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part IV Stars cosmic context Part IV at a Glance: Balancing Pressure and
Gravity 384
11 Our Star 288

part V Galaxies and Beyond
Learning Goals 288
11.1 A Closer Look at the Sun 289
11.2 Nuclear Fusion in the Sun 293
15 Our Galaxy 386
11.3 The Sun–Earth Connection 298 Learning Goals 386

Exercises and Problems 306 15.1 The Milky Way Revealed 387
common misconceptions The Sun Is Not on Fire 292 15.2 Galactic Recycling 391
cosmic calculations 11.1 The Ideal Gas Law 294 15.3 The History of the Milky Way 401
15.4 The Galactic Center 403
12 Surveying the Stars 309 Exercises and Problems 409

common misconceptions The Halo of a Galaxy 388
Learning Goals 309 special topic How Did We Learn the Structure
of the Milky Way? 388
12.1 Properties of Stars 310
special topic How Do We Determine Stellar Orbits? 390
12.2 Patterns Among Stars 318 cosmic calculations 15.1 The Orbital Velocity Formula 391
12.3 Star Clusters 326 common misconceptions The Sound of Space 395
Exercises and Problems 330 common misconceptions What Is a Nebula? 399
cosmic calculations 12.1 The Inverse Square Law for Light 312 cosmic context Figure 15.20 The Galactic Center 404
common misconceptions Photos of Stars 314
16 A Universe of Galaxies 411

cosmic calculations 12.2 Radius of a Star 319
cosmic context Figure 12.10 Reading an H-R Diagram 320
13
Learning Goals 411
Star Stuff 333 16.1 Islands of Stars 412
16.2 Distances of Galaxies 417
Learning Goals 333
16.3 Galaxy Evolution 426
13.1 Star Birth 334
16.4 The Role of Supermassive Black Holes 432
13.2 Life as a Low-Mass Star 340
Exercises and Problems 439
13.3 Life as a High-Mass Star 347
cosmic calculations 16.1 Standard Candles 418
13.4 Stars in Close Binaries 353 special topic Who Discovered the Expanding Universe? 421
Exercises and Problems 358 cosmic calculations 16.2 Hubble’s Law 422
cosmic calculations 13.1 Conditions for Star Birth 336 common misconceptions What Is the Universe Expanding
special topic How Long Is 5 Billion Years? 346 Into? 424
cosmic context Figure 13.23 Summary of Stellar Lives 354 common misconceptions Beyond the Horizon 426
14 The Bizarre Stellar Graveyard 361 17 The Birth of the Universe 442
Learning Goals 361 Learning Goals 442
14.1 White Dwarfs 362 17.1 The Big Bang Theory 443
14.2 Neutron Stars 367 17.2 Evidence for the Big Bang 452
14.3 Black Holes: Gravity’s Ultimate Victory 371 17.3 The Big Bang and Inflation 456
14.4 Extreme Events 377 17.4 Observing the Big Bang for Yourself 459
Exercises and Problems 381 Exercises and Problems 463
special topic Relativity and the Cosmic Speed Limit 364 cosmic context Figure 17.6 The Early Universe 450
special topic General Relativity and Curvature of Spacetime 373 cosmic calculations 17.1 Temperature of Background
cosmic calculations 14.1 The Schwarzschild Radius 374 Radiation 454
common misconceptions Black Holes Don’t Suck 375 extraordinary claims The Universe Doesn’t Change with
extraordinary claims Neutron Stars and Black Holes Are Real 376 Time 455
CONTENTS vii
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18 Dark Matter, Dark Energy, and the Fate of the 19.4 The Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence 517
Universe 466 19.5 Interstellar Travel and Its Implications for
Civilization 523
Learning Goals 466 Exercises and Problems 529
18.1 Unseen Influences in the Cosmos 467 special topic What Is Life? 502
18.2 Evidence for Dark Matter 468 extraordinary claims Aliens Are Visiting Earth in UFOs 522
18.3 Structure Formation 477 cosmic context PART VI AT A GLANCE: A Universe of
Life? 532
18.4 Dark Energy and the Fate of the Universe 480
Exercises and Problems 491
cosmic calculations 18.1 Mass-to-Light Ratio 471 Appendixes
extraordinary claims Most of the Universe’s Matter A Useful Numbers A-1
Is Dark 472
B Useful Formulas A-2
special topic Einstein’s Greatest Blunder 484
C A Few Mathematical Skills A-3
cosmic context Figure 18.18 Dark Matter and Dark
Energy 486 D The Periodic Table of the Elements A-8
cosmic context Part V at a Glance: Galaxy Evolution 494 E Planetary Data A-9
F Stellar Data A-12
G Galaxy Data A-14
part VI Life on Earth and Beyond H The 88 Constellations A-17
19 Life in the Universe 496 I

J
Star Charts A-19
Key to Icons on Figures A-24
Learning Goals 496
19.1 Life on Earth 497 Glossary G-1
19.2 Life in the Solar System 507 Credits C-1
Index I-1
19.3 Life Around Other Stars 511
viii CONTENTS

Preface
W e humans have gazed into the sky for countless genera-
tions. We have wondered how our lives are connected to
the Sun, Moon, planets, and stars that adorn the heavens. To-
■■ Chapter 15 has been revised to reduce jargon and to
include a new full-page figure showing the Milky Way
in different wavelengths. In addition, Section 15.4 on
day, through the science of astronomy, we know that these the galactic center has been rewritten and features a
connections go far deeper than our ancestors ever imagined. new two-page Cosmic Context spread.
This book tells the story of modern astronomy and the new ■■ Chapter 16 has been significantly revised in light of
perspective, The Essential Cosmic Perspective, that astronomy gives
new research into galactic evolution.
us on ourselves and our planet.
■■ Chapter 19 has been significantly rewritten,
particularly in Sections 19.2 and 19.3 (which has also
been completely reorganized), thanks to new
Who Is This Book For? understanding of the potential habitability of Mars,
The Essential Cosmic Perspective is designed as a textbook for col- Titan, and extrasolar planets.
lege courses in introductory astronomy, but is suitable for any- • Fully Updated Science: Astronomy is a fast-moving
one who is curious about the universe. We assume no prior field, and numerous new developments have occurred
knowledge of astronomy or physics, and the book is especially since the prior edition was published. In addition to the
written for students who do not intend to major in mathemat- major chapter-level changes above, other scientific
ics or science. updates in this edition include the following:
The Essential Cosmic Perspective is the mid-level of the three ■■ New results and images from spacecraft exploring our
general astronomy textbooks we offer. Our longer book, The
solar system, including Curiosity and MAVEN at Mars,
Cosmic Perspective, provides a comprehensive survey of modern
Cassini at Saturn, MESSENGER at Mercury, Dawn at
astronomy with enough depth to fill a two-semester introductory
Ceres, New Horizons at Pluto, and more
astronomy sequence. This book, The Essential Cosmic Perspective, is
trimmed down to fit what can realistically be covered in a one- ■■ Recent results from major space observatories, including
semester survey of astronomy, though it may also be used with Hubble and Kepler, and from powerful ground-based
two-semester sequences. Our shortest textbook, The Cosmic observatories such as ALMA
Perspective Fundamentals, covers only the most fundamental topics ■■ Updated data and models on topics including the
in astronomy and is designed for courses that address a more formation of planetary systems, global warming, and
limited set of topics. galaxy formation and evolution
■■ Major new discoveries and statistics relating to the study
of extrasolar planets, new research on the timing and
New to This Edition possible origin of life on Earth, and much more
The underlying philosophy, goals, and structure of The Essential • Reinforced Focus on Critical Thinking: We have
Cosmic Perspective remain the same as in past editions, but we always placed a strong emphasis on helping students
have thoroughly updated the text and made a number of other develop critical thinking skills, both by showing students
improvements. Here, briefly, is a list of the significant changes the process through which we have acquired our current
you’ll find in this eighth edition: understanding of the universe and through features that
encourage critical thinking, such as our Think About It and
• Major Chapter-Level Changes: We have made numerous See It for Yourself questions and many of our exercises. To
significant changes both to update the science and to improve further reinforce the importance of critical thinking, we
the pedagogical flow in this edition. The full list is too long to have added the following new features to this edition:
put here, but major changes include the following: ■■ New Feature—Extraordinary Claims boxes: Carl
Chapter 7 has been significantly rewritten to reflect
■■
Sagan made famous the statement “extraordinary claims
new results from MESSENGER at Mercury, Curiosity and require extraordinary evidence.” With this new feature,
MAVEN at Mars, and the latest data on global warming. we provide students with examples of extraordinary
Chapter 9 has been reorganized and rewritten to reflect
■■ claims about the universe and how they were either
recent developments in the study of small bodies, supported or debunked as scientists collected more
particularly the revolutionary new views provided by evidence. The first of these features appears in Chapter 3,
recent spacecraft including Dawn, Rosetta, and New Horizons. where the context of Sagan’s dictum is also explained.
Nine additional Extraordinary Claims boxes are sprinkled
Chapter 10 has been heavily revised in light of
■■
throughout the rest of the text. Instructors will find
thousands of new discoveries of extrasolar planets since
assignable tutorials based on these boxes on the
the prior edition.
Mastering Astronomy® site.
In Chapter 14, we have almost completely rewritten
■■
■■ New Feature—My Cosmic Perspective: As in prior
Section 14.4 to focus on events in which black holes can
editions, every chapter ends with a feature titled “The
form and neutron star mergers.
ix

Big Picture,” designed to help students put the chapter reason to care about astronomy and also deepens their ap-
content into the context of a larger cosmic perspective. preciation of the unique and fragile nature of our planet.
For this edition, we have added in each of these sections • Theme 2: The universe is comprehensible through scientific
a final entry entitled “My Cosmic Perspective,” which principles that anyone can understand. We can understand the
aims to focus on a more personal connection between universe because the same physical laws appear to be at
students and the cosmos. We believe that such a work in every aspect, on every scale, and in every age of the
personal connection encourages students to think more universe. Moreover, while professional scientists generally
critically about the meaning of all that they learn in have discovered the laws, anyone can understand their
their astronomy course. fundamental features. Students can learn enough in one or
■■New Icons: You’ll see a new icon designed to call two terms of astronomy to comprehend the basic reasons
attention to a few of the features that promote critical for many phenomena that they see around them—ranging
thinking: (a “C” for “critical”). While we believe the from seasonal changes and phases of the Moon to the most
entire structure of the book promotes critical thinking, esoteric astronomical images that appear in the news.
you can use the features identified by these icons for • Theme 3: Science is not a body of facts but rather a process through
special assignments to help students with these skills. which we seek to understand the world around us. Many students
• New Content in MasteringAstronomy®: We have assume that science is just a laundry list of facts. The long
reached the point where The Essential Cosmic Perspective is history of astronomy shows that science is a process through
no longer just a textbook; rather, it is a “learning package” which we learn about our universe—a process that is not
that combines a printed book with deeply integrated, always a straight line to the truth. That is why our ideas
interactive media developed to support every chapter of about the cosmos sometimes change as we learn more, as
our book. For students, the MasteringAstronomy® Study they did dramatically when we first recognized that Earth is
Area provides a wealth of tutorials and activities to build a planet going around the Sun rather than the center of the
understanding, while quizzes and exercises allow them to universe. In this book, we continually emphasize the nature
test what they’ve learned. For instructors, the of science so that students can understand how and why
MasteringAstronomy® Item Library provides the modern theories have gained acceptance and why these
unprecedented ability to quickly build, post, and theories may change in the future.
automatically grade pre- and post-lecture diagnostic tests, • Theme 4: A course in astronomy is the beginning of a lifelong
weekly homework assignments, and exams of appropriate learning experience. Building on the prior themes, we
difficulty, duration, and content coverage. It also provides emphasize that what students learn in their astronomy
the ability to record detailed information on the step-by- course is not an end but a beginning. By remembering a
step work of every student directly into a powerful and few key physical principles and understanding the nature
easy-to-use gradebook, and to evaluate results with a of science, students can follow astronomical developments
sophisticated suite of diagnostics. Among the changes for the rest of their lives. We therefore seek to motivate
you’ll find to the MasteringAstronomy® site for this edition students to continue to participate in the ongoing human
are numerous new narrated video tours of key figures adventure of astronomical discovery.
from the textbook; numerous new tutorials in the Item
Library; and a fully updated set of reading, concept, and • Theme 5: Astronomy affects each of us personally with the new
visual quizzes in both the Study Area and the Item perspectives it offers. We all conduct the daily business of our
lives with reference to some “world view”—a set of
Library.
personal beliefs about our place and purpose in the
universe that we have developed through a combination
of schooling, religious training, and personal thought. This
Themes of The Essential Cosmic world view shapes our beliefs and many of our actions.
Perspective Although astronomy does not mandate a particular set of
beliefs, it does provide perspectives on the architecture of
The Essential Cosmic Perspective offers a broad survey of our mod- the universe that can influence how we view ourselves
ern understanding of the cosmos and of how we have built that and our world, which can potentially affect our behavior.
understanding. Such a survey can be presented in a number In many respects, the role of astronomy in shaping world
of different ways. We have chosen to interweave a few key views may represent the deepest connection between the
themes throughout the book, each selected to help make the universe and the everyday lives of humans.
subject more appealing to students who may never have taken
any formal science courses and who may begin the course with
little understanding of how science works. Our book is built Pedagogical Principles of The Essential
around the following five key themes:
Cosmic Perspective
• Theme 1: We are a part of the universe and thus can learn No matter how an astronomy course is taught, it is very
about our origins by studying the universe. This is the over- important to present material according to a clear set of ped-
arching theme of The Essential Cosmic Perspective, as we con- agogical principles. The following list briefly summarizes the
tinually emphasize that learning about the universe helps major pedagogical principles that we apply throughout this
us understand ourselves. Studying the intimate connec- book. (The Instructor Guide describes these principles in more
tions between human life and the cosmos gives students a detail.)
x preface

• Stay focused on the big picture. Astronomy is filled books are teaching astronomy in what looks to students
with interesting facts and details, but they are meaningless like a foreign language! It is much easier for students to
unless they fit into a big picture view of the universe. We understand key astronomical concepts if they are
therefore take care to stay focused on the big picture (es- explained in plain English without resorting to
sentially the themes discussed above) at all times. A major unnecessary jargon. We have gone to great lengths to
benefit of this approach is that although students may for- eliminate jargon as much as possible or, at minimum,
get individual facts and details after the course is over, the to replace standard jargon with terms that are easier to
big picture framework should stay with them for life. remember in the context of the subject matter.
• Always provide context first. We all learn new material • Recognize and address student misconceptions.
more easily when we understand why we are learning it. Students do not arrive as blank slates. Most students enter
We therefore begin the book (in Chapter 1) with a broad our courses not only lacking the knowledge we hope to
overview of modern understanding of the cosmos so that teach but often holding misconceptions about
students know what they will be studying in the rest of the astronomical ideas. Therefore, to teach correct ideas, we
book. We maintain this “context first” approach throughout must also help students recognize the paradoxes in their
the book by always telling students what they will be prior misconceptions. We address this issue in a number of
learning, and why, before diving into the details. ways, most overtly with Common Misconceptions boxes.
• Make the material relevant. It’s human nature to be These summarize commonly held misconceptions and
more interested in subjects that seem relevant to our explain why they cannot be correct.
lives. Fortunately, astronomy is filled with ideas that
touch each of us personally. By emphasizing our personal
connections to the cosmos, we make the material more
The Topical (Part) Structure of
meaningful, inspiring students to put in the effort The Essential Cosmic Perspective
necessary to learn it. The Essential Cosmic Perspective is organized into six broad topical areas
• Emphasize conceptual understanding over the (the six parts in the table of contents), each approached in a distinc-
“stamp collecting” of facts. If we are not careful, tive way designed to help maintain the focus on the themes dis-
astronomy can appear to be an overwhelming collection cussed earlier. Here, we summarize the guiding philosophy through
of facts that are easily forgotten when the course ends. We which we have approached each topic. Every part concludes with a
therefore emphasize a few key concepts that we use over two-page Cosmic Context figure, which ties together into a coher-
and over again. For example, the laws of conservation of ent whole the diverse ideas covered in the individual chapters.
energy and conservation of angular momentum
(introduced in Section 4.3) reappear throughout the book,
and we find that the wide variety of features found on the part I Developing Perspective (Chapters 1–3)
terrestrial planets can be understood through just a few Guiding Philosophy Introduce the big picture, the process of science,
basic geological processes. Research shows that, long after and the historical context of astronomy.
the course is over, students are far more likely to retain
such conceptual ideas than individual facts or details. The basic goal of these chapters is to give students a big picture
overview and context for the rest of the book and to help them
• Emphasize critical thinking and understanding of develop an appreciation for the process of science and how science
the process of science. One of the major problems in has developed through history. Chapter 1 outlines our modern
public understanding of science is that too many people understanding of the cosmos, so that students gain perspective on
don’t understand the difference between evidence-based the entire universe before diving into its details. Chapter 2
science and opinion or faith. For that reason, we place introduces basic sky phenomena, including seasons and phases of
particular focus on making sure students can think critically the Moon, and provides perspective on how phenomena we
about scientific evidence and how we have arrived at current experience every day are tied to the broader cosmos. Chapter 3
scientific understanding. For example, we discuss the nature discusses the nature of science, offering a historical perspective on
of science in detail in Chapter 3 and then continue to show the development of science and giving students perspective on how
examples of how science has progressed throughout the science works and how it differs from nonscience.
book, while also encouraging students to think critically
about the evidence that has led to this progression. The Cosmic Context for Part I appears on pp. 80–81.
• Proceed from the more familiar and concrete to the
less familiar and abstract. It’s well known that children part II Key Concepts for Astronomy (Chapters 4–5)
learn best by starting with concrete ideas and then
generalizing to abstractions. The same is true for many adults. Guiding Philosophy Connect the physics of the cosmos to everyday
We therefore always try to “build bridges to the familiar”— experiences.
that is, to begin with concrete or familiar ideas and then These chapters lay the groundwork for understanding astronomy
gradually develop more general principles from them. through what is sometimes called the “universality of physics”—
• Use plain language. Surveys have found that the the idea that a few key principles governing matter, energy, light,
number of new terms in many introductory astronomy and motion explain both the phenomena of our daily lives and the
books is larger than the number of words taught in many mysteries of the cosmos. Chapter 4 covers the laws of motion, the
first-year foreign language courses. This means that most crucial conservation laws of angular momentum and energy, and
preface xi

the universal law of gravitation. Chapter 5 covers the nature of a more detailed course on astrobiology may consider the
light and matter, spectra, and telescopes. text Life in the Universe, by Jeffrey Bennett and Seth Shostak.
The Cosmic Context for Part II appears on pp. 134–135. The Cosmic Context for Part VI appears on pp. 532–533.
part III Learning from Other Worlds Pedagogical Features of The Essential
(Chapters 6–10) Cosmic Perspective
Guiding Philosophy Learn about Earth by studying other planets in Alongside the main narrative, The Essential Cosmic Perspective
our solar system and beyond.
includes a number of pedagogical devices designed to enhance
student learning:
This set of chapters begins in Chapter 6 with a broad overview
of the solar system and its formation, including a 10-page tour • Basic Chapter Structure Each chapter is carefully struc-
that highlights some of the most important and interesting tured to ensure that students understand the goals up front,
features of the Sun and each of the planets. Chapters 7 to 9 learn the details, and pull together all the ideas at the end.
focus, respectively, on the terrestrial planets, the jovian In particular, note the following key structural elements:
planets, and the small bodies of the solar system. Finally, Chapter Learning Goals Each chapter opens with a page
■■
Chapter 10 turns to the exciting topic of other planetary offering an enticing image and a brief overview of the
systems that have been discovered in recent years. Note that chapter, including a list of the section titles and associated
Part III is essentially independent of Parts IV and V, and can be learning goals. The learning goals are presented as key
covered either before or after them. questions designed to help students both understand what
The Cosmic Context for Part III appears on pp. 286–287. they will be learning about and stay focused on these key
goals as they work through the chapter.
Introduction The first page of the main chapter text
part IV Stars (Chapters 11–14)
■■
begins with a two- to three-paragraph introduction to

Guiding Philosophy We are intimately connected to the stars. the chapter material.
These are our chapters on stars and stellar life cycles. Chapter 11 Section Structure Chapters are divided into numbered
■■
covers the Sun in depth, so that it can serve as a concrete model sections, each addressing one key aspect of the chapter
for building an understanding of other stars. Chapter 12 describes material. Each section begins with a short introduction
the general properties of stars, how we measure these properties, that leads into a set of learning goals relevant to the
and how we classify stars using the H-R diagram. Chapter 13 section—the same learning goals listed at the beginning
covers stellar evolution, tracing the birth-to-death lives of both of the chapter.
low- and high-mass stars. Chapter 14 covers the end points of The Big Picture Every chapter narrative ends with this
■■
stellar evolution: white dwarfs, neutron stars, and black holes. feature, designed to help students put what they’ve
The Cosmic Context for Part IV appears on pp. 384–385. learned in the chapter into the context of the overall
goal of gaining a broader perspective on ourselves, our
planet, and our place in the universe.
part V Galaxies and Beyond (Chapters 15–18) Chapter Summary The end-of-chapter summary
■■
offers a concise review of the learning goal questions,

Guiding Philosophy Present galaxy evolution and cosmology together
helping to reinforce student understanding of key
as intimately related topics. concepts from the chapter. Thumbnail figures are
These chapters cover galaxies and cosmology. Chapter 15 included to remind students of key illustrations and
presents the Milky Way as a paradigm for galaxies in much the photos in the chapter.
same way that Chapter 11 uses the Sun as a paradigm for stars. • End-of-Chapter Exercises Each chapter includes an
Chapter 16 presents the variety of galaxies, how we determine extensive set of exercises that can be used for study,
key parameters such as galactic distances and age, and current discussion, or assignment. All of the end-of-chapter
understanding of galaxy evolution. Chapter 17 then presents exercises are organized into the following subsets:
the Big Bang theory and the evidence supporting it, setting the
stage for Chapter 18, which explores dark matter and its role in Visual Skills Check A set of questions designed to help
■■
galaxy formation, as well as dark energy and its implications students build their skills at interpreting the many types
for the fate of the universe. of visual information used in astronomy.
The Cosmic Context for Part V appears on pp. 494–495. Review Questions Questions that students should be
■■
able to answer from the reading alone.

Does It Make Sense? (or similar title) A set of short
■■
part VI Life on Earth and Beyond (Chapter 19) statements, each of which students are expected to
evaluate critically so that they can explain why it does
Guiding Philosophy The study of life on Earth helps us understand or does not make sense. These exercises are generally
the search for life in the universe. easy once students understand a particular concept, but
This part consists of a single chapter. It may be considered very difficult otherwise; this makes them an excellent
optional, to be used as time allows. Those who wish to teach probe of comprehension.
xii preface

Quick Quiz A short multiple-choice quiz that allows
■■ with examples of extraordinary claims about the
students to check their basic understanding. universe and how they were either supported or
Process of Science Questions Essay or discussion
■■ debunked as scientists collected more evidence.
questions that help students focus on how science ■■ Cosmic Calculations Boxes These boxes contain most
progresses over time. of the mathematics used in the book and can be covered
Group Work Exercise A suggested activity designed
■■ or skipped depending on the level of mathematics that
for collaborative learning in class. you wish to include in your course.
Short-Answer/Essay Questions Questions that go
■■
■■ Cross-References When a concept is covered in
beyond the Review Questions in asking for conceptual greater detail elsewhere in the book, we include a cross-
interpretation. reference, printed in blue and surrounded by brackets,
to the relevant section (e.g., [Section 5.2]).
Quantitative Problems Problems that require some
■■
mathematics, usually based on topics covered in the ■■ Glossary A detailed glossary makes it easy for students
Cosmic Calculations boxes. to look up important terms.
Discussion Questions Open-ended questions for class
■■
■■ Appendixes The appendixes include a number of
discussions. useful references and tables, including key constants
(Appendix A), key formulas (Appendix B), key
Web Projects A few suggestions for additional Web-
■■
mathematical skills (Appendix C), and numerous data
based research.
tables and star charts (Appendixes D–I).
• Additional Features You’ll find a number of other
About MasteringAstronomy®
features designed to increase student understanding, both
within individual chapters and at the end of the book,
including the following: What is the single most important factor in student success in
Annotated Figures Key figures in each chapter
■■ astronomy? Both research and common sense reveal the same
incorporate the research-proven technique of answer: study time. No matter how good the teacher or how good
“annotation”—carefully crafted text placed on the figure the textbook, students learn only when they spend adequate
(in blue) to guide students through interpreting graphs, time studying. Unfortunately, limitations on resources for grad-
following process figures, and translating between ing have prevented most instructors from assigning much home-
different representations. work despite its obvious benefits to student learning. And limita-
Cosmic Context Two-Page Figures These two-page
■■ tions on help and office hours have made it difficult for students
spreads provide visual summaries of key processes and to make sure they use self-study time effectively. That, in a nut-
concepts. shell, is why we created MasteringAstronomy®. For students, it
provides adaptive learning designed to coach them individually—
Wavelength/Observatory Icons For astronomical
■■
responding to their errors with specific, targeted feedback and
images, simple icons indicate whether the image is a providing optional hints for those who need additional guidance.
photo, artist’s impression, or computer simulation; For professors, MasteringAstronomy® provides the unprec-
whether a photo came from ground-based or space- edented ability to automatically monitor and record students’
based observations; and the wavelength band used to step-by-step work and evaluate the effectiveness of assignments
take the photo. and exams. As a result, we believe that MasteringAstronomy®
Think About It This feature, which appears
■■
can change the way astronomy courses are taught: It is now pos-
throughout the book as short questions integrated into sible, even in large classes, to ensure that each student spends his
the narrative, gives students the opportunity to reflect or her study time on optimal learning activities outside of class.
on important new concepts. It also serves as an excellent MasteringAstronomy® provides students with a wealth of self-
starting point for classroom discussions. study resources, including interactive tutorials targeting the most
See It for Yourself This feature also occurs throughout
■■ difficult concepts of the course, interactive or narrated versions of
the book, integrated into the narrative, and gives key figures and photos, and quizzes and other activities for self-
students the opportunity to conduct simple observations assessment covering every chapter and every week. For professors,
or experiments that will help them understand key MasteringAstronomy® provides a library of tutoring activities that
concepts. is periodically updated based on the performance of students
Common Misconceptions These boxes address
■■
nationwide. You can create assignments tailored to your specific
popularly held but incorrect ideas related to the chapter class goals from among hundreds of activities and problems
material. including pre- and post-lecture diagnostic quizzes, tutoring
activities, end-of-chapter problems from this textbook, and test
Special Topic Boxes These boxes contain
■■
bank questions. MasteringAstronomy® now also includes Learning
supplementary discussion topics related to the chapter Catalytics, which provides additional capabilities for in-class
material but not prerequisite to the continuing learning. Visit MasteringAstronomy® to learn more.
discussion. Finally, in a world where everyone claims to have the best
Extraordinary Claims Boxes Carl Sagan made
■■
website, we’d like to point out three reasons why you’ll
famous the statement “extraordinary claims require discover that MasteringAstronomy® really does stand out from
extraordinary evidence.” These boxes provide students the crowd:
preface xiii

• MasteringAstronomy® has been built specifically to sup- lecture tutorials included are designed to engage students
port the structure and pedagogy of The Essential Cosmic in critical reasoning and spark classroom discussion.
Perspective. You’ll find the same concepts emphasized in • Sky and Telescope: Special Student Supplement
the book and on the website, using the same terminology (ISBN 0-321-70620-X): The nine articles, each with an
and the same pedagogical approaches. This type of con- assessment following, provide a general review as well as
sistency ensures that students focus on the concepts, covering such topics as the process of science, the scale of
without the risk of becoming confused by different the universe, and our place in the universe. The
presentations. supplement is available for bundling; ask your Pearson
• Nearly all MasteringAstronomy® content has been sales representative for details.
developed either directly by The Essential Cosmic Perspective • Observation Exercises in Astronomy (ISBN 0-321-
author team or in close collaboration with outstanding 63812-3): This manual includes fifteen observation activities
educators including Jim Dove, Jim Cooney, Jonathan that can be used with a number of different planetarium
Williams, Richard Gelderman, Ed Prather, Tim Slater, software packages.
Daniel Lorenz, and Lauren Jones. The direct involvement • McCrady/Rice Astronomy Labs: A Concept Oriented
of book authors ensures consistency from our website to Approach (ISBN: 0-321-86177-9): This customizable lab
the textbook, resulting in an effective, high-quality is available in the Pearson Custom Library. It consists of
learning program. 40 conceptually oriented introductory astronomy labs that
focus on the mid to higher levels of Bloom’s taxonomy:
• The MasteringAstronomy® platform uses the same unique
application, synthesis, and analysis. The labs are all
student-driven engine as the highly successful
written to minimize equipment requirements and are
MasteringPhysics® product (the most widely adopted
largely created to maximize the use of inexpensive
physics tutorial and assessment system), developed by a
everyday objects such as flashlights, construction paper,
group led by MIT physicist David Pritchard. This robust
and theater gels.
platform gives instructors unprecedented power not only
to tailor content to their own courses, but also to evaluate
the effectiveness of assignments and exams. Instructor-Only Supplements
Several additional supplements are available for instructors only.
Additional Supplements for Contact your local Pearson sales representative to find out more
about the following supplements:
The Essential Cosmic Perspective
• The Instructor Resources tab in MasteringAstronomy®
The Essential Cosmic Perspective is much more than just a text- provides a wealth of lecture and teaching resources,
book. It is a complete package of teaching, learning, and assess-
including high-resolution JPEGs of all images from the
ment resources designed to help both teachers and students. In
addition to MasteringAstronomy®, the following supplements book for in-class projection, Narrated Figures, based on
are available with this book: figures from the book, pre-built PowerPoint® Lecture
Outlines, answers to SkyGazer and Starry Night work-
• SkyGazer v5.0: Based on Voyager V, SkyGazer, one of the books, and PRS-enabled Clicker Quizzes based on the
world’s most popular planetarium programs now available book and book-specific interactive media.
for download, makes it easy for students to learn constella- • Instructor Guide (ISBN 0-134-53247-3): This guide
tions and explore the wonders of the sky through interactive contains a detailed overview of the text, sample syllabi for
exercises and demonstrations. Accompanying activities are courses of different emphasis and duration, suggestions for
available in LoPresto’s Astronomy Media Workbook, Sev- teaching strategies, answers or discussion points for all
enth Edition, available both on the MasteringAstronomy® Think About It and See It for Yourself questions in the
study area and on the SkyGazer site. Ask your Pearson sales text, solutions to end-of-chapter problems, and a detailed
representative for details. reference guide summarizing media resources available for
• Starry Night™ College (ISBN 0-321-71295-1): Now every chapter and section in the book. Word files can be
available as an additional option with The Essential Cosmic downloaded from the instructor resource section of
Perspective, Starry Night has been acclaimed as the world’s MasteringAstronomy®.
most realistic desktop planetarium software. This special • Test Bank (ISBN 0-134-60203-X): The Test Bank includes
version has an easy-to-use point-and-click interface hundreds of multiple-choice, true/false, and short-answer
and is available as an additional bundle. The Starry questions, plus Process of Science questions for each chapter.
Night Activity Workbook, consisting of thirty-five TestGen® and Word files can be downloaded from the
worksheets for homework or lab, based on Starry instructor resource section of the study area in
Night planetarium software, is available for download in MasteringAstronomy®.
the MasteringAstronomy® study area or with a Starry
Night College access code. Ask your Pearson sales
representative for details. Acknowledgments
• Lecture Tutorials for Introductory Astronomy (ISBN Our textbook carries only four author names, but in fact it is the
0-321-82046-0) by Edward E. Prather, Timothy F. Slater, result of hard work by a long list of committed individuals. We
Jeffrey P. Adams, and Gina Brissenden: The forty-four could not possibly list everyone who has helped, but we would
xiv preface

like to call attention to a few people who have played particu- Matthias Dietrich, Worcester State University
larly important roles. First, we thank our editors and friends at Bryan Dunne, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign
Pearson, who have stuck with us through thick and thin, includ- Suzan Edwards, Smith College
ing Adam Black, Nancy Whilton, Jim Smith, Michael Gillespie, Robert Egler, North Carolina State University at Raleigh
Mary Ripley, Chandrika Madhavan, and Corinne Benson. Spe- Paul Eskridge, Minnesota State University
cial thanks to our production teams, especially Sally Lifland, and David Falk, Los Angeles Valley College
our art and design team. Timothy Farris, Vanderbilt University
We’ve also been fortunate to have an outstanding group of Robert A. Fesen, Dartmouth College
reviewers, whose extensive comments and suggestions helped Tom Fleming, University of Arizona
us shape the book. We thank all those who have reviewed Douglas Franklin, Western Illinois University
drafts of the book in various stages, including Sidney Freudenstein, Metropolitan State College of Denver
Martin Gaskell, University of Nebraska
Marilyn Akins, Broome Community College Richard Gelderman, Western Kentucky University
Christopher M. Anderson, University of Wisconsin Harold A. Geller, George Mason University
John Anderson, University of North Florida Donna Gifford, Pima Community College
Peter S. Anderson, Oakland Community College Mitch Gillam, Marion L. Steele High School
Keith Ashman Bernard Gilroy, The Hun School of Princeton
Simon P. Balm, Santa Monica College Owen Gingerich, Harvard–Smithsonian (Historical Accuracy
Reba Bandyopadhyay, University of Florida Reviewer)
Nadine Barlow, Northern Arizona University David Graff, U.S. Merchant Marine Academy
John Beaver, University of Wisconsin at Fox Valley Richard Gray, Appalachian State University
Peter A. Becker, George Mason University Kevin Grazier, Jet Propulsion Laboratory
Timothy C. Beers, National Optical Astronomy Observatory Robert Greeney, Holyoke Community College
Jim Bell, Arizona State University Henry Greenside, Duke University
Priscilla J. Benson, Wellesley College Alan Greer, Gonzaga University
Philip Blanco, Grossmont College John Griffith, Lin-Benton Community College
Jeff R. Bodart, Chipola College David Griffiths, Oregon State University
Bernard W. Bopp, University of Toledo David Grinspoon, Planetary Science Institute
Sukanta Bose, Washington State University John Gris, University of Delaware
David Brain, University of Colorado Bruce Gronich, University of Texas at El Paso
David Branch, University of Oklahoma Thomasana Hail, Parkland University
John C. Brandt, University of New Mexico Jim Hamm, Big Bend Community College
James E. Brau, University of Oregon Charles Hartley, Hartwick College
Jean P. Brodie, UCO/Lick Observatory, University of California, J. Hasbun, University of West Georgia
Santa Cruz Joe Heafner, Catawba Valley Community College
Erik Brogt, University of Canterbury David Herrick, Maysville Community College
James Brooks, Florida State University Scott Hildreth, Chabot College
Daniel Bruton, Stephen F. Austin State University Tracy Hodge, Berea College
Debra Burris, University of Central Arkansas Mark Hollabaugh, Normandale Community College
Scott Calvin, Sarah Lawrence College Richard Holland, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale
Amy Campbell, Louisiana State University Joseph Howard, Salisbury University
Eugene R. Capriotti, Michigan State University James Christopher Hunt, Prince George’s Community College
Eric Carlson, Wake Forest University Richard Ignace, University of Wisconsin
David A. Cebula, Pacific University James Imamura, University of Oregon
Supriya Chakrabarti, University of Massachusetts, Lowell Douglas R. Ingram, Texas Christian University
Kwang-Ping Cheng, California State University, Fullerton Assad Istephan, Madonna University
Dipak Chowdhury, Indiana University—Purdue University Bruce Jakosky, University of Colorado
Fort Wayne Adam G. Jensen, University of Colorado
Chris Churchill, New Mexico State University Adam Johnston, Weber State University
Josh Colwell, University of Central Florida Lauren Jones, Gettysburg College
James Cooney, University of Central Florida Kishor T. Kapale, Western IIIinois University
Anita B. Corn, Colorado School of Mines William Keel, University of Alabama
Philip E. Corn, Red Rocks Community College Julia Kennefick, University of Arkansas
Kelli Corrado, Montgomery County Community College Steve Kipp, University of Minnesota, Mankato
Peter Cottrell, University of Canterbury Kurtis Koll, Cameron University
John Cowan, University of Oklahoma Ichishiro Konno, University of Texas at San Antonio
Kevin Crosby, Carthage College John Kormendy, University of Texas at Austin
Christopher Crow, Indiana University—Purdue University Fort Wayne Eric Korpela, University of California, Berkeley
Manfred Cuntz, University of Texas at Arlington Arthur Kosowsky, University of Pittsburgh
Christopher De Vries, California State University, Stanislaus Kevin Krisciunas, Texas A&M
John M. Dickey, University of Minnesota David Lamp, Texas Technical University
preface xv

Ted La Rosa, Kennesaw State University Ann Schmiedekamp, Pennsylvania State University, Abington
Kristine Larsen, Central Connecticut State University Joslyn Schoemer, Denver Museum of Nature and Science
Ana Marie Larson, University of Washington James Schombert, University of Oregon
Stephen Lattanzio, Orange Coast College Gregory Seab, University of New Orleans
Chris Laws, University of Washington Larry Sessions, Metropolitan State College of Denver
Larry Lebofsky, University of Arizona Anwar Shiekh, Colorado Mesa University
Patrick Lestrade, Mississippi State University Ralph Siegel, Montgomery College, Germantown Campus
Nancy Levenson, University of Kentucky Philip I. Siemens, Oregon State University
David M. Lind, Florida State University Caroline Simpson, Florida International University
Abraham Loeb, Harvard University Paul Sipiera, William Harper Rainey College
Michael LoPresto, Henry Ford Community College Earl F. Skelton, George Washington University
William R. Luebke, Modesto Junior College Evan Skillman, University of Minnesota
Ihor Luhach, Valencia Community College Michael Skrutskie, University of Virginia
Darrell Jack MacConnell, Community College of Baltimore City Mark H. Slovak, Louisiana State University
Marie Machacek, Massachusetts Institute of Technology Norma Small-Warren, Howard University
Loris Magnani, University of Georgia Jessica Smay, San Jose City College
Steven Majewski, University of Virginia Dale Smith, Bowling Green State University
Phil Matheson, Salt Lake Community College Brent Sorenson, Southern Utah University
John Mattox, Fayetteville State University James R. Sowell, Georgia Technical University
Marles McCurdy, Tarrant County College Kelli Spangler, Montgomery County Community College
Stacy McGaugh, Case Western University John Spencer, Southwest Research Institute
Barry Metz, Delaware County Community College Darryl Stanford, City College of San Francisco
William Millar, Grand Rapids Community College George R. Stanley, San Antonio College
Dinah Moche, Queensborough Community College of City Peter Stein, Bloomsburg University of Pennsylvania
University, New York Adriane Steinacker, University of California, Santa Cruz
Stephen Murray, University of California, Santa Cruz John Stolar, West Chester University
Zdzislaw E. Musielak, University of Texas at Arlington Irina Struganova, Valencia Community College
Charles Nelson, Drake University Jack Sulentic, University of Alabama
Gerald H. Newsom, Ohio State University C. Sean Sutton, Mount Holyoke College
Lauren Novatne, Reedley College Beverley A. P. Taylor, Miami University
Brian Oetiker, Sam Houston State University Brett Taylor, Radford University
Richard Olenick, University of Dallas Donald M. Terndrup, Ohio State University
John P. Oliver, University of Florida Frank Timmes, Arizona State University
Stacy Palen, Weber State University David Trott, Metro State College
Russell L. Palma, Sam Houston State University David Vakil, El Camino College
Mark Pecaut, Rockhurst University Trina Van Ausdal, Salt Lake Community College
Jon Pedicino, College of the Redwoods Licia Verde, Institute of Cosmological Studies, Barcelona
Bryan Penprase, Pomona College Nicole Vogt, New Mexico State University
Eric S. Perlman, Florida Institute of Technology Darryl Walke, Rariton Valley Community College
Peggy Perozzo, Mary Baldwin College Fred Walter, State University of New York, Stony Brook
Greg Perugini, Burlington County College James Webb, Florida International University
Charles Peterson, University of Missouri, Columbia Mark Whittle, University of Virginia
Cynthia W. Peterson, University of Connecticut Paul J. Wiita, The College of New Jersey
Jorge Piekarewicz, Florida State University Lisa M. Will, Mesa Community College
Lawrence Pinsky, University of Houston Jonathan Williams, University of Hawaii
Stephanie Plante, Grossmont College Terry Willis, Chesapeake College
Jascha Polet, California State Polytechnic University, Pomona Grant Wilson, University of Massachusetts, Amherst
Matthew Price, Oregon State University J. Wayne Wooten, Pensacola Junior College
Harrison B. Prosper, Florida State University Guy Worthey, Washington State University, Pullman
Monica Ramirez, Aims College, Colorado Scott Yager, Brevard College
Christina Reeves-Shull, Richland College Andrew Young, Casper College
Todd M. Rigg, City College of San Francisco Arthur Young, San Diego State University
Elizabeth Roettger, DePaul University Tim Young, University of North Dakota
Roy Rubins, University of Texas at Arlington Min S. Yun, University of Massachusetts, Amherst
April Russell, Siena College Dennis Zaritsky, University of Arizona
Carl Rutledge, East Central University Robert L. Zimmerman, University of Oregon
Bob Sackett, Saddleback College
Rex Saffer, Villanova University In addition, we thank the following colleagues who helped
John Safko, University of South Carolina us clarify technical points or checked the accuracy of technical
James A. Scarborough, Delta State University discussions in the book:
Britt Scharringhausen, Ithaca College
xvi preface

Caspar Amman, NCAR Steve Mojzsis, University of Colorado
Nahum Arav, Virginia Technical University Francis Nimmo, University of California, Santa Cruz
Phil Armitage, University of Colorado Tyler Nordgren, University of Redlands
Thomas Ayres, University of Colorado Rachel Osten, Space Telescope Science Institute
Cecilia Barnbaum, Valdosta State University Bob Pappalardo, Jet Propulsion Laboratory
Rick Binzel, Massachusetts Institute of Technology Bennett Seidenstein, Arundel High School
Howard Bond, Space Telescope Science Institute Michael Shara, American Museum of Natural History
David Brain, University of Colorado Evan Skillman, University of Minnesota
Humberto Campins, University of Central Florida Brad Snowder, Western Washington University
Robin Canup, Southwest Research Institute Bob Stein, Michigan State University
Clark Chapman, Southwest Research Institute Glen Stewart, University of Colorado
Kelly Cline, Carroll College John Stolar, West Chester University
Josh Colwell, University of Central Florida Jeff Taylor, University of Hawaii
James Cooney, University of Central Florida Dave Tholen, University of Hawaii
Mark Dickinson, National Optical Astronomy Observatory Nick Thomas, University of Bern
Jim Dove, Metropolitan State College of Denver Dimitri Veras, Cambridge University
Doug Duncan, University of Colorado John Weiss, Carleton College
Dan Fabrycky, University of Chicago Francis Wilkin, Union College
Harry Ferguson, Space Telescope Science Institute Jeremy Wood, Hazard Community College
Andrew Hamilton, University of Colorado Jason Wright, Penn State University
Todd Henry, Georgia State University Don Yeomans, Jet Propulsion Laboratory
Dennis Hibbert, Everett Community College
Seth Hornstein, University of Colorado Finally, we thank the many people who have greatly
Dave Jewitt, University of California, Los Angeles influenced our outlook on education and our perspective on the
Julia Kregenow, Penn State University universe over the years, including Tom Ayres, Fran Bagenal, Forrest
Emily Lakdawalla, The Planetary Society Boley, Robert A. Brown, George Dulk, Erica Ellingson, Katy
Hal Levison, Southwest Research Institute Garmany, Jeff Goldstein, David Grinspoon, Robin Heyden, Don
Mario Livio, Space Telescope Science Institute Hunten, Geoffrey Marcy, Joan Marsh, Catherine McCord, Dick
J. McKim Malville, University of Colorado McCray, Dee Mook, Cherilynn Morrow, Charlie Pellerin, Carl
Geoff Marcy Sagan, Mike Shull, John Spencer, and John Stocke.
Mark Marley, Ames Research Center Jeff Bennett
Linda Martel, University of Hawaii Megan Donahue
Kevin McLin, University of Colorado Nick Schneider
Michael Mendillo, Boston University Mark Voit
preface xvii

About the Authors
Jeffrey Bennett Megan Donahue
Jeffrey Bennett, a recipient of the Megan Donahue is a full professor
American Institute of Physics in the Department of Physics and
Science Communication Award, Astronomy at Michigan State
holds a B.A. in biophysics (UC San University (MSU) and a Fellow of
Diego), and an M.S. and Ph.D. in the American Association for the
astrophysics (University of Advancement of Science. Her
Colorado). He specializes in science current research is mainly about
and math education and has taught using X-ray, UV, infrared, and
at every level from preschool visible light to study galaxies and
through graduate school. Career clusters of galaxies: their contents—
highlights include serving 2 years as a visiting senior scientist dark matter, hot gas, galaxies, active galactic nuclei—and what
at NASA headquarters, where he developed programs to build they reveal about the contents of the universe and how
stronger links between research and education, and proposing galaxies form and evolve. She grew up on a farm in Nebraska
and helping to develop the Voyage scale model solar system on and received an S.B. in physics from MIT, where she began
the National Mall (Washington, DC). He is the lead author of her research career as an X-ray astronomer. She has a Ph.D. in
textbooks in astronomy, astrobiology, mathematics, and astrophysics from the University of Colorado. Her Ph.D. thesis
statistics, and of critically acclaimed books for the public on theory and optical observations of intergalactic and
including Beyond UFOs (Princeton University Press, 2008/2011), intracluster gas won the 1993 Trumpler Award from the
Math for Life (Bid Kid Science, 2014), What Is Relativity? Astronomical Society for the Pacific for an outstanding
(Columbia University Press, 2014), On Teaching Science (Big Kid astrophysics doctoral dissertation in North America. She
Science, 2014), and A Global Warming Primer (Big Kid Science, continued postdoctoral research as a Carnegie Fellow at
2016). He is also the author of six science picture books for Carnegie Observatories in Pasadena, California, and later as an
children, including Max Goes to the Moon, The Wizard Who Saved STScI Institute Fellow at Space Telescope. Megan was a staff
the World, and I, Humanity; all six have been launched to the astronomer at the Space Telescope Science Institute until
International Space Station and read aloud by astronauts for 2003, when she joined the MSU faculty. She is also actively
NASA’s Story Time From Space program. Jeff lives in Boulder, involved in advising national and international astronomical
CO with his wife, children, and dog. His personal website is facilities and NASA, including planning future NASA missions.
www.jeffreybennett.com. Megan is married to Mark Voit, and they collaborate on many
projects, including this textbook, over 50 peer-reviewed
astrophysics papers, and the raising of their children,
Michaela, Sebastian, and Angela. Megan has run three full
marathons, including Boston. These days she does trail
running, orienteers, and plays piano and bass guitar for fun
and no profit.
xviii

Nicholas Schneider Mark Voit
Nicholas Schneider is an associate Mark Voit is a professor in the
professor in the Department of Department of Physics and
Astrophysical and Planetary Sciences Astronomy and Associate Dean for
at the University of Colorado and Undergraduate Studies at Michigan
a researcher in the Laboratory for State University. He earned his
Atmospheric and Space Physics. He A.B. in astrophysical sciences at
received his B.A. in physics and as- Princeton University and his Ph.D.
tronomy from Dartmouth College in in astrophysics at the University of
1979 and his Ph.D. in planetary sci- Colorado in 1990. He continued his
ence from the University of Arizona studies at the California Institute
in 1988. In 1991, he received the National Science Foundation’s of Technology, where he was a research fellow in theoretical
Presidential Young Investigator Award. His research interests astrophysics, and then moved on to Johns Hopkins University
include planetary atmospheres and planetary astronomy. One as a Hubble Fellow. Before going to Michigan State, Mark
research focus is the odd case of Jupiter’s moon Io. Another is worked in the Office of Public Outreach at the Space Telescope,
the mystery of Mars’s lost atmosphere, which he hopes to where he developed museum exhibitions about the Hubble
answer by leading the Imaging UV Spectrograph team on Space Telescope and helped design NASA’s award-winning
NASA’s MAVEN mission now orbiting Mars. Nick enjoys teach- HubbleSite. His research interests range from interstellar pro-
ing at all levels and is active in efforts to improve undergraduate cesses in our own galaxy to the clustering of galaxies in the
astronomy education. In 2010 he received the Boulder Faculty early universe, and he is a Fellow of the American Association
Assembly’s Teaching Excellence Award. Off the job, Nick enjoys for the Advancement of Science. He is married to coauthor
exploring the outdoors with his family and figuring out how Megan Donahue, and cooks terrific meals for her and their
things work. three children. Mark likes getting outdoors whenever possible
and particularly enjoys running, mountain biking, canoeing,
orienteering, and adventure racing. He is also author of the
popular book Hubble Space Telescope: New Views of the Universe.
ABOUT THE AUTHORS xix

How to Succeed
in Your Astronomy Course
Times for Reading the Assigned Times for Homework Assignments Times for Review and Test Preparation
If Your Course Is Text (per week) (per week) (average per week) Total Study Time (per week)
3 credits 2 to 4 hours 2 to 3 hours 2 hours 6 to 9 hours
The Key to Success: Study Time Misconceptions, Special Topics) to read later. As you
read, make notes on the pages to remind yourself of
The single most important key to success in any college course is to ideas you’ll want to review later. Take notes as you
spend enough time studying. A general rule of thumb for college read, but avoid using a highlight pen (or a highlighting
classes is that you should expect to study about 2 to 3 hours per tool if you are using an e-book), which makes it too
week outside of class for each unit of credit. For example, based easy to highlight mindlessly.
on this rule of thumb, a student taking 15 credit hours should ex- 4. After reading the chapter once, go back through and
pect to spend 30 to 45 hours each week studying outside of class. read the boxed features.
Combined with time in class, this works out to a total of 45 to 60 5. Review the Chapter Summary, ideally by trying to
hours spent on academic work—not much more than the time a answer the Learning Goal questions for yourself before
typical job requires, and you get to choose your own hours. Of reading the given answers.
course, if you are working or have family obligations while you
• After completing the reading as outlined above, test your
attend school, you will need to budget your time carefully.
understanding with the end-of-chapter exercises. A good way
As a rough guideline, your study time might be divided as
to begin is to make sure you can answer all of the Review and
shown in the table above. If you find that you are spending
Quick Quiz Questions; if you don’t know an answer, look
fewer hours than these guidelines suggest, you can probably
back through the chapter until you figure it out.
improve your grade by studying longer. If you are spending
more hours than these guidelines suggest, you may be studying • Visit the MasteringAstronomy® site and make use of resources
inefficiently; in that case, you should talk to your instructor that will help you further build your understanding. These
about how to study more effectively. resources have been developed specifically to help you learn
the most important ideas in your course, and they have been
extensively tested to make sure they are effective. They really
Using This Book do work, and the only way you’ll gain their benefits is by
Each chapter in this book is designed to help you to study effec- going to the website and using them.
tively and efficiently. To get the most out of each chapter, you
might wish to use the following study plan.
General Strategies for Studying
• A textbook is not a novel, and you’ll learn best by reading • Budget your time effectively. Studying 1 or 2 hours each
the elements of this text in the following order: day is more effective, and far less painful, than studying
1. Start by reading the Learning Goals and the all night before homework is due or before exams.
introductory paragraphs at the beginning of the chapter • Engage your brain. Learning is an active process, not a
so that you’ll know what you are trying to learn. passive experience. Whether you are reading, listening to
2. Get an overview of key concepts by studying the a lecture, or working on assignments, always make sure
illustrations and their captions and annotations. The that your mind is actively engaged. If you find your mind
illustrations highlight most major concepts, so this drifting or find yourself falling asleep, make a conscious
“illustrations first” strategy gives you an opportunity to effort to revive yourself, or take a break if necessary.
survey the concepts before you read about them in • Don’t miss class, and come prepared. Listening to lectures
depth. You will find the two-page Cosmic Context and participating in discussions is much more effective
figures especially useful. than reading someone else’s notes or watching a video
3. Read the chapter narrative, trying the Think About It later. Active participation will help you retain what you
questions and the See It for Yourself activities as you go are learning. Also, be sure to complete any assigned
along, but save the boxed features (e.g., Common reading before the class in which it will be discussed. This
xx

is crucial, since class lectures and discussions are designed quality of work. Moreover, although submitting homework of
to reinforce key ideas from the reading. collegiate quality requires “extra” effort, it serves two impor-
• Take advantage of resources offered by your professor, tant purposes directly related to learning:
whether it be email, office hours, review sessions, online
chats, or other opportunities to talk to and get to know 1. The effort you expend in clearly explaining your work
your professor. Most professors will go out of their way to solidifies your learning. In particular, research has
help you learn in any way that they can. shown that writing (or typing) and speaking trigger
• Start your homework early. The more time you allow different areas of your brain. Writing something
yourself, the easier it is to get help if you need it. If a down—even when you think you already understand
concept gives you trouble, do additional reading or it—reinforces your learning by involving other areas of
studying beyond what has been assigned. And if you still your brain.
have trouble, ask for help: You surely can find friends, 2. If you make your work clear and self-contained (that is,
peers, or teachers who will be glad to help you learn. make it a document that you can read without referring
• Working together with friends can be valuable in helping to the questions in the text), you will have a much more
you understand difficult concepts, but be sure that you learn useful study guide when you review for a quiz or exam.
with your friends and do not become dependent on them. The following guidelines will help ensure that your
• Don’t try to multitask. Research shows that human beings assignments meet the standards of collegiate quality:
simply are not good at multitasking: When we attempt it,
we do more poorly at all of the individual tasks. And in • Always use proper grammar, proper sentence and para-
case you think you are an exception, research has also graph structure, and proper spelling. Do not use texting
found that those people who believe they are best at shorthand.
• Make all answers and other writing fully self-contained. A
multitasking are often the worst! So when it is time to
good test is to imagine that a friend will be reading your
study, turn off your electronic devices, find a quiet spot,
work and to ask yourself whether the friend will
and concentrate on your work. (If you must use a device to
study, as with an e-book or online homework, turn off understand exactly what you are trying to say. It is also
email, text, and other alerts so that they will not interrupt helpful to read your work out loud to yourself, making
your concentration; some apps will do this for you.) sure that it sounds clear and coherent.
• In problems that require calculation:
1. Be sure to show your work clearly so that both you and
Preparing for Exams your instructor can follow the process you used to
• Study the Review Questions, and rework problems and obtain an answer. Also, use standard mathematical
other assignments; try additional questions to be sure symbols, rather than “calculator-ese.” For example,
you understand the concepts. Study your performance on show multiplication with the * symbol (not with an
assignments, quizzes, or exams from earlier in the term. asterisk), and write 105, not 10^5 or 10E5.
• Work through the relevant chapter quizzes and other study 2. Check that word problems have word answers. That is, after
resources available at the MasteringAstronomy® site. you have completed any necessary calculations, make
• Study your notes from lectures and discussions. Pay attention sure that any problem stated in words is answered with
to what your instructor expects you to know for an exam. one or more complete sentences that describe the point of
• Reread the relevant sections in the textbook, paying the problem and the meaning of your solution.
special attention to notes you have made on the pages. 3. Express your word answers in a way that would be
• Study individually before joining a study group with meaningful to most people. For example, most people
friends. Study groups are effective only if every individual would find it more meaningful if you expressed a result of
comes prepared to contribute. 720 hours as 1 month. Similarly, if a precise calculation
• Don’t stay up too late before an exam. Don’t eat a big meal yields an answer of 9,745,600 years, it may be more
within an hour of the exam (thinking is more difficult meaningfully expressed in words as “nearly 10 million
when blood is being diverted to the digestive system). years.”
• Try to relax before and during the exam. If you have
• Include illustrations whenever they help explain your
studied effectively, you are capable of doing well. Staying
answer, and make sure your illustrations are neat and
relaxed will help you think clearly.
clear. For example, if you graph by hand, use a ruler to
make straight lines. If you use software to make illustra-
Presenting Homework and Writing tions, be careful not to make them overly cluttered with
unnecessary features.
Assignments • If you study with friends, be sure that you turn in your
All work that you turn in should be of collegiate quality: neat and own work stated in your own words—you should avoid
easy to read, well organized, and demonstrating mastery of the anything that might give even the appearance of possible
subject matter. Future employers and teachers will expect this academic dishonesty.
how to succeed xxi

Foreword
The Meaning of The Cosmic Perspective
by Neil deGrasse Tyson When I track the orbits of asteroids, comets, and planets, each
strophysicist Neil deGrasse Tyson is the Fred-
A one a pirouetting dancer in a cosmic ballet choreographed by the
erick P. Rose Director of New York City’s forces of gravity, sometimes I forget that too many people act in
Hayden Planetarium at the American wanton disregard for the delicate interplay of Earth’s atmosphere,
Museum of Natural History. He has written oceans, and land, with consequences that our children and our
numerous books and articles, has hosted the children’s children will witness and pay for with their health and
PBS series NOVA scienceNOW and the well-being.
globally popular Cosmos: A Spacetime And sometimes I forget that powerful people rarely do all they
Odyssey, and was named one of the “Time can to help those who cannot help themselves.
100”—Time magazine’s list of the 100 most I occasionally forget those things because, however big the
influential people in the world. He contrib- world is—in our hearts, our minds, and our outsize atlases—the
© Neil deGrasse Tyson uted this essay about the meaning of “The universe is even bigger. A depressing thought to some, but a
Cosmic Perspective,” abridged from his 100th liberating thought to me.
essay written for Natural History magazine. Consider an adult who tends to the traumas of a child: a
broken toy, a scraped knee, a schoolyard bully. Adults know that
Of all the sciences cultivated by mankind, Astronomy is acknowledged kids have no clue what constitutes a genuine problem, because
to be, and undoubtedly is, the most sublime, the most interesting, inexperience greatly limits their childhood perspective.
and the most useful. For, by knowledge derived from this science, not As grown-ups, dare we admit to ourselves that we, too, have
only the bulk of the Earth is discovered … ; but our very faculties are a collective immaturity of view? Dare we admit that our thoughts
enlarged with the grandeur of the ideas it conveys, our minds exalted and behaviors spring from a belief that the world revolves around
above [their] low contracted prejudices. us? Part the curtains of society’s racial, ethnic, religious, national,
and cultural conflicts, and you find the human ego turning the
James Ferguson, Astronomy Explained Upon Sir Isaac Newton’s Principles, and knobs and pulling the levers.
Made Easy To Those Who Have Not Studied Mathematics (1757)
Now imagine a world in which everyone, but especially people
with power and influence, holds an expanded view of our place in
the cosmos. With that perspective, our problems would shrink—or
long before anyone knew that the universe had a beginning, never arise at all—and we could celebrate our earthly differences
before we knew that the nearest large galaxy lies two and a half while shunning the behavior of our predecessors who slaughtered
million light-years from Earth, before we knew how stars work or each other because of them.
whether atoms exist, James Ferguson’s enthusiastic introduction
to his favorite science rang true. ✴ ✴ ✴
But who gets to think that way? Who gets to celebrate
this cosmic view of life? Not the migrant farm worker. Not the Back in February 2000, the newly rebuilt Hayden Planetarium
sweatshop worker. Certainly not the homeless person rummaging featured a space show called “Passport to the Universe,” which
through the trash for food. You need the luxury of time not spent took visitors on a virtual zoom from New York City to the edge
on mere survival. You need to live in a nation whose government of the cosmos. En route the audience saw Earth, then the solar
values the search to understand humanity’s place in the universe. system, then the 100 billion stars of the Milky Way galaxy shrink
You need a society in which intellectual pursuit can take you to the to barely visible dots on the planetarium dome.
frontiers of discovery, and in which news of your discoveries can I soon received a letter from an Ivy League professor of
be routinely disseminated. psychology who wanted to administer a questionnaire to visitors,
When I pause and reflect on our expanding universe, with its assessing the depth of their depression after viewing the show. Our
galaxies hurtling away from one another, embedded with the ever- show, he wrote, elicited the most dramatic feelings of smallness he
stretching, four-dimensional fabric of space and time, sometimes had ever experienced.
I forget that uncounted people walk this Earth without food or How could that be? Every time I see the show, I feel alive and
shelter, and that children are disproportionately represented spirited and connected. I also feel large, knowing that the goings-
among them. on within the three-pound human brain are what enabled us to
When I pore over the data that establish the mysterious figure out our place in the universe.
presence of dark matter and dark energy throughout the universe, Allow me to suggest that it’s the professor, not I, who has misread
sometimes I forget that every day—every twenty-four-hour nature. His ego was too big to begin with, inflated by delusions of
rotation of Earth—people are killing and being killed. In the name significance and fed by cultural assumptions that human beings are
of someone’s ideology. more important than everything else in the universe.
xxii

In all fairness to the fellow, powerful forces in society leave wisdom and insight to apply that knowledge to assessing our place
most of us susceptible. As was I . . . until the day I learned in in the universe. And its attributes are clear:
biology class that more bacteria live and work in one centimeter
of my colon than the number of people who have ever existed in • The cosmic perspective comes from the frontiers of science,
the world. That kind of information makes you think twice about yet is not solely the provenance of the scientist. It belongs to
who—or what—is actually in charge. everyone.
From that day on, I began to think of people not as the masters • The cosmic perspective is humble.
of space and time but as participants in a great cosmic chain of • The cosmic perspective is spiritual—even redemptive—but is
being, with a direct genetic link across species both living and not religious.
extinct, extending back nearly 4 billion years to the earliest single-
• The cosmic perspective enables us to grasp, in the same
celled organisms on Earth.
thought, the large and the small.
✴ ✴ ✴ • The cosmic perspective opens our minds to extraordinary
ideas but does not leave them so open that our brains spill
Need more ego softeners? Simple comparisons of quantity, size,
out, making us susceptible to believing anything we’re told.
and scale do the job well.
Take water. It’s simple, common, and vital. There are more • The cosmic perspective opens our eyes to the universe, not as
molecules of water in an eight-ounce cup of the stuff than there a benevolent cradle designed to nurture life but as a cold,
are cups of water in all the world’s oceans. Every cup that passes lonely, hazardous place.
through a single person and eventually rejoins the world’s water • The cosmic perspective shows Earth to be a mote, but a
supply holds enough molecules to mix 1,500 of them into every precious mote and, for the moment, the only home we have.
other cup of water in the world. No way around it: some of the • The cosmic perspective finds beauty in the images of planets,
water you just drank passed through the kidneys of Socrates, moons, stars, and nebulae but also celebrates the laws of
Genghis Khan, and Joan of Arc. physics that shape them.
How about air? Also vital. A single breathful draws in more air
• The cosmic perspective enables us to see beyond our
molecules than there are breathfuls of air in Earth’s entire atmosphere.
circumstances, allowing us to transcend the primal search for
That means some of the air you just breathed passed through the
food, shelter, and sex.
lungs of Napoleon, Beethoven, Lincoln, and Billy the Kid.
Time to get cosmic. There are more stars in the universe than • The cosmic perspective reminds us that in space, where there
grains of sand on any beach, more stars than seconds have passed is no air, a flag will not wave—an indication that perhaps flag
since Earth formed, more stars than words and sounds ever uttered waving and space exploration do not mix.
by all the humans who ever lived. • The cosmic perspective not only embraces our genetic kinship
Want a sweeping view of the past? Our unfolding cosmic with all life on Earth but also values our chemical kinship
perspective takes you there. Light takes time to reach Earth’s with any yet-to-be discovered life in the universe, as well as
observatories from the depths of space, and so you see objects and our atomic kinship with the universe itself.
phenomena not as they are but as they once were. That means the
universe acts like a giant time machine: The farther away you look, ✴ ✴ ✴
the further back in time you see—back almost to the beginning
At least once a week, if not once a day, we might each ponder
of time itself. Within that horizon of reckoning, cosmic evolution
what cosmic truths lie undiscovered before us, perhaps awaiting
unfolds continuously, in full view.
the arrival of a clever thinker, an ingenious experiment, or an
Want to know what we’re made of? Again, the cosmic
innovative space mission to reveal them. We might further ponder
perspective offers a bigger answer than you might expect. The
how those discoveries may one day transform life on Earth.
chemical elements of the universe are forged in the fires of high-
Absent such curiosity, we are no different from the provincial
mass stars that end their lives in stupendous explosions, enriching
farmer who expresses no need to venture beyond the county line,
their host galaxies with the chemical arsenal of life as we know it.
because his forty acres meet all his needs. Yet if all our predecessors
We are not simply in the universe. The universe is in us. Yes, we
had felt that way, the farmer would instead be a cave dweller,
are stardust.
chasing down his dinner with a stick and a rock.
✴ ✴ ✴ During our brief stay on planet Earth, we owe ourselves and
our descendants the opportunity to explore—in part because it’s fun
Again and again across the centuries, cosmic discoveries have demoted to do. But there’s a far nobler reason. The day our knowledge of
our self-image. Earth was once assumed to be astronomically unique, the cosmos ceases to expand, we risk regressing to the childish view
until astronomers learned that Earth is just another planet orbiting that the universe figuratively and literally revolves around us. In
the Sun. Then we presumed the Sun was unique, until we learned that bleak world, arms-bearing, resource-hungry people and nations
that the countless stars of the night sky are suns themselves. Then would be prone to act on their “low contracted prejudices.” And that
we presumed our galaxy, the Milky Way, was the entire known would be the last gasp of human enlightenment—until the rise of
universe, until we established that the countless fuzzy things in a visionary new culture that could once again embrace the cosmic
the sky are other galaxies, dotting the landscape of our known perspective.
universe. Copyright © Neil deGrasse Tyson 2007. Adapted from the essay “Cosmic Perspec-
The cosmic perspective flows from fundamental knowledge. tives,” which first appeared in Natural History magazine, April 2007. Used with
But it’s more than just what you know. It’s also about having the permission.
foreword xxiii

▲ Astronauts get a unique opportunity to experience a cosmic perspective. Here, astronaut John Grunsfeld has a CD of The Cosmic
Perspective floating in front of him while orbiting Earth during the Space Shuttle’s final servicing mission to the Hubble Space
Telescope (May 2009).

1 A Modern View of the Universe
This Hubble Space Telescope photo shows thousands of galaxies in a region

LEARNING GOALS of the sky so small you could cover it with a grain of sand held at arm’s length.
1.1 The Scale of the Universe 1.3 Spaceship Earth

What is our place in the universe? How is Earth moving through space?
How big is the universe? How do galaxies move within the universe?
1.2 The History of the Universe
How did we come to be?
How do our lifetimes compare to the age of the universe?
M01_BENN6431_08_SE_C01_pp001-023.indd 1 21/10/16 12:19 PM

ESSENTIAL PREPARATION
F
ar from city lights on a clear night, you can gaze upward at a
1. How to Succeed in Your Astronomy Course
sky filled with stars. Lie back and watch for a few hours, and
[pp. xxii–xxiii]
you will observe the stars marching steadily across the sky.
2. Powers of 10 [Appendixes C.1, C.2]
Confronted by the seemingly infinite heavens, you might wonder
3. Working with Units [Appendix C.3]
how Earth and the universe came to be. If you do, you will be sharing
4. The Metric System (SI) [Appendix C.4]
an experience common to humans around the world and in thousands
of generations past.
Modern science offers answers to many of our fundamental
questions about the universe and our place within it. We now know
the basic content and scale of the universe. We know the ages of Earth
and the universe. And, although much remains to be discovered, we
are rapidly learning how the simple ingredients of the early universe
developed into the incredible diversity of life on Earth—and, perhaps,
of life on other worlds as well.
In this first chapter, we will survey the scale, history, and motion
of the universe. This “big picture” perspective on our universe will
provide a base on which you’ll be able to build a deeper understanding
in the rest of the book.
1.1 The Scale of the Universe

For most of human history, our ancestors imagined Earth to be stationary
at the center of a relatively small universe. This idea made sense at a
time when understanding was built upon everyday experience. After all,
we cannot feel the constant motion of Earth as it rotates on its axis and
orbits the Sun, and if you observe the sky you’ll see that the Sun, Moon,
planets, and stars all appear to revolve around us each day. Neverthe-
less, we now know that Earth is a planet orbiting a rather average star in
a rather typical galaxy in a vast universe.
The historical path to this knowledge was long and complex. In later
chapters, we’ll see that the ancient belief in an Earth-centered (or geocen-
tric) universe changed only when people were confronted by strong evi-
dence to the contrary, and we’ll explore how the method of learning
that we call science enabled us to acquire this evidence. First, however,
it’s useful to have a general picture of the universe as we know it today.
What is our place in the universe?

Take a look at the remarkable photo that opens this chapter (on page 1). This
photo, taken by the Hubble Space Telescope, shows a piece of the sky so small
that you could block your view of it with a grain of sand held at arm’s length.
Yet it covers an almost unimaginable expanse of both space and time: Nearly
every object within it is a galaxy containing billions of stars, and some of the
smaller smudges are galaxies so far away that their light has taken billions of
years to reach us. Let’s begin our study of astronomy by exploring what a
photo like this one tells us about our own place in the universe.
Our Cosmic Address The galaxies that we see in the Hubble Space
Telescope photo make up just one of several key levels of structure in our
universe, all illustrated as our “cosmic address” in Figure 1.1.
2 PART I • Developing Perspective

Our Cosmic Address FIGURE 1.1
Our cosmic address. These diagrams show key levels of
structure in our universe; for a more detailed view, see
the “You Are Here in Space” foldout diagram in the
front of the book.
Universe
approx. size: 1021 km < 100 million ly
Local Supercluster
approx. size: 3 3 1019 km < 3 million ly
Local Group
approx. size:
1018 km < 100,000 ly
Milky Way Galaxy
Solar System
(not to scale)
Earth
approx. size: 1010 km < 60 AU
approx. size: 104 km

Earth is a planet in our solar system, which consists of the Sun, the
planets and their moons, and countless smaller objects that include
rocky asteroids and icy comets. Keep in mind that our Sun is a star, just
like the stars we see in our night sky.
Our solar system belongs to the huge, disk-shaped collection of stars
called the Milky Way Galaxy. A galaxy is a great island of stars in space,
all held together by gravity and orbiting a common center. The Milky Way
is a relatively large galaxy, containing more than 100 billion stars, and
many of these stars are orbited by planets. Our solar system is located a
little over halfway from the galactic center to the edge of the galactic disk.
Billions of other galaxies are scattered throughout space. Some galaxies
are fairly isolated, but most are found in groups. Our Milky Way, for exam-
ple, is one of the two
We live on one planet orbiting one star among more
largest among more
than 100 billion stars in the Milky Way Galaxy, which
than 70 galaxies (most
in turn is one of billions of galaxies in the universe.
relatively small) in the
Local Group. Groups of galaxies with many more large members are often
called galaxy clusters.
On a very large scale, galaxies and galaxy clusters appear to be ar-
ranged in giant chains and sheets with huge voids between them; the
background of Figure 1.1 represents this large-scale structure. The re-
gions in which galaxies and galaxy clusters are most tightly packed are
called superclusters, which are essentially clusters of galaxy clusters.
Our Local Group is located in the outskirts of the Local Supercluster
(which was recently named Laniakea, Hawaiian for “immense heaven”).
Together, all these structures make up our universe. In other words,
cosmic calculations 1.1 the universe is the sum total of all matter and energy, encompassing the
superclusters and voids and everything within them.
How Far Is a Light-Year?
We can calculate the distance represented by a light-year think about it Some people think that our tiny physical size in the vast uni-
by recalling that verse makes us insignificant. Others think that our ability to learn about the wonders
of the universe gives us significance despite our small size. What do you think?
distance = speed * time
For example, at a speed of 50 km/hr, in 2 hours you Astronomical Distance Measurements The labels in Figure 1.1 give
travel 50 km>hr * 2 hr = 100 km. To find the distance approximate sizes for the various structures in kilometers (recall that 1 kilom-
represented by 1 light-year, we multiply the speed of eter ≈ 0.6 mile), but many distances in astronomy are so large that kilom-
light by 1 year. Because we are given the speed of light eters are not the most convenient unit. Instead, we often use two other units:
in kilometers per second but the time as 1 year, we must
carry out the multiplication while converting 1 year into • One astronomical unit (AU) is Earth’s average distance from the
seconds. (See Appendix C for a review of unit conver- Sun, which is about 150 million kilometers (93 million miles). We
sions.) The result is commonly describe distances within our solar system in AU.
1 light@year = 1speed of light 2 * 11 yr 2 • One light-year (ly) is the distance that light can travel in 1 year,
km 365 days which is about 10 trillion kilometers (6 trillion miles). We generally
= a300,00 b * 11 yr 2 * use light-years to describe the distances of stars and galaxies.
s 1 yr
24 hr 60 min 60 s Be sure to note that a light-year is a unit of distance, not of time. Light
* * *
1 day 1 hr 1 min travels at the speed of light, which is about 300,000 kilometers per sec-
= 9,460,000,000,000 km ond. We therefore say that one light-second is about 300,000 kilometers,
because that is the distance light travels in 1 second. Similarly, one light-
= 9.46 trillion km minute is the distance that light travels in 1 minute, one light-hour is
That is, 1 light-year is about 9.46 trillion kilometers, the distance that light travels in 1 hour, and so on. Cosmic Calculations
which we can approximate as 10 trillion kilometers. 1.1 shows that light travels about 10 trillion kilometers in 1 year, so that
This can be easier to write with powers of 10 (see Ap- distance represents a light-year.
pendix C.1 for a review); recall that 1 trillion is a 1 fol-
lowed by 12 zeros, or 1012, so 10 trillion can be written Looking Back in Time The speed of light is extremely fast by earthly
as 1013. standards. It is so fast that if you could make light go in circles, it could
circle Earth nearly eight times in a single second. Nevertheless, even light

takes time to travel the vast distances in space. Light takes a little more Cassiopeia
than 1 second to reach Earth from the Moon, and about 8 minutes to M31
reach Earth from the Sun. Stars are so far away that their light takes
years to reach us, which is why we measure their distances in light-years.
Because light takes time to travel through space, we are led to a re- VIS
markable fact: The farther away we look in distance, the further Andromeda
Pegasus
back we look in time. For example, the brightest star in the night sky,
Sirius, is about 8 light-years away, which means its light takes about 8
years to reach us. When we look at Sirius, we are seeing it not as it is
today but as it was about 8 years ago.
Light takes time to travel the vast distances The effect is more dramatic
in space. When we look deep into space, we at greater distances. The An-
also look far into the past. dromeda Galaxy (Figure 1.2)
lies about 2.5 million light-
years from Earth, which means we see it as it looked about 2.5 million
years ago. We see more distant galaxies as they were even further in the
past. Some of the galaxies in the Hubble Space Telescope photo that opens
the chapter are more than 12 billion light-years away, meaning we see
them as they were more than 12 billion years ago.
It’s also amazing to realize that any “snapshot” of a distant galaxy is a
picture of both space and time. For example, because the Andromeda ▲ FIGURE 1.2
The Andromeda Galaxy (M31). When we look at this galaxy, we see
Galaxy is about 100,000 light-years in diameter, the light we see from the
light that has been traveling through space for 2.5 million years. The
far side of the galaxy must have left on its journey to us 100,000 years inset shows the galaxy’s location in the constellation Andromeda.
Basic Astronomical Definitions
Basic Astronomical Objects cluster (or group) of galaxies A collection of galaxies bound to-
star A large, glowing ball of gas that generates heat and light gether by gravity. Small collections of galaxies are generally
through nuclear fusion in its core. Our Sun is a star. called groups, while larger collections are called clusters.
planet A moderately large object that orbits a star and shines pri- supercluster A gigantic region of space in which many groups
marily by reflecting light from its star. According to the current and clusters of galaxies are packed more closely together than
definition, an object can be considered a planet only if it (1) or- elsewhere in the universe.
bits a star, (2) is large enough for its own gravity to make it universe (or cosmos) The sum total of all matter and energy—
round, and (3) has cleared most other objects from its orbital that is, all galaxies and everything between them.
path. An object that meets the first two criteria but has not observable universe The portion of the entire universe that can
cleared its orbital path, like Pluto, is designated a dwarf planet. be seen from Earth, at least in principle. The observable universe
moon (or satellite) An object that orbits a planet. The term satel- is probably only a tiny portion of the entire universe.
lite is also used more generally to refer to any object orbiting
another object. Astronomical Distance Units
asteroid A relatively small and rocky object that orbits a star. astronomical unit (AU) The average distance between Earth
comet A relatively small and ice-rich object that orbits a star. and the Sun, which is about 150 million kilometers. More tech-
small solar system body An asteroid, comet, or other object that nically, 1 AU is the length of the semimajor axis of Earth’s orbit.
orbits a star but is too small to qualify as a planet or dwarf planet. light-year The distance that light can travel in 1 year, which is
about 10 trillion kilometers (more precisely, 9.46 trillion km).
Collections of Astronomical Objects
Terms Relating to Motion
solar system The Sun and all the material that orbits it, including
planets, dwarf planets, and small solar system bodies. Although the rotation The spinning of an object around its axis. For example,
term solar system technically refers only to our own star system (solar Earth rotates once each day around its axis, which is an imagi-
means “of the Sun”), it is often applied to other star systems as well. nary line connecting the North and South Poles.
star system A star (sometimes more than one star) and any orbit (revolution) The orbital motion of one object around an-
planets and other materials that orbit it. other due to gravity. For example, Earth orbits the Sun once
galaxy A great island of stars in space, all held together by gravity each year.
and orbiting a common center, with a total mass equivalent to expansion (of the universe) The increase in the average dis-
that of millions, billions, or even trillions of stars. tance between galaxies as time progresses.
CHAPTER 1 • A Modern View of the Universe 5

common misconceptions before the light from the near side. Figure 1.2 therefore shows different
parts of the galaxy spread over a time period of 100,000 years. When we
The Meaning of a Light-Year study the universe, it is impossible to separate space and time.
You’ve probably heard people say things like “It will
take me light-years to finish this homework!” But a
statement like this one doesn’t make sense, because a see it for yourself The central region of the Andromeda Galaxy is faintly
light-year is a unit of distance, not time. If you are visible to the naked eye and easy to see with binoculars. Use a star chart to find
unsure whether the term light-year is being used it in the night sky and remember that you are seeing light that spent 2.5 million
correctly, try testing the statement by using the fact that years in space before reaching your eyes. If students on a planet in the Androm-
1 light-year is about 10 trillion kilometers, or 6 trillion eda Galaxy were looking at the Milky Way, what would they see? Could they
miles. The statement then reads “It will take me 6 trillion know that we exist here on Earth?
miles to finish this homework,” which clearly does not
make sense.
The Observable Universe As we’ll discuss in Section 1.2, the meas-
ured the age of the universe is about 14 billion years. This fact, combined
with the fact that looking deep into space means looking far back in
time, places a limit on the portion of the universe that we can see, even
in principle.
Figure 1.3 shows the idea. If we look at a galaxy that is 7 billion
light-years away, we see it as it looked 7 billion years ago*—which
means we see it as it was when the universe was half its current age. If
we look at a galaxy that is
Because the universe is about 14 billion years
12 billion light-years away
old, we cannot observe light coming from
(like the most distant ones
anything more than 14 billion light-years away.
in the Hubble Space Tele-
scope photo), we see it as it was 12 billion years ago, when the universe
was only 2 billion years old.
If we tried to look beyond 14 billion light-years, we’d be looking to
a time more than 14 billion years ago—which is before the universe
existed and therefore means that there is nothing to see. This distance
of 14 billion light-years therefore marks the boundary (or horizon) of
our observable universe—the portion of the entire universe that we
can potentially observe. Note that this fact does not put any limit on
the size of the entire universe, which we assume to be far larger than
our observable universe. We simply cannot see or study anything be-
yond the bounds of our observable universe, because the light from
such distances has not yet had time to reach us in a 14-billion-year-old
universe.
▼ FIGURE 1.3
The farther away we look in space, the further back we look in time. *As we’ll see in Chapter 16, distances to faraway galaxies must be defined carefully in an
The age of the universe therefore puts a limit on the size of the expanding universe; in this book, we use distances based on the light-travel time from a
observable universe—the portion of the entire universe that we distant object (called the lookback time).
could observe in principle.
Far: We see a galaxy 7 billion light-years away Farther: We see a galaxy 12 billion light-years The limit of our observable universe:
as it was 7 billion years ago–when the universe away as it was 12 billion years ago–when the Light from nearly 14 billion light-years away
was about half its current age of 14 billion years. universe was only about 2 billion years old. shows the universe as it looked shortly
after the Big Bang, before galaxies existed.
Beyond the observable universe:

-years We cannot see anything farther
light years
lion 12 billion light- than 14 billion light-years away,
7 bil because its light has not had
14 billion light-years enough time to reach us.

How big is the universe?
Figure 1.1 put numbers on the sizes of different structures in the uni-
verse, but these numbers have little meaning for most people—after all,
they are literally astronomical. To help you develop a greater apprecia-
tion of our modern view of the universe, we’ll discuss a few ways of put-
ting these numbers into perspective.
The Scale of the Solar System One of the best ways to develop per-
spective on cosmic sizes and distances is to imagine our solar system
shrunk down to a scale that would allow you to walk through it. The
Voyage scale model solar system (Figure 1.4) makes such a walk possible
by showing the Sun, the planets, and the distances between them at one
ten-billionth of their actual sizes and distances.
Figure 1.5a shows the Sun and planets at their correct sizes (but not
distances) on the Voyage scale. The model Sun is about the size of a large
grapefruit, Jupiter is about
On a scale in which the Sun is the size of a
the size of a marble, and
grapefruit, Earth is the size of a ballpoint from a
Earth is about the size of the
pen, orbiting the Sun at a distance of 15 meters.
ballpoint in a pen. You can
immediately see some key facts about our solar system. For example, the
Sun is far larger than any of the planets; in mass, the Sun outweighs all the
planets combined by a factor of nearly 1000. The planets also vary consider-
ably in size: The storm on Jupiter known as the Great Red Spot (visible near ▲ FIGURE 1.4
Jupiter’s lower left in the painting) could swallow up the entire Earth. This photo shows the pedestals housing the Sun (the gold sphere
The scale of the solar system is even more remarkable when you combine on the nearest pedestal) and the inner planets in the Voyage scale
model solar system (Washington, D.C.). The model planets are
the sizes shown in Figure 1.5a with the distances illustrated by the map of the encased in the sidewalk-facing disks visible at about eye level on
Voyage model in Figure 1.5b. For example, the ballpoint-size Earth is located the planet pedestals. To the left is the National Air and Space
about 15 meters (16.5 yards) from the grapefruit-size Sun, which means you Museum.
can picture Earth’s orbit as a circle of radius 15 meters around a grapefruit.
Perhaps the most striking feature of our solar system when we view
it to scale is its emptiness. The Voyage model shows the planets along a
straight path, so we’d need to draw each planet’s orbit around the model
Sun to show the full extent of our planetary system. Fitting all these or-
bits would require an area measuring more than a kilometer on a side—
an area equivalent to more than 300 football fields arranged in a grid.
Spread over this large area, only the grapefruit-size Sun, the planets,
special topic How Many Planets Are in Our Solar System?
U ntil recently, children were taught that our solar system had
nine planets. However, in 2006 astronomers voted to demote
Pluto to a dwarf planet, leaving our solar system with only eight of-
made up of professional astronomers from around the world. In
2006, an IAU vote defined “planet” in a way that left out Pluto
and Eris (see Basic Astronomical Definitions on page 5) but
ficial planets. Why the change? added the “dwarf planet” category to accommodate them. Three
When Pluto was discovered in 1930, it was assumed to be similar smaller solar system objects are also now considered dwarf
to other planets. But as we’ll discuss in Chapter 9, we now know that planets (the asteroid Ceres and the Kuiper belt objects Make-
Pluto is much smaller than any of the first eight planets and that it make and Haumea). More than a half dozen other objects are
shares the outer solar system with thousands of other icy objects. still being studied to determine if they meet the dwarf planet
Still, as long as Pluto was the largest known of these objects, most definition.
astronomers were content to leave the planetary status quo. Change Some astronomers object to these definitions, which may yet be
was forced by the 2005 discovery of an object called Eris. Because revisited. Pluto and other objects will remain the same either way.
Eris is slightly larger in mass than Pluto, astronomers could no longer Indeed, much as there are no well-defined distinctions between the
avoid the question of what objects should count as planets. flowing waterways that we call creeks, streams, or rivers, this case
Official decisions on astronomical names and definitions rest offers a good example of the difference between the fuzzy bounda-
with the International Astronomical Union (IAU), an organization ries of nature and the human preference for categories.

Mercury
Venus
Earth
Jupiter Mars
Saturn
Uranus
Neptune
Pluto Sun
Eris
a The scaled sizes (but not distances) of the Sun, the planets, and the two largest known dwarf planets.
Mars
Venus to
Capitol
Pluto Neptune Uranus Saturn Jupiter SUN
Hill
to Washington
Monument Mercury
7th Earth
St
Art and Industries Hirshhorn National Air and Space Museum
Building Museum
b Locations of the major objects in the Voyage model (Washington, D.C.); the distance from the Sun to
Pluto is about 600 meters (1/3 mile). Planets are lined up in the model, but in reality each planet orbits
the Sun independently and a perfect alignment never occurs.
▲ FIGURE 1.5 and a few moons would be big enough to see. The rest of it would look
The Voyage scale model represents the solar system at one virtually empty (that’s why we call it space!).
ten-billionth of its actual size. Pluto is included in the Voyage
Seeing our solar system to scale also helps put space exploration into per-
model for context.
spective. The Moon, the only other world on which humans have ever
stepped (Figure 1.6), lies only about 4 centimeters (1½ inches) from Earth in
the Voyage model. On this scale, the palm of your hand can cover the entire
region of the universe in which humans have so far traveled. The trip to Mars
is more than 150 times as far as the trip to the Moon, even when Mars is on
common misconceptions the same side of its orbit as Earth. And while you can walk from Earth to Pluto
Confusing Very Different Things in a few minutes on the Voyage scale, the New Horizons spacecraft, which flew
Most people are familiar with the terms solar system and
past Pluto in 2015, took more than 9 years to make the real journey, despite
galaxy, but few realize how incredibly different they are. traveling at a speed nearly 100 times as fast as that of a commercial jet.
Our solar system is a single star system, while our
galaxy is a collection of more than 100 billion star
Distances to the Stars If you visit the Voyage model in Washington,
systems—so many that it would take thousands of years D.C., you can walk the roughly 600-meter distance from the Sun to Pluto
just to count them. Moreover, if you look at the sizes in in just a few minutes. How much farther would you have to walk to
Figure 1.1, you’ll see that our galaxy is about 100 reach the next star on this scale?
million times larger in diameter than our solar system. Amazingly, you would need to walk to California. If this answer
So be careful; numerically speaking, mixing up solar seems hard to believe, you can check it for yourself. A light-year is
system and galaxy is a gigantic mistake! about 10 trillion kilometers, which becomes 1000 kilometers on the 1-to-
10-billion scale (because 10 trillion , 10 billion = 1000). The nearest star

On the same scale on which Pluto is a few system to our own, a three-
minutes’ walk from Earth, you’d have to walk star system called Alpha Cen-
across the United States to reach the nearest tauri (Figure 1.7), is about 4.4
stars. light-years away. That distance
is about 4400 kilometers (2700 miles) on the 1-to-10-billion scale, or
roughly equivalent to the distance across the United States.
The tremendous distances to the stars give us some perspective on the
technological challenge of astronomy. For example, because the largest star
of the Alpha Centauri system is roughly the same size and brightness as our
Sun, viewing it in the night sky is somewhat like being in Washington, D.C.,
and seeing a very bright grapefruit in San Francisco (neglecting the prob-
lems introduced by the curvature of Earth). It may seem remarkable that
we can see the star at all, but the blackness of the night sky allows the naked
eye to see it as a faint dot of light. It looks much brighter through powerful
telescopes, but we still cannot see features of the star’s surface.
Now, consider the difficulty of detecting planets orbiting nearby stars,
which is equivalent to looking from Washington, D.C., and trying to find ▲ FIGURE 1.6
ballpoints or marbles orbiting grapefruits in California or beyond. When This famous photograph from the first Moon landing (Apollo 11
you consider this challenge, it is all the more remarkable to realize that in July 1969) shows astronaut Buzz Aldrin, with Neil Armstrong
we now have technology capable of finding such planets [Section 10.1]. reflected in his visor. Armstrong was the first to step onto the
Moon’s surface, saying, “That’s one small step for a man, one giant
The vast distances to the stars also offer a sobering lesson about in- leap for mankind.”
terstellar travel. Although science fiction shows like Star Trek and Star
Wars make such travel look easy, the reality is far different. Consider the
Voyager 2 spacecraft. Launched in 1977, Voyager 2 flew by Jupiter in 1979,
Saturn in 1981, Uranus in 1986, and Neptune in 1989. It is now bound
for the stars at a speed of close to 50,000 kilometers per hour—about
100 times as fast as a speeding bullet. But even at this speed, Voyager 2
would take about 100,000 years to reach Alpha Centauri if it were
headed in that direction (which it’s not). Convenient interstellar travel
remains well beyond our present technology.
The Size of the Milky Way Galaxy The vast separation between our Alpha
solar system and Alpha Centauri is typical of the separations between Centauri
Sun
star systems in our region of the Milky Way Galaxy. We therefore can-
not use the 1-to-10-billion scale for thinking about distances beyond the
nearest stars, because more distant stars would not fit on Earth with this
scale. To visualize the galaxy, let’s reduce our scale by another factor of
1 billion (making it a scale of 1 to 1019).
On this new scale, each light-year becomes 1 millimeter, and the
100,000-light-year diameter of the Milky Way Galaxy becomes 100 me- Centaurus
ters, or about the length of a football field. Visualize a football field with
a scale model of our galaxy centered over midfield. Our entire solar sys-
tem is a microscopic dot located around the 20-yard line. The 4.4-light- Alpha
year separation between our solar system and Alpha Centauri becomes Centauri
just 4.4 millimeters on this scale—smaller than the width of your little
finger. If you stood at the position of our solar system in this model, mil-
lions of star systems would lie within reach of your arms. Crux
(Southern
Another way to put the galaxy into perspective is to consider its Cross)
number of stars—more than 100 billion. Imagine that tonight you are
having difficulty falling asleep (perhaps because you are contemplating VIS
the scale of the universe). Instead of counting sheep, you decide to count
stars. If you are able to count about one star each second, how long
▲ FIGURE 1.7
would it take you to count 100 billion stars in the Milky Way? Clearly,
On the same 1-to-10-billion scale on which you can walk from the Sun
the answer is 100 billion (1011) seconds, but how long is that? to Pluto in just a few minutes, you’d need to cross the United States to
Amazingly, 100 billion seconds is more than 3000 years. (You can con- reach Alpha Centauri, the nearest other star system. The inset shows
firm this by dividing 100 billion by the number of seconds in 1 year.) You the location and appearance of Alpha Centauri in the night sky.

would need thousands of
It would take thousands of years just to count out
years just to count the stars
loud the number of stars in the Milky Way Galaxy.
in the Milky Way Galaxy,
and this assumes you never take a break—no sleeping, no eating, and abso-
lutely no dying!
The Observable Universe As incredible as the scale of our galaxy may

seem, the Milky Way is only one of roughly 100 billion galaxies in the
observable universe. Just as it would take thousands of years to count
the stars in the Milky Way, it would take thousands of years to count all
the galaxies.
Think for a moment about the total number of stars in all these galax-
ies. If we assume 100 billion stars per galaxy, the total number of stars in
the observable universe is roughly 100 billion : 100 billion, or
10,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 (1022).
How big is this number? Visit a beach. Run your hands through the
fine-grained sand. Imagine counting each tiny grain of sand as it slips
through your fingers. Then
Roughly speaking, there are as many stars in
imagine counting every grain
the observable universe as there are grains of
of sand on the beach and
sand on all the beaches on Earth.
continuing to count every
▲ FIGURE 1.8 grain of dry sand on every beach on Earth. If you could actually complete
The number of stars in the observable universe is comparable to the this task, you would find that the number of grains of sand is comparable
number of grains of dry sand on all the beaches on Earth.
to the number of stars in the observable universe (Figure 1.8).
think about it Contemplate the incredible numbers of stars in our galaxy

and in the universe, and the fact that each star is a potential sun for a system of
planets. How does this perspective affect your thoughts about the possibilities
for finding life—or intelligent life—beyond Earth? Explain.
1.2 The History of the Universe

Our universe is vast not only in space, but also in time. In this section, we
will briefly discuss the history of the universe as we understand it today.
Before we begin, you may wonder how we can claim to know any-
thing about what the universe was like in the distant past. We’ll devote
much of this textbook to understanding how science enables us to do
this, but you already know part of the answer: Because looking farther
into space means looking further back in time, we can actually see parts
of the universe as they were long ago, simply by looking far enough
away. In other words, telescopes are somewhat like time machines, ena-
bling us to observe the history of the universe.
How did we come to be?

Figure 1.9 (pp. 12–13) summarizes the history of the universe according
to modern science. Let’s start at the upper left of the figure, and discuss
the key events and what they mean.
The Big Bang, Expansion, and the Age of the Universe Telescopic
observations of distant galaxies show that the entire universe is expand-
ing, meaning that average distances between galaxies are increasing
with time. This fact implies that galaxies must have been closer together
in the past, and if we go back far enough, we must reach the point at
which the expansion began. We call this beginning the Big Bang, and

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DANCE ON STILTS AT THE GIRLS’ UNYAGO, NIUCHI
Newala, too, suffers from the distance of its water-supply—at least

the Newala of to-day does; there was once another Newala in a lovely
valley at the foot of the plateau. I visited it and found scarcely a trace
of houses, only a Christian cemetery, with the graves of several
missionaries and their converts, remaining as a monument of its
former glories. But the surroundings are wonderfully beautiful. A
thick grove of splendid mango-trees closes in the weather-worn
crosses and headstones; behind them, combining the useful and the
agreeable, is a whole plantation of lemon-trees covered with ripe
fruit; not the small African kind, but a much larger and also juicier
imported variety, which drops into the hands of the passing traveller,
without calling for any exertion on his part. Old Newala is now under
the jurisdiction of the native pastor, Daudi, at Chingulungulu, who,
as I am on very friendly terms with him, allows me, as a matter of
course, the use of this lemon-grove during my stay at Newala.
FEET MUTILATED BY THE RAVAGES OF THE “JIGGER”
(Sarcopsylla penetrans)
The water-supply of New Newala is in the bottom of the valley,

some 1,600 feet lower down. The way is not only long and fatiguing,
but the water, when we get it, is thoroughly bad. We are suffering not
only from this, but from the fact that the arrangements at Newala are
nothing short of luxurious. We have a separate kitchen—a hut built
against the boma palisade on the right of the baraza, the interior of
which is not visible from our usual position. Our two cooks were not
long in finding this out, and they consequently do—or rather neglect
to do—what they please. In any case they do not seem to be very
particular about the boiling of our drinking-water—at least I can
attribute to no other cause certain attacks of a dysenteric nature,
from which both Knudsen and I have suffered for some time. If a
man like Omari has to be left unwatched for a moment, he is capable
of anything. Besides this complaint, we are inconvenienced by the
state of our nails, which have become as hard as glass, and crack on
the slightest provocation, and I have the additional infliction of
pimples all over me. As if all this were not enough, we have also, for
the last week been waging war against the jigger, who has found his
Eldorado in the hot sand of the Makonde plateau. Our men are seen
all day long—whenever their chronic colds and the dysentery likewise
raging among them permit—occupied in removing this scourge of
Africa from their feet and trying to prevent the disastrous
consequences of its presence. It is quite common to see natives of
this place with one or two toes missing; many have lost all their toes,
or even the whole front part of the foot, so that a well-formed leg
ends in a shapeless stump. These ravages are caused by the female of
Sarcopsylla penetrans, which bores its way under the skin and there
develops an egg-sac the size of a pea. In all books on the subject, it is
stated that one’s attention is called to the presence of this parasite by
an intolerable itching. This agrees very well with my experience, so
far as the softer parts of the sole, the spaces between and under the
toes, and the side of the foot are concerned, but if the creature
penetrates through the harder parts of the heel or ball of the foot, it
may escape even the most careful search till it has reached maturity.
Then there is no time to be lost, if the horrible ulceration, of which
we see cases by the dozen every day, is to be prevented. It is much
easier, by the way, to discover the insect on the white skin of a
European than on that of a native, on which the dark speck scarcely
shows. The four or five jiggers which, in spite of the fact that I
constantly wore high laced boots, chose my feet to settle in, were
taken out for me by the all-accomplished Knudsen, after which I
thought it advisable to wash out the cavities with corrosive
sublimate. The natives have a different sort of disinfectant—they fill
the hole with scraped roots. In a tiny Makua village on the slope of
the plateau south of Newala, we saw an old woman who had filled all
the spaces under her toe-nails with powdered roots by way of
prophylactic treatment. What will be the result, if any, who can say?
The rest of the many trifling ills which trouble our existence are
really more comic than serious. In the absence of anything else to
smoke, Knudsen and I at last opened a box of cigars procured from
the Indian store-keeper at Lindi, and tried them, with the most
distressing results. Whether they contain opium or some other
narcotic, neither of us can say, but after the tenth puff we were both
“off,” three-quarters stupefied and unspeakably wretched. Slowly we
recovered—and what happened next? Half-an-hour later we were
once more smoking these poisonous concoctions—so insatiable is the
craving for tobacco in the tropics.
Even my present attacks of fever scarcely deserve to be taken
seriously. I have had no less than three here at Newala, all of which
have run their course in an incredibly short time. In the early
afternoon, I am busy with my old natives, asking questions and
making notes. The strong midday coffee has stimulated my spirits to
an extraordinary degree, the brain is active and vigorous, and work
progresses rapidly, while a pleasant warmth pervades the whole
body. Suddenly this gives place to a violent chill, forcing me to put on
my overcoat, though it is only half-past three and the afternoon sun
is at its hottest. Now the brain no longer works with such acuteness
and logical precision; more especially does it fail me in trying to
establish the syntax of the difficult Makua language on which I have
ventured, as if I had not enough to do without it. Under the
circumstances it seems advisable to take my temperature, and I do
so, to save trouble, without leaving my seat, and while going on with
my work. On examination, I find it to be 101·48°. My tutors are
abruptly dismissed and my bed set up in the baraza; a few minutes
later I am in it and treating myself internally with hot water and
lemon-juice.
Three hours later, the thermometer marks nearly 104°, and I make
them carry me back into the tent, bed and all, as I am now perspiring
heavily, and exposure to the cold wind just beginning to blow might
mean a fatal chill. I lie still for a little while, and then find, to my
great relief, that the temperature is not rising, but rather falling. This
is about 7.30 p.m. At 8 p.m. I find, to my unbounded astonishment,
that it has fallen below 98·6°, and I feel perfectly well. I read for an
hour or two, and could very well enjoy a smoke, if I had the
wherewithal—Indian cigars being out of the question.
Having no medical training, I am at a loss to account for this state
of things. It is impossible that these transitory attacks of high fever
should be malarial; it seems more probable that they are due to a
kind of sunstroke. On consulting my note-book, I become more and
more inclined to think this is the case, for these attacks regularly
follow extreme fatigue and long exposure to strong sunshine. They at
least have the advantage of being only short interruptions to my
work, as on the following morning I am always quite fresh and fit.
My treasure of a cook is suffering from an enormous hydrocele which
makes it difficult for him to get up, and Moritz is obliged to keep in
the dark on account of his inflamed eyes. Knudsen’s cook, a raw boy
from somewhere in the bush, knows still less of cooking than Omari;
consequently Nils Knudsen himself has been promoted to the vacant
post. Finding that we had come to the end of our supplies, he began
by sending to Chingulungulu for the four sucking-pigs which we had
bought from Matola and temporarily left in his charge; and when
they came up, neatly packed in a large crate, he callously slaughtered
the biggest of them. The first joint we were thoughtless enough to
entrust for roasting to Knudsen’s mshenzi cook, and it was
consequently uneatable; but we made the rest of the animal into a
jelly which we ate with great relish after weeks of underfeeding,
consuming incredible helpings of it at both midday and evening
meals. The only drawback is a certain want of variety in the tinned
vegetables. Dr. Jäger, to whom the Geographical Commission
entrusted the provisioning of the expeditions—mine as well as his
own—because he had more time on his hands than the rest of us,
seems to have laid in a huge stock of Teltow turnips,[46] an article of
food which is all very well for occasional use, but which quickly palls
when set before one every day; and we seem to have no other tins
left. There is no help for it—we must put up with the turnips; but I
am certain that, once I am home again, I shall not touch them for ten
years to come.
Amid all these minor evils, which, after all, go to make up the
genuine flavour of Africa, there is at least one cheering touch:
Knudsen has, with the dexterity of a skilled mechanic, repaired my 9
× 12 cm. camera, at least so far that I can use it with a little care.
How, in the absence of finger-nails, he was able to accomplish such a
ticklish piece of work, having no tool but a clumsy screw-driver for
taking to pieces and putting together again the complicated
mechanism of the instantaneous shutter, is still a mystery to me; but
he did it successfully. The loss of his finger-nails shows him in a light
contrasting curiously enough with the intelligence evinced by the
above operation; though, after all, it is scarcely surprising after his
ten years’ residence in the bush. One day, at Lindi, he had occasion
to wash a dog, which must have been in need of very thorough
cleansing, for the bottle handed to our friend for the purpose had an
extremely strong smell. Having performed his task in the most
conscientious manner, he perceived with some surprise that the dog
did not appear much the better for it, and was further surprised by
finding his own nails ulcerating away in the course of the next few
days. “How was I to know that carbolic acid has to be diluted?” he
mutters indignantly, from time to time, with a troubled gaze at his
mutilated finger-tips.
Since we came to Newala we have been making excursions in all
directions through the surrounding country, in accordance with old
habit, and also because the akida Sefu did not get together the tribal
elders from whom I wanted information so speedily as he had
promised. There is, however, no harm done, as, even if seen only
from the outside, the country and people are interesting enough.
The Makonde plateau is like a large rectangular table rounded off
at the corners. Measured from the Indian Ocean to Newala, it is
about seventy-five miles long, and between the Rovuma and the
Lukuledi it averages fifty miles in breadth, so that its superficial area
is about two-thirds of that of the kingdom of Saxony. The surface,
however, is not level, but uniformly inclined from its south-western
edge to the ocean. From the upper edge, on which Newala lies, the
eye ranges for many miles east and north-east, without encountering
any obstacle, over the Makonde bush. It is a green sea, from which
here and there thick clouds of smoke rise, to show that it, too, is
inhabited by men who carry on their tillage like so many other
primitive peoples, by cutting down and burning the bush, and
manuring with the ashes. Even in the radiant light of a tropical day
such a fire is a grand sight.
Much less effective is the impression produced just now by the
great western plain as seen from the edge of the plateau. As often as
time permits, I stroll along this edge, sometimes in one direction,
sometimes in another, in the hope of finding the air clear enough to
let me enjoy the view; but I have always been disappointed.
Wherever one looks, clouds of smoke rise from the burning bush,
and the air is full of smoke and vapour. It is a pity, for under more
favourable circumstances the panorama of the whole country up to
the distant Majeje hills must be truly magnificent. It is of little use
taking photographs now, and an outline sketch gives a very poor idea
of the scenery. In one of these excursions I went out of my way to
make a personal attempt on the Makonde bush. The present edge of
the plateau is the result of a far-reaching process of destruction
through erosion and denudation. The Makonde strata are
everywhere cut into by ravines, which, though short, are hundreds of
yards in depth. In consequence of the loose stratification of these
beds, not only are the walls of these ravines nearly vertical, but their
upper end is closed by an equally steep escarpment, so that the
western edge of the Makonde plateau is hemmed in by a series of
deep, basin-like valleys. In order to get from one side of such a ravine
to the other, I cut my way through the bush with a dozen of my men.
It was a very open part, with more grass than scrub, but even so the
short stretch of less than two hundred yards was very hard work; at
the end of it the men’s calicoes were in rags and they themselves
bleeding from hundreds of scratches, while even our strong khaki
suits had not escaped scatheless.
NATIVE PATH THROUGH THE MAKONDE BUSH, NEAR

MAHUTA
I see increasing reason to believe that the view formed some time
back as to the origin of the Makonde bush is the correct one. I have
no doubt that it is not a natural product, but the result of human
occupation. Those parts of the high country where man—as a very
slight amount of practice enables the eye to perceive at once—has not
yet penetrated with axe and hoe, are still occupied by a splendid
timber forest quite able to sustain a comparison with our mixed
forests in Germany. But wherever man has once built his hut or tilled
his field, this horrible bush springs up. Every phase of this process
may be seen in the course of a couple of hours’ walk along the main
road. From the bush to right or left, one hears the sound of the axe—
not from one spot only, but from several directions at once. A few
steps further on, we can see what is taking place. The brush has been
cut down and piled up in heaps to the height of a yard or more,
between which the trunks of the large trees stand up like the last
pillars of a magnificent ruined building. These, too, present a
melancholy spectacle: the destructive Makonde have ringed them—
cut a broad strip of bark all round to ensure their dying off—and also
piled up pyramids of brush round them. Father and son, mother and
son-in-law, are chopping away perseveringly in the background—too
busy, almost, to look round at the white stranger, who usually excites
so much interest. If you pass by the same place a week later, the piles
of brushwood have disappeared and a thick layer of ashes has taken
the place of the green forest. The large trees stretch their
smouldering trunks and branches in dumb accusation to heaven—if
they have not already fallen and been more or less reduced to ashes,
perhaps only showing as a white stripe on the dark ground.
This work of destruction is carried out by the Makonde alike on the
virgin forest and on the bush which has sprung up on sites already
cultivated and deserted. In the second case they are saved the trouble
of burning the large trees, these being entirely absent in the
secondary bush.
After burning this piece of forest ground and loosening it with the
hoe, the native sows his corn and plants his vegetables. All over the
country, he goes in for bed-culture, which requires, and, in fact,
receives, the most careful attention. Weeds are nowhere tolerated in
the south of German East Africa. The crops may fail on the plains,
where droughts are frequent, but never on the plateau with its
abundant rains and heavy dews. Its fortunate inhabitants even have
the satisfaction of seeing the proud Wayao and Wamakua working
for them as labourers, driven by hunger to serve where they were
accustomed to rule.
But the light, sandy soil is soon exhausted, and would yield no
harvest the second year if cultivated twice running. This fact has
been familiar to the native for ages; consequently he provides in
time, and, while his crop is growing, prepares the next plot with axe
and firebrand. Next year he plants this with his various crops and
lets the first piece lie fallow. For a short time it remains waste and
desolate; then nature steps in to repair the destruction wrought by
man; a thousand new growths spring out of the exhausted soil, and
even the old stumps put forth fresh shoots. Next year the new growth
is up to one’s knees, and in a few years more it is that terrible,
impenetrable bush, which maintains its position till the black
occupier of the land has made the round of all the available sites and
come back to his starting point.
The Makonde are, body and soul, so to speak, one with this bush.
According to my Yao informants, indeed, their name means nothing
else but “bush people.” Their own tradition says that they have been
settled up here for a very long time, but to my surprise they laid great
stress on an original immigration. Their old homes were in the
south-east, near Mikindani and the mouth of the Rovuma, whence
their peaceful forefathers were driven by the continual raids of the
Sakalavas from Madagascar and the warlike Shirazis[47] of the coast,
to take refuge on the almost inaccessible plateau. I have studied
African ethnology for twenty years, but the fact that changes of
population in this apparently quiet and peaceable corner of the earth
could have been occasioned by outside enterprises taking place on
the high seas, was completely new to me. It is, no doubt, however,
correct.
The charming tribal legend of the Makonde—besides informing us
of other interesting matters—explains why they have to live in the
thickest of the bush and a long way from the edge of the plateau,
instead of making their permanent homes beside the purling brooks
and springs of the low country.
“The place where the tribe originated is Mahuta, on the southern
side of the plateau towards the Rovuma, where of old time there was
nothing but thick bush. Out of this bush came a man who never
washed himself or shaved his head, and who ate and drank but little.
He went out and made a human figure from the wood of a tree
growing in the open country, which he took home to his abode in the
bush and there set it upright. In the night this image came to life and
was a woman. The man and woman went down together to the
Rovuma to wash themselves. Here the woman gave birth to a still-
born child. They left that place and passed over the high land into the
valley of the Mbemkuru, where the woman had another child, which
was also born dead. Then they returned to the high bush country of
Mahuta, where the third child was born, which lived and grew up. In
course of time, the couple had many more children, and called
themselves Wamatanda. These were the ancestral stock of the
Makonde, also called Wamakonde,[48] i.e., aborigines. Their
forefather, the man from the bush, gave his children the command to
bury their dead upright, in memory of the mother of their race who
was cut out of wood and awoke to life when standing upright. He also
warned them against settling in the valleys and near large streams,
for sickness and death dwelt there. They were to make it a rule to
have their huts at least an hour’s walk from the nearest watering-
place; then their children would thrive and escape illness.”
The explanation of the name Makonde given by my informants is
somewhat different from that contained in the above legend, which I
extract from a little book (small, but packed with information), by
Pater Adams, entitled Lindi und sein Hinterland. Otherwise, my
results agree exactly with the statements of the legend. Washing?
Hapana—there is no such thing. Why should they do so? As it is, the
supply of water scarcely suffices for cooking and drinking; other
people do not wash, so why should the Makonde distinguish himself
by such needless eccentricity? As for shaving the head, the short,
woolly crop scarcely needs it,[49] so the second ancestral precept is
likewise easy enough to follow. Beyond this, however, there is
nothing ridiculous in the ancestor’s advice. I have obtained from
various local artists a fairly large number of figures carved in wood,
ranging from fifteen to twenty-three inches in height, and
representing women belonging to the great group of the Mavia,
Makonde, and Matambwe tribes. The carving is remarkably well
done and renders the female type with great accuracy, especially the
keloid ornamentation, to be described later on. As to the object and
meaning of their works the sculptors either could or (more probably)
would tell me nothing, and I was forced to content myself with the
scanty information vouchsafed by one man, who said that the figures
were merely intended to represent the nembo—the artificial
deformations of pelele, ear-discs, and keloids. The legend recorded
by Pater Adams places these figures in a new light. They must surely
be more than mere dolls; and we may even venture to assume that
they are—though the majority of present-day Makonde are probably
unaware of the fact—representations of the tribal ancestress.
The references in the legend to the descent from Mahuta to the
Rovuma, and to a journey across the highlands into the Mbekuru
valley, undoubtedly indicate the previous history of the tribe, the
travels of the ancestral pair typifying the migrations of their
descendants. The descent to the neighbouring Rovuma valley, with
its extraordinary fertility and great abundance of game, is intelligible
at a glance—but the crossing of the Lukuledi depression, the ascent
to the Rondo Plateau and the descent to the Mbemkuru, also lie
within the bounds of probability, for all these districts have exactly
the same character as the extreme south. Now, however, comes a
point of especial interest for our bacteriological age. The primitive
Makonde did not enjoy their lives in the marshy river-valleys.
Disease raged among them, and many died. It was only after they
had returned to their original home near Mahuta, that the health
conditions of these people improved. We are very apt to think of the
African as a stupid person whose ignorance of nature is only equalled
by his fear of it, and who looks on all mishaps as caused by evil
spirits and malignant natural powers. It is much more correct to
assume in this case that the people very early learnt to distinguish
districts infested with malaria from those where it is absent.
This knowledge is crystallized in the
ancestral warning against settling in the
valleys and near the great waters, the
dwelling-places of disease and death. At the
same time, for security against the hostile
Mavia south of the Rovuma, it was enacted
that every settlement must be not less than a
certain distance from the southern edge of the
plateau. Such in fact is their mode of life at the
present day. It is not such a bad one, and
certainly they are both safer and more
comfortable than the Makua, the recent
intruders from the south, who have made USUAL METHOD OF
good their footing on the western edge of the CLOSING HUT-DOOR
plateau, extending over a fairly wide belt of
country. Neither Makua nor Makonde show in their dwellings
anything of the size and comeliness of the Yao houses in the plain,
especially at Masasi, Chingulungulu and Zuza’s. Jumbe Chauro, a
Makonde hamlet not far from Newala, on the road to Mahuta, is the
most important settlement of the tribe I have yet seen, and has fairly
spacious huts. But how slovenly is their construction compared with
the palatial residences of the elephant-hunters living in the plain.
The roofs are still more untidy than in the general run of huts during
the dry season, the walls show here and there the scanty beginnings
or the lamentable remains of the mud plastering, and the interior is a
veritable dog-kennel; dirt, dust and disorder everywhere. A few huts
only show any attempt at division into rooms, and this consists
merely of very roughly-made bamboo partitions. In one point alone
have I noticed any indication of progress—in the method of fastening
the door. Houses all over the south are secured in a simple but
ingenious manner. The door consists of a set of stout pieces of wood
or bamboo, tied with bark-string to two cross-pieces, and moving in
two grooves round one of the door-posts, so as to open inwards. If
the owner wishes to leave home, he takes two logs as thick as a man’s
upper arm and about a yard long. One of these is placed obliquely
against the middle of the door from the inside, so as to form an angle
of from 60° to 75° with the ground. He then places the second piece
horizontally across the first, pressing it downward with all his might.
It is kept in place by two strong posts planted in the ground a few
inches inside the door. This fastening is absolutely safe, but of course
cannot be applied to both doors at once, otherwise how could the
owner leave or enter his house? I have not yet succeeded in finding
out how the back door is fastened.
MAKONDE LOCK AND KEY AT JUMBE CHAURO

This is the general way of closing a house. The Makonde at Jumbe
Chauro, however, have a much more complicated, solid and original
one. Here, too, the door is as already described, except that there is
only one post on the inside, standing by itself about six inches from
one side of the doorway. Opposite this post is a hole in the wall just
large enough to admit a man’s arm. The door is closed inside by a
large wooden bolt passing through a hole in this post and pressing
with its free end against the door. The other end has three holes into
which fit three pegs running in vertical grooves inside the post. The
door is opened with a wooden key about a foot long, somewhat
curved and sloped off at the butt; the other end has three pegs
corresponding to the holes, in the bolt, so that, when it is thrust
through the hole in the wall and inserted into the rectangular
opening in the post, the pegs can be lifted and the bolt drawn out.[50]
MODE OF INSERTING THE KEY
With no small pride first one householder and then a second

showed me on the spot the action of this greatest invention of the
Makonde Highlands. To both with an admiring exclamation of
“Vizuri sana!” (“Very fine!”). I expressed the wish to take back these
marvels with me to Ulaya, to show the Wazungu what clever fellows
the Makonde are. Scarcely five minutes after my return to camp at
Newala, the two men came up sweating under the weight of two
heavy logs which they laid down at my feet, handing over at the same
time the keys of the fallen fortress. Arguing, logically enough, that if
the key was wanted, the lock would be wanted with it, they had taken
their axes and chopped down the posts—as it never occurred to them
to dig them out of the ground and so bring them intact. Thus I have
two badly damaged specimens, and the owners, instead of praise,
come in for a blowing-up.
The Makua huts in the environs of Newala are especially
miserable; their more than slovenly construction reminds one of the
temporary erections of the Makua at Hatia’s, though the people here
have not been concerned in a war. It must therefore be due to
congenital idleness, or else to the absence of a powerful chief. Even
the baraza at Mlipa’s, a short hour’s walk south-east of Newala,
shares in this general neglect. While public buildings in this country
are usually looked after more or less carefully, this is in evident
danger of being blown over by the first strong easterly gale. The only
attractive object in this whole district is the grave of the late chief
Mlipa. I visited it in the morning, while the sun was still trying with
partial success to break through the rolling mists, and the circular
grove of tall euphorbias, which, with a broken pot, is all that marks
the old king’s resting-place, impressed one with a touch of pathos.
Even my very materially-minded carriers seemed to feel something
of the sort, for instead of their usual ribald songs, they chanted
solemnly, as we marched on through the dense green of the Makonde
bush:—
“We shall arrive with the great master; we stand in a row and have
no fear about getting our food and our money from the Serkali (the
Government). We are not afraid; we are going along with the great
master, the lion; we are going down to the coast and back.”
With regard to the characteristic features of the various tribes here
on the western edge of the plateau, I can arrive at no other
conclusion than the one already come to in the plain, viz., that it is
impossible for anyone but a trained anthropologist to assign any
given individual at once to his proper tribe. In fact, I think that even
an anthropological specialist, after the most careful examination,
might find it a difficult task to decide. The whole congeries of peoples
collected in the region bounded on the west by the great Central
African rift, Tanganyika and Nyasa, and on the east by the Indian
Ocean, are closely related to each other—some of their languages are
only distinguished from one another as dialects of the same speech,
and no doubt all the tribes present the same shape of skull and
structure of skeleton. Thus, surely, there can be no very striking
differences in outward appearance.
Even did such exist, I should have no time
to concern myself with them, for day after day,
I have to see or hear, as the case may be—in
any case to grasp and record—an
extraordinary number of ethnographic
phenomena. I am almost disposed to think it
fortunate that some departments of inquiry, at
least, are barred by external circumstances.
Chief among these is the subject of iron-
working. We are apt to think of Africa as a
country where iron ore is everywhere, so to
speak, to be picked up by the roadside, and
where it would be quite surprising if the
inhabitants had not learnt to smelt the
material ready to their hand. In fact, the
knowledge of this art ranges all over the
continent, from the Kabyles in the north to the
Kafirs in the south. Here between the Rovuma
and the Lukuledi the conditions are not so
favourable. According to the statements of the
Makonde, neither ironstone nor any other
form of iron ore is known to them. They have
not therefore advanced to the art of smelting
the metal, but have hitherto bought all their
THE ANCESTRESS OF
THE MAKONDE
iron implements from neighbouring tribes.
Even in the plain the inhabitants are not much
better off. Only one man now living is said to
understand the art of smelting iron. This old fundi lives close to
Huwe, that isolated, steep-sided block of granite which rises out of
the green solitude between Masasi and Chingulungulu, and whose
jagged and splintered top meets the traveller’s eye everywhere. While
still at Masasi I wished to see this man at work, but was told that,
frightened by the rising, he had retired across the Rovuma, though
he would soon return. All subsequent inquiries as to whether the
fundi had come back met with the genuine African answer, “Bado”
(“Not yet”).
BRAZIER
Some consolation was afforded me by a brassfounder, whom I

came across in the bush near Akundonde’s. This man is the favourite
of women, and therefore no doubt of the gods; he welds the glittering
brass rods purchased at the coast into those massive, heavy rings
which, on the wrists and ankles of the local fair ones, continually give
me fresh food for admiration. Like every decent master-craftsman he
had all his tools with him, consisting of a pair of bellows, three
crucibles and a hammer—nothing more, apparently. He was quite
willing to show his skill, and in a twinkling had fixed his bellows on
the ground. They are simply two goat-skins, taken off whole, the four
legs being closed by knots, while the upper opening, intended to
admit the air, is kept stretched by two pieces of wood. At the lower
end of the skin a smaller opening is left into which a wooden tube is
stuck. The fundi has quickly borrowed a heap of wood-embers from
the nearest hut; he then fixes the free ends of the two tubes into an
earthen pipe, and clamps them to the ground by means of a bent
piece of wood. Now he fills one of his small clay crucibles, the dross
on which shows that they have been long in use, with the yellow
material, places it in the midst of the embers, which, at present are
only faintly glimmering, and begins his work. In quick alternation
the smith’s two hands move up and down with the open ends of the
bellows; as he raises his hand he holds the slit wide open, so as to let
the air enter the skin bag unhindered. In pressing it down he closes
the bag, and the air puffs through the bamboo tube and clay pipe into
the fire, which quickly burns up. The smith, however, does not keep
on with this work, but beckons to another man, who relieves him at
the bellows, while he takes some more tools out of a large skin pouch
carried on his back. I look on in wonder as, with a smooth round
stick about the thickness of a finger, he bores a few vertical holes into
the clean sand of the soil. This should not be difficult, yet the man
seems to be taking great pains over it. Then he fastens down to the
ground, with a couple of wooden clamps, a neat little trough made by
splitting a joint of bamboo in half, so that the ends are closed by the
two knots. At last the yellow metal has attained the right consistency,
and the fundi lifts the crucible from the fire by means of two sticks
split at the end to serve as tongs. A short swift turn to the left—a
tilting of the crucible—and the molten brass, hissing and giving forth
clouds of smoke, flows first into the bamboo mould and then into the
holes in the ground.
The technique of this backwoods craftsman may not be very far
advanced, but it cannot be denied that he knows how to obtain an
adequate result by the simplest means. The ladies of highest rank in
this country—that is to say, those who can afford it, wear two kinds
of these massive brass rings, one cylindrical, the other semicircular
in section. The latter are cast in the most ingenious way in the
bamboo mould, the former in the circular hole in the sand. It is quite
a simple matter for the fundi to fit these bars to the limbs of his fair
customers; with a few light strokes of his hammer he bends the
pliable brass round arm or ankle without further inconvenience to
the wearer.
SHAPING THE POT
SMOOTHING WITH MAIZE-COB
CUTTING THE EDGE

FINISHING THE BOTTOM
LAST SMOOTHING BEFORE

BURNING
FIRING THE BRUSH-PILE

LIGHTING THE FARTHER SIDE OF
THE PILE
TURNING THE RED-HOT VESSEL
NYASA WOMAN MAKING POTS AT MASASI

Pottery is an art which must always and everywhere excite the
interest of the student, just because it is so intimately connected with
the development of human culture, and because its relics are one of
the principal factors in the reconstruction of our own condition in
prehistoric times. I shall always remember with pleasure the two or
three afternoons at Masasi when Salim Matola’s mother, a slightly-
built, graceful, pleasant-looking woman, explained to me with
touching patience, by means of concrete illustrations, the ceramic art
of her people. The only implements for this primitive process were a
lump of clay in her left hand, and in the right a calabash containing
the following valuables: the fragment of a maize-cob stripped of all
its grains, a smooth, oval pebble, about the size of a pigeon’s egg, a
few chips of gourd-shell, a bamboo splinter about the length of one’s
hand, a small shell, and a bunch of some herb resembling spinach.
Nothing more. The woman scraped with the
shell a round, shallow hole in the soft, fine
sand of the soil, and, when an active young
girl had filled the calabash with water for her,
she began to knead the clay. As if by magic it
gradually assumed the shape of a rough but
already well-shaped vessel, which only wanted
a little touching up with the instruments
before mentioned. I looked out with the
MAKUA WOMAN closest attention for any indication of the use
MAKING A POT. of the potter’s wheel, in however rudimentary
SHOWS THE a form, but no—hapana (there is none). The
BEGINNINGS OF THE embryo pot stood firmly in its little
POTTER’S WHEEL
depression, and the woman walked round it in
a stooping posture, whether she was removing
small stones or similar foreign bodies with the maize-cob, smoothing
the inner or outer surface with the splinter of bamboo, or later, after
letting it dry for a day, pricking in the ornamentation with a pointed
bit of gourd-shell, or working out the bottom, or cutting the edge
with a sharp bamboo knife, or giving the last touches to the finished
vessel. This occupation of the women is infinitely toilsome, but it is
without doubt an accurate reproduction of the process in use among
our ancestors of the Neolithic and Bronze ages.
There is no doubt that the invention of pottery, an item in human
progress whose importance cannot be over-estimated, is due to
women. Rough, coarse and unfeeling, the men of the horde range
over the countryside. When the united cunning of the hunters has
succeeded in killing the game; not one of them thinks of carrying
home the spoil. A bright fire, kindled by a vigorous wielding of the
drill, is crackling beside them; the animal has been cleaned and cut
up secundum artem, and, after a slight singeing, will soon disappear
under their sharp teeth; no one all this time giving a single thought
to wife or child.
To what shifts, on the other hand, the primitive wife, and still more
the primitive mother, was put! Not even prehistoric stomachs could
endure an unvarying diet of raw food. Something or other suggested
the beneficial effect of hot water on the majority of approved but
indigestible dishes. Perhaps a neighbour had tried holding the hard
roots or tubers over the fire in a calabash filled with water—or maybe
an ostrich-egg-shell, or a hastily improvised vessel of bark. They
became much softer and more palatable than they had previously
been; but, unfortunately, the vessel could not stand the fire and got
charred on the outside. That can be remedied, thought our
ancestress, and plastered a layer of wet clay round a similar vessel.
This is an improvement; the cooking utensil remains uninjured, but
the heat of the fire has shrunk it, so that it is loose in its shell. The
next step is to detach it, so, with a firm grip and a jerk, shell and
kernel are separated, and pottery is invented. Perhaps, however, the
discovery which led to an intelligent use of the burnt-clay shell, was
made in a slightly different way. Ostrich-eggs and calabashes are not
to be found in every part of the world, but everywhere mankind has
arrived at the art of making baskets out of pliant materials, such as
bark, bast, strips of palm-leaf, supple twigs, etc. Our inventor has no
water-tight vessel provided by nature. “Never mind, let us line the
basket with clay.” This answers the purpose, but alas! the basket gets
burnt over the blazing fire, the woman watches the process of
cooking with increasing uneasiness, fearing a leak, but no leak
appears. The food, done to a turn, is eaten with peculiar relish; and
the cooking-vessel is examined, half in curiosity, half in satisfaction
at the result. The plastic clay is now hard as stone, and at the same
time looks exceedingly well, for the neat plaiting of the burnt basket
is traced all over it in a pretty pattern. Thus, simultaneously with
pottery, its ornamentation was invented.
Primitive woman has another claim to respect. It was the man,
roving abroad, who invented the art of producing fire at will, but the
woman, unable to imitate him in this, has been a Vestal from the
earliest times. Nothing gives so much trouble as the keeping alight of
the smouldering brand, and, above all, when all the men are absent
from the camp. Heavy rain-clouds gather, already the first large
drops are falling, the first gusts of the storm rage over the plain. The
little flame, a greater anxiety to the woman than her own children,
flickers unsteadily in the blast. What is to be done? A sudden thought
occurs to her, and in an instant she has constructed a primitive hut
out of strips of bark, to protect the flame against rain and wind.
This, or something very like it, was the way in which the principle
of the house was discovered; and even the most hardened misogynist
cannot fairly refuse a woman the credit of it. The protection of the
hearth-fire from the weather is the germ from which the human
dwelling was evolved. Men had little, if any share, in this forward
step, and that only at a late stage. Even at the present day, the
plastering of the housewall with clay and the manufacture of pottery
are exclusively the women’s business. These are two very significant
survivals. Our European kitchen-garden, too, is originally a woman’s
invention, and the hoe, the primitive instrument of agriculture, is,
characteristically enough, still used in this department. But the
noblest achievement which we owe to the other sex is unquestionably
the art of cookery. Roasting alone—the oldest process—is one for
which men took the hint (a very obvious one) from nature. It must
have been suggested by the scorched carcase of some animal
overtaken by the destructive forest-fires. But boiling—the process of
improving organic substances by the help of water heated to boiling-
point—is a much later discovery. It is so recent that it has not even
yet penetrated to all parts of the world. The Polynesians understand
how to steam food, that is, to cook it, neatly wrapped in leaves, in a
hole in the earth between hot stones, the air being excluded, and
(sometimes) a few drops of water sprinkled on the stones; but they
do not understand boiling.
To come back from this digression, we find that the slender Nyasa
woman has, after once more carefully examining the finished pot,
put it aside in the shade to dry. On the following day she sends me
word by her son, Salim Matola, who is always on hand, that she is
going to do the burning, and, on coming out of my house, I find her
already hard at work. She has spread on the ground a layer of very
dry sticks, about as thick as one’s thumb, has laid the pot (now of a
yellowish-grey colour) on them, and is piling brushwood round it.
My faithful Pesa mbili, the mnyampara, who has been standing by,
most obligingly, with a lighted stick, now hands it to her. Both of
them, blowing steadily, light the pile on the lee side, and, when the
flame begins to catch, on the weather side also. Soon the whole is in a
blaze, but the dry fuel is quickly consumed and the fire dies down, so
that we see the red-hot vessel rising from the ashes. The woman
turns it continually with a long stick, sometimes one way and
sometimes another, so that it may be evenly heated all over. In
twenty minutes she rolls it out of the ash-heap, takes up the bundle
of spinach, which has been lying for two days in a jar of water, and
sprinkles the red-hot clay with it. The places where the drops fall are
marked by black spots on the uniform reddish-brown surface. With a
sigh of relief, and with visible satisfaction, the woman rises to an
erect position; she is standing just in a line between me and the fire,
from which a cloud of smoke is just rising: I press the ball of my
camera, the shutter clicks—the apotheosis is achieved! Like a
priestess, representative of her inventive sex, the graceful woman
stands: at her feet the hearth-fire she has given us beside her the
invention she has devised for us, in the background the home she has
built for us.
At Newala, also, I have had the manufacture of pottery carried on
in my presence. Technically the process is better than that already
described, for here we find the beginnings of the potter’s wheel,
which does not seem to exist in the plains; at least I have seen
nothing of the sort. The artist, a frightfully stupid Makua woman, did
not make a depression in the ground to receive the pot she was about
to shape, but used instead a large potsherd. Otherwise, she went to
work in much the same way as Salim’s mother, except that she saved
herself the trouble of walking round and round her work by squatting
at her ease and letting the pot and potsherd rotate round her; this is
surely the first step towards a machine. But it does not follow that
the pot was improved by the process. It is true that it was beautifully
rounded and presented a very creditable appearance when finished,
but the numerous large and small vessels which I have seen, and, in
part, collected, in the “less advanced” districts, are no less so. We
moderns imagine that instruments of precision are necessary to
produce excellent results. Go to the prehistoric collections of our
museums and look at the pots, urns and bowls of our ancestors in the
dim ages of the past, and you will at once perceive your error.
MAKING LONGITUDINAL CUT IN
BARK
DRAWING THE BARK OFF THE LOG
REMOVING THE OUTER BARK

BEATING THE BARK
WORKING THE BARK-CLOTH AFTER BEATING, TO MAKE IT

SOFT
MANUFACTURE OF BARK-CLOTH AT NEWALA

To-day, nearly the whole population of German East Africa is
clothed in imported calico. This was not always the case; even now in
some parts of the north dressed skins are still the prevailing wear,
and in the north-western districts—east and north of Lake
Tanganyika—lies a zone where bark-cloth has not yet been
superseded. Probably not many generations have passed since such
bark fabrics and kilts of skins were the only clothing even in the
south. Even to-day, large quantities of this bright-red or drab
material are still to be found; but if we wish to see it, we must look in
the granaries and on the drying stages inside the native huts, where
it serves less ambitious uses as wrappings for those seeds and fruits
which require to be packed with special care. The salt produced at
Masasi, too, is packed for transport to a distance in large sheets of
bark-cloth. Wherever I found it in any degree possible, I studied the
process of making this cloth. The native requisitioned for the
purpose arrived, carrying a log between two and three yards long and
as thick as his thigh, and nothing else except a curiously-shaped
mallet and the usual long, sharp and pointed knife which all men and
boys wear in a belt at their backs without a sheath—horribile dictu!
[51]
Silently he squats down before me, and with two rapid cuts has
drawn a couple of circles round the log some two yards apart, and
slits the bark lengthwise between them with the point of his knife.
With evident care, he then scrapes off the outer rind all round the
log, so that in a quarter of an hour the inner red layer of the bark
shows up brightly-coloured between the two untouched ends. With
some trouble and much caution, he now loosens the bark at one end,
and opens the cylinder. He then stands up, takes hold of the free
edge with both hands, and turning it inside out, slowly but steadily
pulls it off in one piece. Now comes the troublesome work of
scraping all superfluous particles of outer bark from the outside of
the long, narrow piece of material, while the inner side is carefully
scrutinised for defective spots. At last it is ready for beating. Having
signalled to a friend, who immediately places a bowl of water beside
him, the artificer damps his sheet of bark all over, seizes his mallet,
lays one end of the stuff on the smoothest spot of the log, and
hammers away slowly but continuously. “Very simple!” I think to
myself. “Why, I could do that, too!”—but I am forced to change my
opinions a little later on; for the beating is quite an art, if the fabric is
not to be beaten to pieces. To prevent the breaking of the fibres, the
stuff is several times folded across, so as to interpose several
thicknesses between the mallet and the block. At last the required
state is reached, and the fundi seizes the sheet, still folded, by both
ends, and wrings it out, or calls an assistant to take one end while he
holds the other. The cloth produced in this way is not nearly so fine
and uniform in texture as the famous Uganda bark-cloth, but it is
quite soft, and, above all, cheap.
Now, too, I examine the mallet. My craftsman has been using the
simpler but better form of this implement, a conical block of some
hard wood, its base—the striking surface—being scored across and
across with more or less deeply-cut grooves, and the handle stuck
into a hole in the middle. The other and earlier form of mallet is
shaped in the same way, but the head is fastened by an ingenious
network of bark strips into the split bamboo serving as a handle. The
observation so often made, that ancient customs persist longest in
connection with religious ceremonies and in the life of children, here
finds confirmation. As we shall soon see, bark-cloth is still worn
during the unyago,[52] having been prepared with special solemn
ceremonies; and many a mother, if she has no other garment handy,
will still put her little one into a kilt of bark-cloth, which, after all,
looks better, besides being more in keeping with its African
surroundings, than the ridiculous bit of print from Ulaya.
MAKUA WOMEN

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The Essential Cosmic Perspective (8th

Edition ) 8th Edition

11 Our Star 288

11.3 The Sun–Earth Connection 298 Learning Goals 386

12 Surveying the Stars 309 Exercises and Problems 409

16 A Universe of Galaxies 411

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19 Life in the Universe 496 I

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begins with a two- to three-paragraph introduction to

offers a concise review of the learning goal questions,

able to answer from the reading alone.

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ABOUT THE AUTHORS xix

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how to succeed xxi

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This Hubble Space Telescope photo shows thousands of galaxies in a region

1.1 The Scale of the Universe 1.3 Spaceship Earth

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1.1 The Scale of the Universe

What is our place in the universe?

2 PART I • Developing Perspective

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approx. size: 1021 km < 100 million ly

Milky Way Galaxy

approx. size: 1010 km < 60 AU

approx. size: 104 km

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4 PART I • Developing Perspective

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Basic Astronomical Definitions

CHAPTER 1 • A Modern View of the Universe 5

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Beyond the observable universe:

6 PART I • Developing Perspective

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special topic How Many Planets Are in Our Solar System?

CHAPTER 1 • A Modern View of the Universe 7

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8 PART I • Developing Perspective

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CHAPTER 1 • A Modern View of the Universe 9

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The Observable Universe As incredible as the scale of our galaxy may