IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON ENERGY CONVERSION, VOL. 24, NO.
1, MARCH 2009
A Single-Stage Single-Phase Transformer-Less
Doubly Grounded Grid-Connected PV Interface
Hiren Patel and Vivek Agarwal, Senior Member, IEEE
Abstract—A transformer provides galvanic isolation and
grounding of the photovoltaic (PV) array in a PV-fed grid-
connected inverter. Inclusion of the transformer, however, may
increase the cost and/or bulk of the system. To overcome this
drawback, a single-phase, single-stage [no extra converter for volt-
age boost or maximum power point tracking (MPPT)], doubly
grounded, transformer-less PV interface, based on the buck–boost
principle, is presented. The configuration is compact and uses lesser
components. Only one (undivided) PV source and one buck–boost
inductor are used and shared between the two half cycles, which
prevents asymmetrical operation and parameter mismatch prob-
lems. Total harmonic distortion and dc component of the current
supplied to the grid is low, compared to existing topologies and
conform to standards like IEEE 1547. A brief review of the ex-
isting, transformer-less, grid-connected inverter topologies is also
included. It is demonstrated that, as compared to the split PV
source topology, the proposed configuration is more effective in
MPPT and array utilization. Design and analysis of the inverter
in discontinuous conduction mode is carried out. Simulation and
experimental results are presented.
Index Terms—Double grounding, IEC 1547, IEC 61727, max-
imum power point tracking (MPPT), NEC 690, partially shaded
conditions, photovoltaic.
I. INTRODUCTION
EMAND for clean, economical, and renewable energy
D has increased consistently. Among a variety of renewable
energy sources available, photovoltaic (PV) appears to be a ma-
jor contender on account of its abundance, easy availability,
and pollution-free operation. Increasing interest in sustainable
energy production through PV [1], however, demands atten-
tion on various issues such as maximum power point track-
ing (MPPT) [2], [3], personal safety, grid integration, stability
and reliability, power quality, power electronic interface of PV
with the grid, and operation under various environmental con-
ditions [4]–[7]. With increased level of penetration of PV-based
systems into the existing grid, these issues are expected to be-
come more critical with time, since they may affect the perfor-
mance of the other grid-connected systems [8]. This implies that
there is a need for a set of rules and regulations to govern the
grid-connected PV systems.
At present, there are no such globally accepted standard rules
and regulations. However, in some countries, it is mandatory
Manuscript received February 19, 2008; revised June 8, 2008. Current version
published February 19, 2009. Paper no. TEC-00048-2008.
H. Patel is with the Department of Electrical Engineering, Indian Institute of
Technology—Bombay, Mumbai 400 076, India, and also with the Sarvajanik
College of Engineering and Technology, Surat 395 001, India.
V. Agarwal is with the Department of Electrical Engineering, Indian In-
stitute of Technology—Bombay, Mumbai 400 076, India (e-mail: agarwal@
ee.iitb.ac.in).
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TEC.2008.2006551
0885-8969/$25.00 © 2009 IEEE
93
that the grid-connected PV systems must comply with certain
standards like IEEE 1547 [9], IEC 61727, and NEC 690 [10].
IEEE 1547 has provisions related to the performance, operation,
testing, safety considerations, and maintenance of the grid–PV
interconnection. IEEE 1547 and IEC 61727 impose limitations
on the maximum allowable amount of injected dc current into the
grid, which is 0.5%–1% of the rated output current of the source.
NEC 690 requires that the grid-connected, PV-based, dc–ac
inverter topologies must be appropriately earthed (grounded).
The grounding of a PV system, referred to as “system earth-
ing,” needs special consideration due to safety reasons [11], and
to minimize the effects of lighting and other surges. It refers to
an intentional connection to earth of one of the current-carrying
conductors in the PV system. In view of this, in certain coun-
tries (e.g., USA), it was mandatory to provide earthing to the
PV system when its output dc voltage exceeded a certain level,
typically 50 V. According to the revised NEC 690 (revised in
2005), PV inverters with ungrounded conductors are now al-
lowed in USA. However, the ungrounded PV inverters have to
fulfill a number of additional requirements (e.g., disconnects
and overcurrent protection in both the conductors, provision for
minimization of the effects due to surges, etc.) [12]. It is impor-
tant to note that even though ungrounded PV systems are now
allowed, system earthing is still advisable.
In addition to the PV string’s grounding, the neutral conduc-
tor of the 1 − φ inverter feeding the utility or the neutral of the
utility itself is grounded. This necessitates a PV inverter topol-
ogy that allows double grounding [10]. The inverter topologies
consisting of a transformer can easily realize double ground-
ing. In fact, double grounding can also be achieved with the
transformer-less topologies employing split PV sources. As dis-
cussed later in Section II, most of the transformer-less topolo-
gies, which have double grounding feature, employ a split PV
source (i.e., a PV source split into two halves PV1 and PV2 ).
However, they suffer from the following drawbacks.
1) They generate alternate half cycles of the grid current from
different halves of the split PV source. If the two halves
(PV1 and PV2 ) of the PV source operate in unidentical
conditions like different solar insolation levels or differ-
ent shading patterns, it results in a distorted grid current
with high total harmonic distortion (THD) and/or high dc
component.
2) Grid current may have high THD and/or dc component if
the modules used for PV1 and PV2 have some mismatch.
3) Only one of the two halves of the PV source is utilized
in a given ac half cycle. This leads to more ripple in the
voltage across PV1 and PV2 . As a result, the average
output power extracted from the PV decreases.
94
Fig. 1. Schematic of the circuit for the proposed system.
4) As explained later in Section V, when operating under
nonuniform conditions, inverters with split PV source are
less effective in the utilization of the PV array.
This paper reviews various transformer-less topologies and
proposes a new single-stage, 1 − φ, transformer-less, PV-fed
grid-connected system. Fig. 1 shows the proposed configura-
tion employing double grounding. The salient features of the
proposed topology are as follows.
1) It meets the double grounding requirement.
2) Even under partially shaded conditions, there is no prob-
ability of injecting dc component into the grid.
3) It has a single buck–boost inductor and uses the same
operating principle (as that of a buck–boost converter) in
both the halves of the ac cycle. As a result, a symmetrical
grid current with low THD and dc component is obtained.
4) It uses only one PV string as the input source, which is
used in both halves of the ac cycle. Due to this, the ripple
in the voltage of the input capacitor Cin (Fig. 1) is less,
leading to the extraction of more average output power.
5) The proposed topology is more suitable in effective uti-
lization of the PV array.
6) It can be used irrespective of the PV voltage being greater
or smaller than the grid voltage amplitude. This feature
renders it suitable for places where the environmental
conditions vary over a wide range or the array is likely to
receive nonuniform solar insolation (e.g., partially shaded
conditions).
7) All the features like MPPT control, inversion, and voltage
transformation are encompassed into a single stage.
8) It uses fewer components, and is therefore, more compact.
II. REVIEW OF EXISTING TOPOLOGIES
Over the years, researchers have presented many topologies
that are based on the galvanic isolation provided by the trans-
former [10], [13], [14]. Another advantage of the transformer is
that it can provide voltage transformation. Some single-stage in-
verter configurations based on high-frequency transformer are
also reported [10] to overcome the drawbacks such as lower
efficiency, higher cost, and bulky size of the configurations em-
ploying line frequency transformer.
Several researchers have worked with the PV-fed grid-
connected, transformer-less dc–ac inverter topologies [15]–[18],
[20]–[22] and the issues related to their operation [23], [24].
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON ENERGY CONVERSION, VOL. 24, NO. 1, MARCH 2009
To offer a compact and economic design, the transformer-less
topologies may have to compromise on the double grounding
aspect [15], [16]. A few topologies, which do offer double
grounding feature, are shown in Fig. 2. Kasa et al. [17] have
presented an inverter based on half-bridge buck–boost configu-
ration [Fig. 2(a)]. It employs two parallel-connected buck–boost
converters, each with its own PV string (PV1 or PV2 of the split
PV source). It can operate over a wide input voltage range, and
has low switching and conduction losses. But, as only one PV
string is used over a half cycle, ripple in the voltage across de-
coupling capacitors is very large, leading to a decrease in the
net output power obtained from the PV strings. This could be
minimized by having a large electrolytic capacitor, but at an
increased cost. In addition, in case of unbalanced power gen-
eration from the two PV strings (PV1 and PV2 ), the current
injected into the grid may not be symmetrical (highly distorted
with high THD), and may have a dc component that does not
conform to IEEE 1547.
The configuration shown in Fig. 2(b) utilizes generation con-
trol circuit (GCC) [18], which comprises two switches (S1 and
S2 ) and an inductor L. With GCC, MPPT can be applied to both
the PV strings independently. The disadvantage with the con-
figuration is that it is inherently a half-bridge, exhibiting buck
characteristics. Hence, this topology is applicable only where
input voltage is greater than the output voltage. Due to this, a PV
string of large number of PV modules would be required, which
is more likely to get affected by partial shading conditions. In
such a case, the PV characteristics of these strings may have
multiple peaks [19], which makes it difficult to track the global
peak, unless each PV module is supported by its own GCC.
Another transformer-less topology that can provide a solution
to the dual grounding problem is a multilevel (three levels) half-
bridge diode-clamped inverter (HBDC) shown in Fig. 2(c) [20].
It produces three different voltage levels: 1) VC1 when switches
S1 and S2 are ON; 2) zero when switches S2 and S3 are ON;
and 3) −VC2 when switches S3 and S4 are ON. Here also, as
in the topology of Fig. 2(a), each of the PV strings is loaded
only for half the ac cycle. This results in the requirement of a
large electrolytic capacitor to reduce the ripple in the capaci-
tor voltage. This topology does not provide voltage boosting,
and when the two PV strings generate unequal power, it may
generate asymmetrical output current.
Kusakawa et al. [21] have presented an inverter topology
[Fig. 2(d)] based on the buck–boost principle for an ac module,
with a low power rating of around 50 W. Unlike other configu-
rations, this configuration uses only one PV string. The circuit
is operated in the continuous conduction mode (CCM), which
requires a large inductor value. Further, the PV is not actu-
ally grounded; thus, the topology does not truly provide double
grounding. Nevertheless, during alternate half cycles, either the
positive or the negative conductor of the PV remains grounded
through the switches S1 and S4 .
All the inverter topologies, shown in Fig. 2(a)–(d), operate
on the same principle in both the ac half cycles. Schekulin [22]
has proposed a topology [Fig. 2(e)] derived from the basic Zeta
and Ĉuk (fourth-order converters) configurations. This topol-
ogy uses minimal number of devices. However, during positive
PATEL AND AGARWAL: SINGLE-STAGE SINGLE-PHASE TRANSFORMER-LESS DOUBLY GROUNDED GRID-CONNECTED PV INTERFACE
Fig. 2. Existing transformer-less, single-stage, 1 − φ PV-based inverter topologies with double grounding. (a)–(c) Topologies based on split PV-source [17],
[18], [20]. (d)–(e) Configurations with single PV source [21], [22]. (f) Proposed topology.
half-cycle, it transfers the power to the grid on the principle of a
buck–boost converter, while during negative half-cycle, it uses
the boost principle to transfer the power to the grid. This asym-
metrical operation not only makes the control scheme complex,
but may also result in asymmetrical current and may inject dc
component into the grid current.
III. CIRCUIT CONFIGURATION AND WORKING
The circuit schematic of the proposed 1 − φ PV inverter
is shown in Fig. 1. Unlike some other topologies, which use
two PV strings, the circuit of Fig. 1 employs only one PV
string as the energy source. In addition, the negative conductor
of the PV source always remains grounded, thereby providing
double grounding. The circuit uses five switches (S1 through S5 )
and three diodes (D1 through D3 ). It uses only one buck–boost
inductor L. Inductor Lf and capacitor Cf form the low-pass
filter, which allows only the 50-Hz component of the inverter
output current to enter into the grid. The various modes in which
this circuit operates are shown in Fig. 3.
During the negative half cycle of the ac grid voltage, switches
S1 , S2 , and S5 along with the diode D1 form a buck–boost con-
verter. The switches S3 and S4 always remain OFF. Fig. 3(a)–(c)
shows modes I through III, respectively, in which the converter
operates during the negative half cycle. In the negative half cy-
cle, switches S2 and S5 are always kept ON, while the switch
S1 is triggered with the sine-triangle pulsewidth modulation
(PWM) technique. When switch S1 is ON, energy is stored in
inductor L1 [mode I, Fig. 3(a)]. When S1 turns OFF, the stored
energy is transferred to the grid [mode II, Fig. 3(b)].
During the positive half of the ac cycle, switches S1 , S3 –S5 ,
along with diodes D2 and D3 , form a buck–boost converter.
Switch S2 always remains OFF. The buck–boost converter is now
operated by controlling the switches S1 and S5 using the signal
derived from the sine-triangle PWM. Fig. 3(d)–(f) shows modes
95
IV through VI, respectively, in which the converter operates
during the positive half cycle. During these modes, switches S3
and S4 are always ON. When switches S1 and S5 are ON, energy
is stored in inductor L1 [mode IV, Fig. 3(d)]. When S1 and S5
turn OFF, the stored energy is transferred to the grid [mode IV,
Fig. 3(e)].
The amplitude of the “reference” sinusoidal waveform used
for the sine-triangle PWM (mentioned before) is controlled to
track the maximum power point (MPP). The controller imple-
ments the perturb and observe (P&O) method, and identifies
whether to increase or decrease the amplitude of the reference
waveform to achieve MPP. It then increases/decreases the am-
plitude of the sinusoidal template, which is derived from the
grid voltage.
Unlike the operating modes shown in Fig. 3, where the opera-
tion in both the half cycles is based on the buck–boost principle,
it is possible to operate the proposed configuration even with
asymmetric operating principle. During the negative half cycle,
the operating modes are similar to those shown in Fig. 3(a) and
(b), i.e., employing the buck–boost principle. But in the positive
half cycle, instead of operating the configuration as a buck–boost
converter, it is operated as a buck converter for that period of
the half cycle where VPV > vg and as a boost converter for the
remaining period. This feature of operating the circuit distinctly
as a buck and a boost converter for the positive half cycle can
reduce stress on the components. This is a desirable yet unac-
ceptable proposition on account of the asymmetry it introduces
between the positive and negative half cycles because the topol-
ogy does not support distinct buck and boost operations during
the negative half cycle.
IV. DESIGN OF THE COMPONENTS
The design of various components used in the proposed in-
verter is very crucial for generating a sinusoidal grid current,
96 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON ENERGY CONVERSION, VOL. 24, NO. 1, MARCH 2009

Fig. 3. Circuit diagrams for various operating modes of the proposed configuration. (a)–(c) Operation during negative half cycle: modes I–III. (d)–(f) Operation
during positive half cycle: modes IV–V. Bold lines show the active current paths. (c) and (f) Operation after all the energy stored in the buck–boost inductor is
transferred to the grid.

which is in phase with the grid voltage. The design also decides Here, Ig m m ax is the amplitude of current injected into the
the discontinuous conduction mode (DCM) or CCM operation. grid under maximum insolation and uniform insolation condi-
The analysis leading to the design of the various components tions. If the switching frequency (fs ) of the converter is very
for the DCM operation is presented next. high for a given switching period (Ts ), the grid voltage (vg ) and
the grid current (ig ) can be considered constant. Under these
A. Design of Inductor L1 conditions, at an instant ωt = 90◦ , vg = Vg m and ig = Ig m m ax .
The energy transferred to the grid during this period is
The design of the buck–boost inductor should ensure DCM
operation of the inverter under all conditions of temperature and Em ax = Vg m Ig m m ax Ts . (3)
peak insolation levels. The inductor should also be able to handle
the maximum energy corresponding to the peak power rating of During the ON period
the PV array. If DCM is ensured for peak power conditions, the Lcrit Ip eak
TON = (4)
inverter will operate in DCM for all other conditions. The value VPV m pp m ax
of the inductance is obtained for the boundary condition (critical
conduction mode), i.e., for the operation on the boundary of and during the OFF period
DCM and CCM. Lcrit Ip eak
TOFF = (5)
As the current injected into the grid is in phase with the Vg m
grid voltage (vg = Vg m sin ωt, where Vg m is the amplitude,
ω is the angular frequency, and t is the time), the maximum where Ip eak is the peak inductor current and Lcrit is the in-
(instantaneous) power is injected into the grid at the time when ductance value for the critical conduction mode. From (4) and
the grid voltage is at its peak (i.e., ωt = 90◦ ). Thus, the design for (5)


the inductor should be in accordance with the current, voltage, 1 1
and power values at that instant. The maximum power obtained Ts = TON + TOFF = Lcrit Ip eak + . (6)
Vg m VPV m pp m ax
from the PV string is given by
Using (6), the energy stored in the inductor during this period
PPV m ax = VPV m pp m ax IPV m pp m ax (1) is given as follows:

−2
where VPV m pp m ax and IPV m pp m ax are the output voltage Lcrit Ip2 eak Ts2 1 1
= + . (7)
and current of the PV array, when working at MPP under max- 2 2Lcrit Vg m VPV m pp m ax
imum insolation and uniform conditions. Assuming a lossless
inverter, the maximum power injected into the grid is From (3) and (7),

−2
Vg m Ig m m ax Ts 1 1
Pg = √ √ = VPV m pp m ax IPV m pp m ax . (2) Lcrit = + . (8)
m ax
2 2 2Vg m Ig m m ax Vg m VPV m pp m ax
PATEL AND AGARWAL: SINGLE-STAGE SINGLE-PHASE TRANSFORMER-LESS DOUBLY GROUNDED GRID-CONNECTED PV INTERFACE 97

From (2) and (8),

−2
0.25Ts 1 1
Lcrit = + .
VPV m pp m ax IPV m pp m ax Vg m VPV m pp m ax
(9)
Thus, the value of Lcrit (for the critical conduction mode) is
obtained from the PV string parameters, the grid voltage, and
the switching frequency. To ensure DCM operation, L1 (Fig. 1)
should be smaller than Lcrit .

B. Design of Filter Capacitor Cf

The value of filter capacitor Cf is obtained by equating the
energy released by the inductor L1 and the energy received
by the capacitor Cf . If ∆V is the ac voltage ripple on Cf , at
ωt = 90◦ , the energy balance between Cf and L1 is given by
the following:
Lcrit Ip2 eak Cf
= [(Vg m + ∆V )2 − (Vg m − ∆V )2 ]. (10)
2 2
Hence,
Ip2 eak Lcrit
Cf = . (11)
4Vg m ∆V
From (6) and (11),

−2
Ts2 1 1
Cf = + (12)
4Lcrit Vg m ∆V Vg m VPV m pp m ax

which gives the value of Cf in terms of L1 , grid voltage, PV

string parameters, switching frequency, and acceptable high-
frequency ac voltage ripple, superimposed on the sinusoidal
capacitor voltage.

C. Design of Filter Inductor Lf

Fig. 4. Performance of the configuration shown in Fig. 2(a) under nonuniform
The filter inductor can be obtained as follows: conditions. MPPT is implemented based on the information sensed from array
PV 1 . (a)–(c) Output power, voltage, and current of arrays PV 1 and PV 2 ,
1 1 respectively. (d) THD of grid current. (e) Voltage across filter capacitor. (f) and
Lf = 2 = (13)
ω Cf (2πfc )2 Cf (g) Inductor current. (h) and (i) Grid current under uniform and nonuniform
conditions, respectively.
where fc is the cutoff frequency, which is much less than the
switching frequency (fs ) at which the switch S1 is operated.
configuration, improper design of the circuit components, etc.
D. Design of Decoupling Capacitor Cin Case a discusses the effect of partial shading on the split-PV-
source-based configurations. Case b presents the effect of con-
The size of Cin can be decided as follows [10]: trol scheme employing two different operating principles in the
PPV two half cycles, while case c shows the effect of improper selec-
Cin = . (14)
4πf VPV m pp m ax ∆VPV tion of the buck–boost converter on the grid current waveform.
Hence,
A. Results With a Split Source Topology
IPV m pp m ax
Cin = (15) 1) Case a (Operation of a Split PV Source in Partially Shaded
4πf ∆VPV
Conditions Where MPPT is Used With an Unshaded Array):
where f is the frequency of the grid voltage and ∆VPV is the
Fig. 4 shows the response of the circuit shown in Fig. 2(a) [17]
amplitude of the ripple voltage across the decoupling capacitor
when operating under nonuniform conditions. The PV array,
connected across the PV array.
PV1 , is receiving an insolation of 0.5 kW/m2 . PV2 receives
0.5 kW/m2 until t = 2 s; 0.1 kW/m2 for the interval 2–3.7 s;
V. SIMULATION RESULTS
and 0.3 kW/m2 after t = 3.7 s.
In this section, various cases are simulated to highlight the Hill-climbing method is used for MPPT by sensing volt-
issues, arising due to partial shading, control scheme used, age and current of the array PV1 . Fig. 4(a)–(c) shows that the
98 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON ENERGY CONVERSION, VOL. 24, NO. 1, MARCH 2009

maximum power from both the arrays is being tracked until t =

2 s due to uniform conditions on both the arrays. However, as
the MPPT is done by sensing the parameters of PV1 , after t =
2 s, when PV2 starts receiving lower insolation, an optimum
utilization of the array PV2 is not achieved. Fig. 4(d) shows that
the THD of the grid current is less than the permissible limit un-
til t = 2 s. However, after t = 2 s, the THD of the grid current is
about 90% for the interval 2–3.7 s and is 48% beyond t = 3.7 s.
Simulations were also performed with the MPPT imple-
mented by sensing the parameters of PV2 in place of PV1 , with
the other conditions remaining the same (results not explicitly
shown due to paucity of space). It was observed that the THD in
grid current after the occurrence of sudden shading increased to
85%, but in steady state, it reduced to within 10%–15% range.
However, the steady-state power tracked in this case is much
smaller than the previous case (325 W), leading to ineffective
utilization of the PV arrays, especially PV1 .

B. Results With the Proposed Topology

1) Case b (Performance of an Inverter With Asymmetri-
cal Operating Principles in the Two Half Cycles): The results
shown in Fig. 5 are for a PV inverter employing different prin-
ciples of operation in the positive and negative half cycles. The
proposed circuit (Fig. 1) is operated as a buck–boost converter
in the negative half cycle [Fig. 3(a)–(c)]. However, in the pos-
itive cycle of grid voltage, instead of operating the circuit as a
buck–boost converter, the circuit is operated as a buck converter
when the PV voltage is greater than the grid voltage and as a
boost converter when the grid voltage is greater than the PV
voltage.
Fig. 5(c) shows the asymmetry in the grid current when the
circuit is operated with “bang-bang control” to control the in-
ductor current in CCM. The amplitude of grid current during the
positive half cycle is 2.5 A, while that in the negative half cycle, Fig. 5. Performance of a circuit operating on different principles in the posi-
it is about 2.1 A. Hence, the grid current has a dc component tive and negative half cycles. (a)–(c) With CCM operation. (d)–(f) With DCM
operation.
of 0.10 A (about 6.44% of the fundamental component) and its
THD is about 15% in CCM. Fig. 5(d)–(f) shows the results when
the same circuit is operated in DCM. The grid current is more shows that when the generated PV power is near its full capac-
distorted as compared to the CCM operation, with a THD of ity, the system operates in CCM. As a result, grid current gets
22% and a dc component of 0.18 A (10.15% of the fundamental distorted [Fig. 6(b)] and injects a distorted grid current with a
component). Fig. 5(f) shows that the distortion is higher during large dc component [Fig. 6(e)]. Fig. 6(c) shows a 100-Hz ripple
the positive half cycle of grid current. This is on account of the in the PV current. This results in a ripple in the capacitor (Cin )
switching from the buck to boost mode and vice versa. voltage. The more the current ripple, the more is the ripple in
2) Case c (Effect of Buck–Boost Inductor Value on the the voltage and less is the average output power obtained from
Performance of the Inverter): Fig. 6 shows the results when the PV array. The voltage ripple can be minimized by using a
an inductor of inappropriate value is used with the proposed higher value decoupling capacitor (Cin ).
topology (Fig. 1). Following values are selected for the various Fig. 7 shows the response of the proposed converter (Fig. 1)
components: L1 = 210 µH, Cf = 20 µF, Lf = 2.3 µH, Cin = while operating in DCM (with L1 < 203 µH). Fig. 7(b) shows
4500 µF. ∆V and ∆VPV are taken as 20 and 2.5 V, respec- that as there is only one PV array and only one inductor, the
tively, while fc = 750 Hz. Two parallel-connected PV strings problem of asymmetry in the grid current does not arise. The
are used as the source. Each PV string has six series-connected insolation received by the array before t = 2 s is 1 kW/m2
PV modules. IPV m pp m ax and VPV m pp m ax values for this ar- and 0.5 kW/m2 after t = 2 s. Fig. 7(d) shows the amplitude of
rangement are approximately 7 A and 95 V, respectively. With the reference sinusoidal waveform used for the sine-triangular
fs = 10 kHz and Vg = 230 V (rms), the critical value for induc- PWM technique. The amplitude reaches the steady-state value
tor Lcrit , using (9), is obtained as 203 µH. Hence, the selected and oscillates about this value. The oscillations are a result of
value of L1 (=210 µH) results in CCM operation. Fig. 6(a) intentional perturbations due to the application of P&O method
PATEL AND AGARWAL: SINGLE-STAGE SINGLE-PHASE TRANSFORMER-LESS DOUBLY GROUNDED GRID-CONNECTED PV INTERFACE 99

Fig. 6. Results with the proposed topology with improper inductor size.
(a) Inductor current. (b) Grid current. (c) PV string’s output current. (d) Ampli-
tude of the reference waveform. (e) THD and dc components of grid current.

for MPPT. Fig. 7(h) and (i) demonstrates the effectiveness of the
topology, and the control scheme to limit the THD and the dc
component to a much lower value of 0.02 and 0.015 A (about 1%
of the fundamental component at low power output under the
given partially shaded conditions), respectively. Also, as shown
in Fig. 7(e)–(g), unlike the split PV-source-based topologies, the
MPP is tracked continuously. This ensures effective utilization
of the PV array.

VI. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS Fig. 7. Results when appropriate inductor value is used with the proposed
configuration. (a) Inductor current. (b) Grid current. (c) Voltage across the filter
The experimental setup comprises three parallel-connected capacitor. (d) Amplitude of reference wave. (e)–(g) Output current, voltage, and
PV strings, each with six series-connected PV modules. The power of the PV array. (h) THD of the grid current. (i) DC component of the
grid current.
specifications of the PV module (output power, current and
voltage at MPP, short-circuit current, and open-circuit voltage)
at an insolation level of 1 kW/m2 and 25 ◦ C temperature are
Pm ax = 38 W, Im pp = 2.29 A, Vm pp = 16.6 V, ISC = 2.55 A,
and VOC = 21.5 V. Partial shading, using the transparent gelatin
papers, is applied artificially by shading the two modules in the
first PV string and three modules in the second PV string.

A. Results With the Two-Inductor Topology [16]

Figs. 8 and 9 show the results obtained with the circuit con-
figuration that has two parallel-connected buck–boost convert-
ers [16] and does not have a double grounding. To study the
effect of mismatch in buck–boost inductor values, the circuit is
implemented with buck–boost inductors of values L1 = 0.32 mH
and L2 = 0.29 mH. Fig. 8 shows that due to the mismatch, the
grid current amplitudes are not same in the positive and negative
half cycles (visible in the power waveform). Fig. 9 shows the
variation in the potential of the positive and negative bus with
respect to the grid neutral. The absolute maximum voltage at the
PV bus is the sum of the grid voltage amplitude and the PV bus
voltage. This may lead to an electric shock to a person touching
the PV array.
Fig. 8. Results with an inverter that uses two buck–boost inductors [16].
B. Results With the Proposed Topology
Fig. 10 shows the performance of the proposed inverter
(Fig. 1) when operating at the global peak power point. The
operating voltage, current, and power at this point are 92 V,
2.1 A, and 193.2 W, respectively. The grid voltage is adjusted
(using a variac) to about 100 V with a peak of 141 V. The power
supplied to the grid is 168 W. Fig. 10 shows a symmetrical,
100
Fig. 9. Variation in the potential of PV bus conductors.
Fig. 10. Results with the proposed single-inductor buck–boost inverter when
operating at the global peak.
Fig. 11. Results with the proposed inverter at low insolation level. Voltage
waveforms have been attenuated ten times with the attenuator probe. (a) Current
and voltage waveforms for the PV array, grid, and filter components. (b) THD
of grid current at two different low solar insolation levels, λ1 and λ2 (where
λ1 > λ2 ): case (i) for λ1 and case (ii) for λ2 .
distortion-free, sinusoidal grid current that is in phase with the
grid voltage. Fig. 11 shows the operation of the proposed inverter
when the array is receiving low solar insolation. Fig. 11(a) shows
the grid-side and PV-side waveforms along with the voltage
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON ENERGY CONVERSION, VOL. 24, NO. 1, MARCH 2009
across the filter capacitor and the buck–boost inductor current.
Fig. 11(b) shows that for a grid current of 0.82 A, the THD in
grid current is 4.9% (case i), which conforms to the standard
IEEE 519 (THD ≤ 5%), while for a grid current of 0.43 A
(corresponding to a very low power level), the THD is 9.2%
(case ii).
VII. CONCLUSION
Single-phase, single-stage, transformer-less grid-connected
PV interfaces, capable of resolving the double grounding prob-
lem, have been reviewed. Most of the existing transformer-less
topologies achieve double grounding by using a split PV source.
Such topologies, when operating under nonuniform conditions,
face problems such as inefficient array utilization and dc cur-
rent injection into the grid. Even inverters sourced by a single
PV string, but which operate on different principles in the two
halves of the ac cycle, inject a significant dc component into the
grid current.
A compact PV–grid interface, which operates with a single
PV source and has the capability of double grounding has been
proposed, analyzed, designed, and developed. It is observed that
the maximum voltage that can develop on the ungrounded con-
ductor is limited to the PV array output voltage, and hence, the
topology exhibits a good safety feature. The topology uses only
one PV source, a single buck–boost inductor, and a decoupling
capacitor that are shared in both the half cycles. This elimi-
nates the problems arising out of asymmetrical operation and
mismatch in the components.
The THD and dc component of the injected grid current are
much lower as compared to other topologies. In addition, due
to its inherent nature, it can work over a wide input voltage
range. The effectiveness of the proposed inverter configuration
to operate in nonuniform insolation conditions is demonstrated
with the help of simulation and experimental results.
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101
Hiren Patel received the B.E. degree in electrical
engineering from the S.V. Regional College of En-
gineering and Technology (now S.V. National In-
stitute of Technology), South Gujarat University,
Surat, India, in 1996, and the M.Tech. degree in en-
ergy systems in 2003 from the Indian Institute of
Technology—Bombay (IITB), Mumbai, India, where
he is currently working toward the Ph.D. degree in
electrical engineering.
His current research interests include computer-
aided simulation techniques, distributed generation,
and renewable energy, especially energy extraction from photovoltaic arrays. He
is an Assistant Professor at Sarvajanik College of Engineering and Technology,
Surat.
Mr. Patel is a Life Member of the Indian Society for Technical Education.
Vivek Agarwal (S’92–M’93–SM’01) received the
Bachelor’s degree in physics from St. Stephen’s Col-
lege, Delhi University, Delhi, India, the Master’s de-
gree in electrical engineering from the Indian Institute
of Science, Bangaluru, India, and the Ph.D. degree in
electrical and computer engineering from the Univer-
sity of Victoria, Victoria, BC, Canada.
He was a Research Engineer with Statpower Tech-
nologies, Burnaby, BC, Canada. In 1995, he joined
the Department of Electrical Engineering, Indian
Institute of Technology—Bombay, Mumbai, India,
where he is currently a Professor. His current research interests include power
electronics, modeling and simulation of new power converter configurations,
intelligent and hybrid control of power electronic systems, power quality is-
sues, electromagnetic interference (EMI)/electromagnetic compatibility (EMC)
issues, and conditioning of energy from nonconventional sources.
Prof. Agarwal is a Fellow of the Institute of Electronics and Telecommuni-
cation Engineers (IETE) and a Life Member of the Indian Society for Technical
Education.