. Next year the new growth
is up to one’s knees, and in a few years more it is that terrible,
impenetrable bush, which maintains its position till the black
occupier of the land has made the round of all the available sites and
come back to his starting point.
The Makonde are, body and soul, so to speak, one with this bush.
According to my Yao informants, indeed, their name means nothing
else but “bush people.” Their own tradition says that they have been
settled up here for a very long time, but to my surprise they laid great
stress on an original immigration. Their old homes were in the
south-east, near Mikindani and the mouth of the Rovuma, whence
their peaceful forefathers were driven by the continual raids of the
Sakalavas from Madagascar and the warlike Shirazis[47] of the coast,
to take refuge on the almost inaccessible plateau. I have studied
African ethnology for twenty years, but the fact that changes of
population in this apparently quiet and peaceable corner of the earth
could have been occasioned by outside enterprises taking place on
the high seas, was completely new to me. It is, no doubt, however,
correct.
The charming tribal legend of the Makonde—besides informing us
of other interesting matters—explains why they have to live in the
thickest of the bush and a long way from the edge of the plateau,
instead of making their permanent homes beside the purling brooks
and springs of the low country.
“The place where the tribe originated is Mahuta, on the southern
side of the plateau towards the Rovuma, where of old time there was
nothing but thick bush. Out of this bush came a man who never
washed himself or shaved his head, and who ate and drank but little.
He went out and made a human figure from the wood of a tree
growing in the open country, which he took home to his abode in the
bush and there set it upright. In the night this image came to life and
was a woman. The man and woman went down together to the
Rovuma to wash themselves. Here the woman gave birth to a still-
born child. They left that place and passed over the high land into the
valley of the Mbemkuru, where the woman had another child, which
was also born dead. Then they returned to the high bush country of
Mahuta, where the third child was born, which lived and grew up. In
course of time, the couple had many more children, and called
themselves Wamatanda. These were the ancestral stock of the
Makonde, also called Wamakonde,[48] i.e., aborigines. Their
forefather, the man from the bush, gave his children the command to
bury their dead upright, in memory of the mother of their race who
was cut out of wood and awoke to life when standing upright. He also
warned them against settling in the valleys and near large streams,
for sickness and death dwelt there. They were to make it a rule to
have their huts at least an hour’s walk from the nearest watering-
place; then their children would thrive and escape illness.”
The explanation of the name Makonde given by my informants is
somewhat different from that contained in the above legend, which I
extract from a little book (small, but packed with information), by
Pater Adams, entitled Lindi und sein Hinterland. Otherwise, my
results agree exactly with the statements of the legend. Washing?
Hapana—there is no such thing. Why should they do so? As it is, the
supply of water scarcely suffices for cooking and drinking; other
people do not wash, so why should the Makonde distinguish himself
by such needless eccentricity? As for shaving the head, the short,
woolly crop scarcely needs it,[49] so the second ancestral precept is
likewise easy enough to follow. Beyond this, however, there is
nothing ridiculous in the ancestor’s advice. I have obtained from
various local artists a fairly large number of figures carved in wood,
ranging from fifteen to twenty-three inches in height, and
representing women belonging to the great group of the Mavia,
Makonde, and Matambwe tribes. The carving is remarkably well
done and renders the female type with great accuracy, especially the
keloid ornamentation, to be described later on. As to the object and
meaning of their works the sculptors either could or (more probably)
would tell me nothing, and I was forced to content myself with the
scanty information vouchsafed by one man, who said that the figures
were merely intended to represent the nembo—the artificial
deformations of pelele, ear-discs, and keloids. The legend recorded
by Pater Adams places these figures in a new light. They must surely
be more than mere dolls; and we may even venture to assume that
they are—though the majority of present-day Makonde are probably
unaware of the fact—representations of the tribal ancestress.
The references in the legend to the descent from Mahuta to the
Rovuma, and to a journey across the highlands into the Mbekuru
valley, undoubtedly indicate the previous history of the tribe, the
travels of the ancestral pair typifying the migrations of their
descendants. The descent to the neighbouring Rovuma valley, with
its extraordinary fertility and great abundance of game, is intelligible
at a glance—but the crossing of the Lukuledi depression, the ascent
to the Rondo Plateau and the descent to the Mbemkuru, also lie
within the bounds of probability, for all these districts have exactly
the same character as the extreme south. Now, however, comes a
point of especial interest for our bacteriological age. The primitive
Makonde did not enjoy their lives in the marshy river-valleys.
Disease raged among them, and many died. It was only after they
had returned to their original home near Mahuta, that the health
conditions of these people improved. We are very apt to think of the
African as a stupid person whose ignorance of nature is only equalled
by his fear of it, and who looks on all mishaps as caused by evil
spirits and malignant natural powers. It is much more correct to
assume in this case that the people very early learnt to distinguish
districts infested with malaria from those where it is absent.
This knowledge is crystallized in the
ancestral warning against settling in the
valleys and near the great waters, the
dwelling-places of disease and death. At the
same time, for security against the hostile
Mavia south of the Rovuma, it was enacted
that every settlement must be not less than a
certain distance from the southern edge of the
plateau. Such in fact is their mode of life at the
present day. It is not such a bad one, and
certainly they are both safer and more
comfortable than the Makua, the recent
intruders from the south, who have made USUAL METHOD OF
good their footing on the western edge of the CLOSING HUT-DOOR
plateau, extending over a fairly wide belt of
country. Neither Makua nor Makonde show in their dwellings
anything of the size and comeliness of the Yao houses in the plain,
especially at Masasi, Chingulungulu and Zuza’s. Jumbe Chauro, a
Makonde hamlet not far from Newala, on the road to Mahuta, is the
most important settlement of the tribe I have yet seen, and has fairly
spacious huts. But how slovenly is their construction compared with
the palatial residences of the elephant-hunters living in the plain.
The roofs are still more untidy than in the general run of huts during
the dry season, the walls show here and there the scanty beginnings
or the lamentable remains of the mud plastering, and the interior is a
veritable dog-kennel; dirt, dust and disorder everywhere. A few huts
only show any attempt at division into rooms, and this consists
merely of very roughly-made bamboo partitions. In one point alone
have I noticed any indication of progress—in the method of fastening
the door. Houses all over the south are secured in a simple but
ingenious manner. The door consists of a set of stout pieces of wood
or bamboo, tied with bark-string to two cross-pieces, and moving in
two grooves round one of the door-posts, so as to open inwards. If
the owner wishes to leave home, he takes two logs as thick as a man’s
upper arm and about a yard long. One of these is placed obliquely
against the middle of the door from the inside, so as to form an angle
of from 60° to 75° with the ground. He then places the second piece
horizontally across the first, pressing it downward with all his might.
It is kept in place by two strong posts planted in the ground a few
inches inside the door. This fastening is absolutely safe, but of course
cannot be applied to both doors at once, otherwise how could the
owner leave or enter his house? I have not yet succeeded in finding
out how the back door is fastened.
MAKONDE LOCK AND KEY AT JUMBE CHAURO

This is the general way of closing a house. The Makonde at Jumbe
Chauro, however, have a much more complicated, solid and original
one. Here, too, the door is as already described, except that there is
only one post on the inside, standing by itself about six inches from
one side of the doorway. Opposite this post is a hole in the wall just
large enough to admit a man’s arm. The door is closed inside by a
large wooden bolt passing through a hole in this post and pressing
with its free end against the door. The other end has three holes into
which fit three pegs running in vertical grooves inside the post. The
door is opened with a wooden key about a foot long, somewhat
curved and sloped off at the butt; the other end has three pegs
corresponding to the holes, in the bolt, so that, when it is thrust
through the hole in the wall and inserted into the rectangular
opening in the post, the pegs can be lifted and the bolt drawn out.[50]
MODE OF INSERTING THE KEY
With no small pride first one householder and then a second

showed me on the spot the action of this greatest invention of the
Makonde Highlands. To both with an admiring exclamation of
“Vizuri sana!” (“Very fine!”). I expressed the wish to take back these
marvels with me to Ulaya, to show the Wazungu what clever fellows
the Makonde are. Scarcely five minutes after my return to camp at
Newala, the two men came up sweating under the weight of two
heavy logs which they laid down at my feet, handing over at the same
time the keys of the fallen fortress. Arguing, logically enough, that if
the key was wanted, the lock would be wanted with it, they had taken
their axes and chopped down the posts—as it never occurred to them
to dig them out of the ground and so bring them intact. Thus I have
two badly damaged specimens, and the owners, instead of praise,
come in for a blowing-up.
The Makua huts in the environs of Newala are especially
miserable; their more than slovenly construction reminds one of the
temporary erections of the Makua at Hatia’s, though the people here
have not been concerned in a war. It must therefore be due to
congenital idleness, or else to the absence of a powerful chief. Even
the baraza at Mlipa’s, a short hour’s walk south-east of Newala,
shares in this general neglect. While public buildings in this country
are usually looked after more or less carefully, this is in evident
danger of being blown over by the first strong easterly gale. The only
attractive object in this whole district is the grave of the late chief
Mlipa. I visited it in the morning, while the sun was still trying with
partial success to break through the rolling mists, and the circular
grove of tall euphorbias, which, with a broken pot, is all that marks
the old king’s resting-place, impressed one with a touch of pathos.
Even my very materially-minded carriers seemed to feel something
of the sort, for instead of their usual ribald songs, they chanted
solemnly, as we marched on through the dense green of the Makonde
bush:—
“We shall arrive with the great master; we stand in a row and have
no fear about getting our food and our money from the Serkali (the
Government). We are not afraid; we are going along with the great
master, the lion; we are going down to the coast and back.”
With regard to the characteristic features of the various tribes here
on the western edge of the plateau, I can arrive at no other
conclusion than the one already come to in the plain, viz., that it is
impossible for anyone but a trained anthropologist to assign any
given individual at once to his proper tribe. In fact, I think that even
an anthropological specialist, after the most careful examination,
might find it a difficult task to decide. The whole congeries of peoples
collected in the region bounded on the west by the great Central
African rift, Tanganyika and Nyasa, and on the east by the Indian
Ocean, are closely related to each other—some of their languages are
only distinguished from one another as dialects of the same speech,
and no doubt all the tribes present the same shape of skull and
structure of skeleton. Thus, surely, there can be no very striking
differences in outward appearance.
Even did such exist, I should have no time
to concern myself with them, for day after day,
I have to see or hear, as the case may be—in
any case to grasp and record—an
extraordinary number of ethnographic
phenomena. I am almost disposed to think it
fortunate that some departments of inquiry, at
least, are barred by external circumstances.
Chief among these is the subject of iron-
working. We are apt to think of Africa as a
country where iron ore is everywhere, so to
speak, to be picked up by the roadside, and
where it would be quite surprising if the
inhabitants had not learnt to smelt the
material ready to their hand. In fact, the
knowledge of this art ranges all over the
continent, from the Kabyles in the north to the
Kafirs in the south. Here between the Rovuma
and the Lukuledi the conditions are not so
favourable. According to the statements of the
Makonde, neither ironstone nor any other
form of iron ore is known to them. They have
not therefore advanced to the art of smelting
the metal, but have hitherto bought all their
THE ANCESTRESS OF
THE MAKONDE
iron implements from neighbouring tribes.
Even in the plain the inhabitants are not much
better off. Only one man now living is said to
understand the art of smelting iron. This old fundi lives close to
Huwe, that isolated, steep-sided block of granite which rises out of
the green solitude between Masasi and Chingulungulu, and whose
jagged and splintered top meets the traveller’s eye everywhere. While
still at Masasi I wished to see this man at work, but was told that,
frightened by the rising, he had retired across the Rovuma, though
he would soon return. All subsequent inquiries as to whether the
fundi had come back met with the genuine African answer, “Bado”
(“Not yet”).
BRAZIER
Some consolation was afforded me by a brassfounder, whom I

came across in the bush near Akundonde’s. This man is the favourite
of women, and therefore no doubt of the gods; he welds the glittering
brass rods purchased at the coast into those massive, heavy rings
which, on the wrists and ankles of the local fair ones, continually give
me fresh food for admiration. Like every decent master-craftsman he
had all his tools with him, consisting of a pair of bellows, three
crucibles and a hammer—nothing more, apparently. He was quite
willing to show his skill, and in a twinkling had fixed his bellows on
the ground. They are simply two goat-skins, taken off whole, the four
legs being closed by knots, while the upper opening, intended to
admit the air, is kept stretched by two pieces of wood. At the lower
end of the skin a smaller opening is left into which a wooden tube is
stuck. The fundi has quickly borrowed a heap of wood-embers from
the nearest hut; he then fixes the free ends of the two tubes into an
earthen pipe, and clamps them to the ground by means of a bent
piece of wood. Now he fills one of his small clay crucibles, the dross
on which shows that they have been long in use, with the yellow
material, places it in the midst of the embers, which, at present are
only faintly glimmering, and begins his work. In quick alternation
the smith’s two hands move up and down with the open ends of the
bellows; as he raises his hand he holds the slit wide open, so as to let
the air enter the skin bag unhindered. In pressing it down he closes
the bag, and the air puffs through the bamboo tube and clay pipe into
the fire, which quickly burns up. The smith, however, does not keep
on with this work, but beckons to another man, who relieves him at
the bellows, while he takes some more tools out of a large skin pouch
carried on his back. I look on in wonder as, with a smooth round
stick about the thickness of a finger, he bores a few vertical holes into
the clean sand of the soil. This should not be difficult, yet the man
seems to be taking great pains over it. Then he fastens down to the
ground, with a couple of wooden clamps, a neat little trough made by
splitting a joint of bamboo in half, so that the ends are closed by the
two knots. At last the yellow metal has attained the right consistency,
and the fundi lifts the crucible from the fire by means of two sticks
split at the end to serve as tongs. A short swift turn to the left—a
tilting of the crucible—and the molten brass, hissing and giving forth
clouds of smoke, flows first into the bamboo mould and then into the
holes in the ground.
The technique of this backwoods craftsman may not be very far
advanced, but it cannot be denied that he knows how to obtain an
adequate result by the simplest means. The ladies of highest rank in
this country—that is to say, those who can afford it, wear two kinds
of these massive brass rings, one cylindrical, the other semicircular
in section. The latter are cast in the most ingenious way in the
bamboo mould, the former in the circular hole in the sand. It is quite
a simple matter for the fundi to fit these bars to the limbs of his fair
customers; with a few light strokes of his hammer he bends the
pliable brass round arm or ankle without further inconvenience to
the wearer.
SHAPING THE POT
SMOOTHING WITH MAIZE-COB
CUTTING THE EDGE

FINISHING THE BOTTOM
LAST SMOOTHING BEFORE

BURNING
FIRING THE BRUSH-PILE

LIGHTING THE FARTHER SIDE OF
THE PILE
TURNING THE RED-HOT VESSEL
NYASA WOMAN MAKING POTS AT MASASI

Pottery is an art which must always and everywhere excite the
interest of the student, just because it is so intimately connected with
the development of human culture, and because its relics are one of
the principal factors in the reconstruction of our own condition in
prehistoric times. I shall always remember with pleasure the two or
three afternoons at Masasi when Salim Matola’s mother, a slightly-
built, graceful, pleasant-looking woman, explained to me with
touching patience, by means of concrete illustrations, the ceramic art
of her people. The only implements for this primitive process were a
lump of clay in her left hand, and in the right a calabash containing
the following valuables: the fragment of a maize-cob stripped of all
its grains, a smooth, oval pebble, about the size of a pigeon’s egg, a
few chips of gourd-shell, a bamboo splinter about the length of one’s
hand, a small shell, and a bunch of some herb resembling spinach.
Nothing more. The woman scraped with the
shell a round, shallow hole in the soft, fine
sand of the soil, and, when an active young
girl had filled the calabash with water for her,
she began to knead the clay. As if by magic it
gradually assumed the shape of a rough but
already well-shaped vessel, which only wanted
a little touching up with the instruments
before mentioned. I looked out with the
MAKUA WOMAN closest attention for any indication of the use
MAKING A POT. of the potter’s wheel, in however rudimentary
SHOWS THE a form, but no—hapana (there is none). The
BEGINNINGS OF THE embryo pot stood firmly in its little
POTTER’S WHEEL
depression, and the woman walked round it in
a stooping posture, whether she was removing
small stones or similar foreign bodies with the maize-cob, smoothing
the inner or outer surface with the splinter of bamboo, or later, after
letting it dry for a day, pricking in the ornamentation with a pointed
bit of gourd-shell, or working out the bottom, or cutting the edge
with a sharp bamboo knife, or giving the last touches to the finished
vessel. This occupation of the women is infinitely toilsome, but it is
without doubt an accurate reproduction of the process in use among
our ancestors of the Neolithic and Bronze ages.
There is no doubt that the invention of pottery, an item in human
progress whose importance cannot be over-estimated, is due to
women. Rough, coarse and unfeeling, the men of the horde range
over the countryside. When the united cunning of the hunters has
succeeded in killing the game; not one of them thinks of carrying
home the spoil. A bright fire, kindled by a vigorous wielding of the
drill, is crackling beside them; the animal has been cleaned and cut
up secundum artem, and, after a slight singeing, will soon disappear
under their sharp teeth; no one all this time giving a single thought
to wife or child.
To what shifts, on the other hand, the primitive wife, and still more
the primitive mother, was put! Not even prehistoric stomachs could
endure an unvarying diet of raw food. Something or other suggested
the beneficial effect of hot water on the majority of approved but
indigestible dishes. Perhaps a neighbour had tried holding the hard
roots or tubers over the fire in a calabash filled with water—or maybe
an ostrich-egg-shell, or a hastily improvised vessel of bark. They
became much softer and more palatable than they had previously
been; but, unfortunately, the vessel could not stand the fire and got
charred on the outside. That can be remedied, thought our
ancestress, and plastered a layer of wet clay round a similar vessel.
This is an improvement; the cooking utensil remains uninjured, but
the heat of the fire has shrunk it, so that it is loose in its shell. The
next step is to detach it, so, with a firm grip and a jerk, shell and
kernel are separated, and pottery is invented. Perhaps, however, the
discovery which led to an intelligent use of the burnt-clay shell, was
made in a slightly different way. Ostrich-eggs and calabashes are not
to be found in every part of the world, but everywhere mankind has
arrived at the art of making baskets out of pliant materials, such as
bark, bast, strips of palm-leaf, supple twigs, etc. Our inventor has no
water-tight vessel provided by nature. “Never mind, let us line the
basket with clay.” This answers the purpose, but alas! the basket gets
burnt over the blazing fire, the woman watches the process of
cooking with increasing uneasiness, fearing a leak, but no leak
appears. The food, done to a turn, is eaten with peculiar relish; and
the cooking-vessel is examined, half in curiosity, half in satisfaction
at the result. The plastic clay is now hard as stone, and at the same
time looks exceedingly well, for the neat plaiting of the burnt basket
is traced all over it in a pretty pattern. Thus, simultaneously with
pottery, its ornamentation was invented.
Primitive woman has another claim to respect. It was the man,
roving abroad, who invented the art of producing fire at will, but the
woman, unable to imitate him in this, has been a Vestal from the
earliest times. Nothing gives so much trouble as the keeping alight of
the smouldering brand, and, above all, when all the men are absent
from the camp. Heavy rain-clouds gather, already the first large
drops are falling, the first gusts of the storm rage over the plain. The
little flame, a greater anxiety to the woman than her own children,
flickers unsteadily in the blast. What is to be done? A sudden thought
occurs to her, and in an instant she has constructed a primitive hut
out of strips of bark, to protect the flame against rain and wind.
This, or something very like it, was the way in which the principle
of the house was discovered; and even the most hardened misogynist
cannot fairly refuse a woman the credit of it. The protection of the
hearth-fire from the weather is the germ from which the human
dwelling was evolved. Men had little, if any share, in this forward
step, and that only at a late stage. Even at the present day, the
plastering of the housewall with clay and the manufacture of pottery
are exclusively the women’s business. These are two very significant
survivals. Our European kitchen-garden, too, is originally a woman’s
invention, and the hoe, the primitive instrument of agriculture, is,
characteristically enough, still used in this department. But the
noblest achievement which we owe to the other sex is unquestionably
the art of cookery. Roasting alone—the oldest process—is one for
which men took the hint (a very obvious one) from nature. It must
have been suggested by the scorched carcase of some animal
overtaken by the destructive forest-fires. But boiling—the process of
improving organic substances by the help of water heated to boiling-
point—is a much later discovery. It is so recent that it has not even
yet penetrated to all parts of the world. The Polynesians understand
how to steam food, that is, to cook it, neatly wrapped in leaves, in a
hole in the earth between hot stones, the air being excluded, and
(sometimes) a few drops of water sprinkled on the stones; but they
do not understand boiling.
To come back from this digression, we find that the slender Nyasa
woman has, after once more carefully examining the finished pot,
put it aside in the shade to dry. On the following day she sends me
word by her son, Salim Matola, who is always on hand, that she is
going to do the burning, and, on coming out of my house, I find her
already hard at work. She has spread on the ground a layer of very
dry sticks, about as thick as one’s thumb, has laid the pot (now of a
yellowish-grey colour) on them, and is piling brushwood round it.
My faithful Pesa mbili, the mnyampara, who has been standing by,
most obligingly, with a lighted stick, now hands it to her. Both of
them, blowing steadily, light the pile on the lee side, and, when the
flame begins to catch, on the weather side also. Soon the whole is in a
blaze, but the dry fuel is quickly consumed and the fire dies down, so
that we see the red-hot vessel rising from the ashes. The woman
turns it continually with a long stick, sometimes one way and
sometimes another, so that it may be evenly heated all over. In
twenty minutes she rolls it out of the ash-heap, takes up the bundle
of spinach, which has been lying for two days in a jar of water, and
sprinkles the red-hot clay with it. The places where the drops fall are
marked by black spots on the uniform reddish-brown surface. With a
sigh of relief, and with visible satisfaction, the woman rises to an
erect position; she is standing just in a line between me and the fire,
from which a cloud of smoke is just rising: I press the ball of my
camera, the shutter clicks—the apotheosis is achieved! Like a
priestess, representative of her inventive sex, the graceful woman
stands: at her feet the hearth-fire she has given us beside her the
invention she has devised for us, in the background the home she has
built for us.
At Newala, also, I have had the manufacture of pottery carried on
in my presence. Technically the process is better than that already
described, for here we find the beginnings of the potter’s wheel,
which does not seem to exist in the plains; at least I have seen
nothing of the sort. The artist, a frightfully stupid Makua woman, did
not make a depression in the ground to receive the pot she was about
to shape, but used instead a large potsherd. Otherwise, she went to
work in much the same way as Salim’s mother, except that she saved
herself the trouble of walking round and round her work by squatting
at her ease and letting the pot and potsherd rotate round her; this is
surely the first step towards a machine. But it does not follow that
the pot was improved by the process. It is true that it was beautifully
rounded and presented a very creditable appearance when finished,
but the numerous large and small vessels which I have seen, and, in
part, collected, in the “less advanced” districts, are no less so. We
moderns imagine that instruments of precision are necessary to
produce excellent results. Go to the prehistoric collections of our
museums and look at the pots, urns and bowls of our ancestors in the
dim ages of the past, and you will at once perceive your error.
MAKING LONGITUDINAL CUT IN
BARK
DRAWING THE BARK OFF THE LOG
REMOVING THE OUTER BARK

BEATING THE BARK
WORKING THE BARK-CLOTH AFTER BEATING, TO MAKE IT

SOFT
MANUFACTURE OF BARK-CLOTH AT NEWALA

To-day, nearly the whole population of German East Africa is
clothed in imported calico. This was not always the case; even now in
some parts of the north dressed skins are still the prevailing wear,
and in the north-western districts—east and north of Lake
Tanganyika—lies a zone where bark-cloth has not yet been
superseded. Probably not many generations have passed since such
bark fabrics and kilts of skins were the only clothing even in the
south. Even to-day, large quantities of this bright-red or drab
material are still to be found; but if we wish to see it, we must look in
the granaries and on the drying stages inside the native huts, where
it serves less ambitious uses as wrappings for those seeds and fruits
which require to be packed with special care. The salt produced at
Masasi, too, is packed for transport to a distance in large sheets of
bark-cloth. Wherever I found it in any degree possible, I studied the
process of making this cloth. The native requisitioned for the
purpose arrived, carrying a log between two and three yards long and
as thick as his thigh, and nothing else except a curiously-shaped
mallet and the usual long, sharp and pointed knife which all men and
boys wear in a belt at their backs without a sheath—horribile dictu!
[51]
Silently he squats down before me, and with two rapid cuts has
drawn a couple of circles round the log some two yards apart, and
slits the bark lengthwise between them with the point of his knife.
With evident care, he then scrapes off the outer rind all round the
log, so that in a quarter of an hour the inner red layer of the bark
shows up brightly-coloured between the two untouched ends. With
some trouble and much caution, he now loosens the bark at one end,
and opens the cylinder. He then stands up, takes hold of the free
edge with both hands, and turning it inside out, slowly but steadily
pulls it off in one piece. Now comes the troublesome work of
scraping all superfluous particles of outer bark from the outside of
the long, narrow piece of material, while the inner side is carefully
scrutinised for defective spots. At last it is ready for beating. Having
signalled to a friend, who immediately places a bowl of water beside
him, the artificer damps his sheet of bark all over, seizes his mallet,
lays one end of the stuff on the smoothest spot of the log, and
hammers away slowly but continuously. “Very simple!” I think to
myself. “Why, I could do that, too!”—but I am forced to change my
opinions a little later on; for the beating is quite an art, if the fabric is
not to be beaten to pieces. To prevent the breaking of the fibres, the
stuff is several times folded across, so as to interpose several
thicknesses between the mallet and the block. At last the required
state is reached, and the fundi seizes the sheet, still folded, by both
ends, and wrings it out, or calls an assistant to take one end while he
holds the other. The cloth produced in this way is not nearly so fine
and uniform in texture as the famous Uganda bark-cloth, but it is
quite soft, and, above all, cheap.
Now, too, I examine the mallet. My craftsman has been using the
simpler but better form of this implement, a conical block of some
hard wood, its base—the striking surface—being scored across and
across with more or less deeply-cut grooves, and the handle stuck
into a hole in the middle. The other and earlier form of mallet is
shaped in the same way, but the head is fastened by an ingenious
network of bark strips into the split bamboo serving as a handle. The
observation so often made, that ancient customs persist longest in
connection with religious ceremonies and in the life of children, here
finds confirmation. As we shall soon see, bark-cloth is still worn
during the unyago,[52] having been prepared with special solemn
ceremonies; and many a mother, if she has no other garment handy,
will still put her little one into a kilt of bark-cloth, which, after all,
looks better, besides being more in keeping with its African
surroundings, than the ridiculous bit of print from Ulaya.
MAKUA WOMEN

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Mechanical Engineering Reference

Manual for the PE Exam 13th Edition

54.B Journal Bearing Correlations . . . . . . . . . . . . A-155 72.A Polyphase Motor Classifications

. Some engineers read every page in a chapter. Some

Table 1 Typical PE Exam Review Course Format

side in a review course. Second, some subjects rarely

depending on your available time, budget, intended

Table 2 Detailed Analysis of Tested Subjectsa,b

HVAC AND REFRIGERATION DEPTH EXAM

Table 2 Detailed Analysis of Tested Subjectsa,b (continued)

THERMAL AND FLUIDS SYSTEMS DEPTH EXAM

the degree of engineering economics knowledge has

WHAT ABOUT NUCLEAR ENGINEERING?

not need to know other facts, definitions, and numerical

DOES THE PE EXAM USE SI UNITS?

The PE exam in mechanical engineering primarily uses

WHAT REFERENCE MATERIAL IS

oversize charts, graphs, and tables (e.g., Mollier dia-

HOW IS THE CUT SCORE ESTABLISHED?

WHAT THE WELL-HEELED MECHANICAL DON’T FORGET THE DOWNLOADS

. The text of federal acts, policies, and treaties such as

Recovery and Conservation Act, Oil Pollution Act,

SHOULD YOU LOOK FOR OLD EXAMS?

The second kit consists of the following items and

. Make mental notes about any questions for which

have two correct responses, or that you believe have

Newala, too, suffers from the distance of its water-supply—at least

The water-supply of New Newala is in the bottom of the valley,

NATIVE PATH THROUGH THE MAKONDE BUSH, NEAR

MAKONDE LOCK AND KEY AT JUMBE CHAURO

MODE OF INSERTING THE KEY

With no small pride first one householder and then a second

Some consolation was afforded me by a brassfounder, whom I

SMOOTHING WITH MAIZE-COB

CUTTING THE EDGE

LAST SMOOTHING BEFORE

FIRING THE BRUSH-PILE

TURNING THE RED-HOT VESSEL

NYASA WOMAN MAKING POTS AT MASASI

DRAWING THE BARK OFF THE LOG

REMOVING THE OUTER BARK

WORKING THE BARK-CLOTH AFTER BEATING, TO MAKE IT

MANUFACTURE OF BARK-CLOTH AT NEWALA

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