Science of the Total Environment 891 (2023) 164411

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Science of the Total Environment

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/scitotenv

Towards sustainable community-based ecotourism: A qualitative

content analysis
⁎
Fereshteh Hafezi a, Masoud Bijani a, , Saeed Gholamrezai b, Moslem Savari c, Sabine Panzer-Krause d
a
Department of Agricultural Extension and Education, College of Agriculture, Tarbiat Modares University (TMU), Tehran, Iran
b
Department of Agricultural Economics and Rural Development, College of Agriculture, Lorestan University (LU), Lorestan, Iran
c
Department of Agricultural Extension and Education, Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources University of Khuzestan, Mollasani, Iran
d
Department of Geography, University of Hildesheim, Hildesheim, Germany

H I G H L I G H T S G R A P H I C A L A B S T R A C T

• The purpose was to develop a sustainable

community-based ecotourism model.
• The novelty was to present a comprehen-
sive model based on the critical theory
paradigm and integrating the sustainabil-
ity with ecotourism.
• Qualitative content analysis with a deduc-
tive approach was used as the research
method.
• Final model presented according to
Hartmut model (planning, implementa-
tion, evaluation and situation analysis).
• The model presented can be useful for
decision-making and planning.

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Editor: Huu Hao Ngo Community-based ecotourism (CBET) provides benefits to society members, especially concerning to the environment,
by giving them the opportunity to influence and participate in the development of tourism. Lorestan province in the
Keywords: west of Iran is influenced by this phenomenon by having specific CBET opportunities in different economic, social, en-
Tourism vironmental and physical dimensions. The purpose of this study was to develop a sustainable community-based eco-
Community-based ecotourism
tourism (SCBET) model using the qualitative content analysis (with a deductive method in the form of the Hartmut
Participation
Sustainability
model). The documents used included a systematic study of 45 international articles, 12 local articles, 2 books and
Lorestan in-depth interviews with 11 local experts. The results showed that the crystallization of CBET can be formed in the
form of a four-component model (including planning, implementation, evaluation and situation analysis). In this
model, four stages of the process of implementing community-based tourism (CBT) have been presented, in all of
which the participation of researchers, ecotourists, policymakers and local people have been of great importance. Fi-
nally, the extracted categories for CBET sustainability were matched with the standards of the Global Sustainable Tour-
ism Council (GSTC) (including sustainable management, cultural sustainability, socio-economic sustainability and
environmental sustainability) and the final SCBET model was presented. This model can be useful for policy makers
for decision-making and planning in the SCBET field.

Abbreviations: (CBT), Community-based tourism; (CBET), Community-based ecotourism; (SCBET), Sustainable community-based ecotourism; (GSTC), Global Sustainable Tourism Council.
⁎ Corresponding author at: Department of Agricultural Extension and Education, College of Agriculture, Tarbiat Modares University (TMU), Tehran 1497713111, Iran.
E-mail addresses: hafezi.fereshteh@modares.ac.ir (F. Hafezi), mbijani@modares.ac.ir (M. Bijani), gholamrezai.s@lu.ac.ir (S. Gholamrezai), savari@asnrukh.ac.ir (M. Savari),
sabine.panzer-krause@uni-hildesheim.de (S. Panzer-Krause).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.164411
Received 30 March 2023; Received in revised form 11 May 2023; Accepted 21 May 2023
Available online 26 May 2023
0048-9697/© 2023 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
F. Hafezi et al. Science of the Total Environment 891 (2023) 164411

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2. Materials and methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
3. Results and discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
3.1. Localized standards and SCBET model design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
4. Conclusion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
CRediT authorship contribution statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Data availability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Declaration of competing interest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

1. Introduction Lemieux, 2010). Ecotourism has a close relationship with community-

According to the report of the United Nation World Tourism Organiza-
tion (UNWTO), now, tourism is the most profitable industry in the world
and is expected to become the first (UNWTO, 2017; Hallaj et al., 2022).
On the other hand, the rapid and significant growth of this industry has in-
creased the concerns about its impacts and consequences on the environ-
ment, communities and cultures (Fallah Haghighi and Bijani, 2020;
Valizadeh et al., 2021). The philosophy of ecotourism, which was proposed
in 1980, has been a response to these human concerns (Buckley, 2012).
What is considered as ecotourism is a type of tourism that is related to vis-
iting natural regions of the world and all kinds of living creatures. In other
words, ecotourism is a responsible trip to natural zones protecting the envi-
ronmental resources and stabilizing the local people's well-being, and in ad-
dition, it includes the interpretation and education of this process (The
International Ecotourism Society (TIES), 2007).
Unlike other economic sectors that require initial investments in order
to create foreign exchange resources, the tourism industry alone can be con-
sidered as one of the sources of foreign exchange; and this has attracted the
attention of most third world countries and many countries have been able
to significantly improve their situation by using this approach (Scott and
based tourism (CBT) in such a way that in 2002 (International year of eco-
tourism), the term community-based ecotourism (CBET) was officially ap-
plied for the first time and then by adding the dimension of sustainability,
sustainable community-based ecotourism (SCBET) was developed (Saqai
et al., 2015). The purpose of CBET is the tourism that protects natural re-
sources, promotes economic development and reduces poverty in commu-
nities. By encouraging people to protect rather than destroy local
resources, CBET provides alternative income for local people and has con-
tributed to sustainable development because it enables the community to
manage their resources via sustainable activities (Siphannara, 2019). Gen-
erally, SCBET is based on economic productivity, social justice and environ-
mental sustainability (Yazdanpanah et al., 2022; Zobeidi et al., 2022).
Therefore, SCBET aims to protect natural resources while respecting the
host community (Bo and Fiorello, 2012).
In the west of Iran, Lorestan, (Fig. 1), is one of the prominent provinces
in terms of having various natural and cultural attractions. In this area,
there are more than 40 permanent and seasonal waterfalls, more than
90 historical bridges, 13 wetlands, several ancient caves, and more
than 5000 historical and natural works, of which about 2500 artistic
works are registered in the list of national works (Administration of

Fig. 1. The site of the study area (location map of Lorestan province).

2
F. Hafezi et al.
Cultural Heritage, Handicrafts and Tourism of organization Lorestan,
2021). According to the detailed tourism report, Iran has so far been able
to take the 10th place for having cultural and ancient attractions and the
5th place for having natural attractions (Payahour et al., 2020). But despite
having many historical, cultural and natural attractions, this province does
not contribute much to the revenues and benefits of the tourism industry.
Thus, exact and practical planning for the development of its tourism indus-
try is of crucial importance.
One of the impacts of the development of ecotourism in this province is
the establishment of rental units, roadside residences, etc.; however, in re-
sponse to the needs of tourists, it has been changed a lot and the participa-
tory model of people in ecotourism in the executive process is associated
with some weaknesses from both the tourist community and the tourism
authorities, so that with the exception of the official hosts, the local people
who should be the major source for achieving sustainable tourism, have no
other official responsibility. Accordingly, environmental, social and cul-
tural problems, on the one hand, and the lack of required infrastructure
in this field, have made the development of ecotourism challenging. The
lack of awareness of the host community regarding the value of its natural
attractions, not considering the standards of the concept of responsible eco-
tourism, environmental destruction, cultural differences between the host
and guest communities, etc. are among the problems hindering the devel-
opment process of ecosystem.
Thus, considering the problems caused by the traditional models of eco-
tourism development and the absence of research in various scientific disci-
plines on developing a sustainable community-based ecotourism model in
this province, presenting a model with an emphasis on local participation
is a necessity for the development of the target ecotourism areas, so that
in addition to the local communities directly receiving the income from
it, it also promotes respect and value to the culture, heritage and customs
of the local community and also can preserve natural resources. For this
purpose, the questions of this research were as follows: what are the criteria
and dimensions for the development of sustainable community-based eco-
tourism? And how is the summation of these criteria realized in the form
of a suitable model? To find the best answer, the theoretical literature of
the subject was investigated and the criteria of “the Global Sustainable
Fig. 2. The process of deductive approach of qualitative content analysis (Mayring, 2000).
3
Science of the Total Environment 891 (2023) 164411
Tourism Council (GSTC) “were used as research criteria (including: “effec-
tive sustainability planning”, “maximizing social and economic benefits for
the local community”, “promoting cultural heritage” and “alleviating nega-
tive impacts on the environment”). As these standards are attempted to be
faithful to the modeling guidelines of the International Association of Sus-
tainability Standards, they are revised every 3 to 5 years (Global
Sustainable Tourism Council (GSTC), 2019).
2. Materials and methods
By using the research method of deductive approach of qualitative con-
tent analysis, with an emphasis on the triangulation, the present inquiry
seeks to response the question “what are the criteria and dimensions for
the development of SCBET?” For this purpose, the classes have already
been formed based on GSTC standards, and the examples of those classes
have been searched in the text of the papers. Finally, interviews with locals,
experts and officials of government organizations and bodies have been in-
cluded. According to Ary et al. (2019), in the triangulation method and
with the aim of qualitative studies, a variety of methods should be used to
increase the credibility of data and create deep insight. Accordingly, to an-
alyze the qualitative content in this section of the research, interviews with
executive experts and a several academic faculty members have also been
used to determine whether the criteria and dimensions required for the de-
velopment of SCBET based on their view have been included in the existing
categories or they assign a new category? Fig. 2 demonstrates the content
analysis process in this research.
In order to answer the research question, the purposeful sampling
method of desirable and available items was used in the selection of papers,
because we were purposefully searching for documents that have the most
information about SCBET, were published between 2000 and 2022, have
been published in the journal with high H-index and it is possible to access
those documents on the Internet and in libraries. The result of the search
was 176 articles and 3 books, which were reduced to 45 international arti-
cles, 12 local articles and 2 books by re-examining and excluding repetitive
papers and articles that had a little thematic relationship with the research
topic. Tables 1 and 2 show the selected references of the study.
F. Hafezi et al. Science of the Total Environment 891 (2023) 164411

Table 1
Sources of content analysis outside of Iran with a common subject area (SCBET).
Publisher Journals (H-index) Number of References Studied component Study area
articles (country)

Foucat (2002) SCBET Mexico

Ocean & Coastal Management (90) 2 CBET for sustainable development of marine
Mehedi Masud et al. (2017) Malaysia
areas
Đukić et al. (2014) CBET initiatives Serbia
Tourism Management (216) 2 Ruiz-Ballesteros (2011) Social-ecological resilience and CBT Ecuador
Mensah and Ernest (2013) Community involvement in CBET Ghana
Economics and Finance (31) 1 Auesriwong et al. (2015) CBET, Consolidated Partnership Thailand
Rural Studies (114) 1 Caceres-Feria et al. (2021) CBT and resilience Spain
Social and technical innovation in CBT
Technological Forecasting and Social Change (134) 1 Mendoza-Moheno et al. (2021) Mexico
organizations
Elsevier Ecological Economics (220) 1 Meyer et al. (2021) Protecting forests and wildlife with CBT Namibia
Trends in Ecology and Evolution (357) 1 Kiss (2004) CBET and environmental protection Spain
APCBEE Procedia (88) 1 Trira et al. (2014) Agricultural resource management for CBET Thailand
Pookaiyaudom (2013) Learning CBT Thailand
Social and Behavioral Sciences (60) 2
Astuti and Dyah Widiastuti (2016) Special features of CBT Kampung
Cleaner Production (232) 1 Chica et al. (2022) Sustainability in tourism Spain
Kry et al. (2020) Community changes in CBET Kampung
Tourism Management Perspectives (216) 1
Walter et al. (2018) Learning from the host community in CBET Nepal
Outdoor Recreation and Tourism (20) 1 Kunjuraman and Hussin (2014) CBET as a tool for social transformation Malaysia
Tourism Research (67) 1 Mayaka et al. (2019) Recognition and differentiation of CBT Australia
Environmental Management (125) 1 Ma et al. (2019) Social and environmental effects of SCBET China
Chinese Geographical Science (39) 1 Yan-li et al. (2004) CBET in nature reserves China
Springer Decision Science for Future Earth (50) 1 Ota et al. (2021) CBET and forest conservation Cambodia
GeoJournal (72) 1 Teshome et al. (2021) Current practices of CBET Utopia
Academic journals Ecology and the Natural Environment (14) 1 Woldemariam et al. (2022) The effect of CBET on livelihood Ethiopia
South African Geographical Journal (26) 1 Mtapuri and Giampiccoli (2019) CBET problems South Africa
Tibabo Stone (2015) CBET and joint participations Botswana
Ecotourism (40) 2
Soonja et al. (2018a, 2018b) CBET for the commodification of local people Thailand
Setokoe and Amukumba (2020) Challenges of community participation in SCBET South Africa
Manyara and Jones (2009) Development of CBT companies Kenya
Sustainable Tourism (114) 4
Phelan et al. (2019) Ecological services for CBET Australia
Wang et al. (2016) Political challenges in CBET Taiwan
Taylor & Francis
Fiorello and Bo (2012) CBET and expectations of new tourists Germany
Hospitality Marketing & Management (59) 2 CBT development model and community
Giampiccoli (2018) South Africa
participation
Latin
Gunter and Ceddia (2020) CBET is a catalyst for earth conservation
Travel Research (145) 2 America
Yang et al. (2013) Formation of social capital from CBT Iceland
Egyptian Archaeology (10) 1 Mohd Noh et al. (2020) CBET development in the future Croatia
Travel Research (145) 1 Johnston and Tyrrell (2005) Dynamic model of sustainable tourism Iceland
Kim et al. (2019) Sustainable transformative economy with CBET Cambodia
MDPI Sustainability (109) 2 Helping tourism entrepreneur organizations
Kummitha et al. (2021) Ethiopia
to develop CBET
Forests (52) 1 Zheng et al. (2021) The future of CBET China
WIT Sustainable Development and Planning (17) 1 Burman et al. (2008) The potential of cultural tourism and CBET India
WU Region (10) 1 Akbar et al. (2022) CBET stability Kazakhstan
IDEAS Studies and Scientific Researches (41) 1 Ştefănică and Gurmeza (2010) Tourism sustainable development model Romania
Semantic scholar Environment and Planning D: Society and Space (111) 1 Kunjuraman and Hussin (2014) CBET through local programs Malaysia
RSS Rural Sociology (70) 1 Belsky (2009) CBET policy Brazil
Emerald Publishing
Worldwide Hospitality and Tourism Themes (24) 1 Ghidouche and Ghidouche (2019) CBET to prevent over-tourism Algeria
Limited
Book: Sustainable Development of Ecotourism - A Adapting sustainable ecotourism practices to
UNWTO – WTO (2003) Spain
Compilation of Good Practices in SMEs local conditions
Sustainable Ecotourism, Local Community Participation in Tourism, Community-based ecotourism (CBET), Community-based tourism (CBT), Sustainable tourism,
Keywords to search:
CBT development model
Total: 45 articles +1 book

The second statistical population includes officials subject experts re-
lated to tourism and ecotourism, who were selected purposefully and
with the snowball method, and their opinions were extracted via structured
in-depth interviews. The reason for selecting this statistical population was
to achieve more practical indicators and localization of SCBET categories
and indicators extracted from references and scientific texts appropriate
to the conditions of Lorestan province. These individuals were selected
from among the locals, executive experts of the general administration of
cultural heritage, tourism and handicrafts of Lorestan and Tehran provinces
and the faculty members of Tarbiat Modares University and Lorestan Uni-
versity (21 people) (Table 3). The main question was what are the criteria
and dimensions for the development of CBET. Each interview lasted
about 20 min on average.
3. Results and discussion
After the selection of papers, the process of data analysis is begun. Accord-
ing to the research question “what are the standards and dimensions for
SCBET”, research documents review and part by part analysis of this informa-
tion was performed based on GSTC standards. This section was done using
qualitative method and directed content analysis. The reason for using this
method is that previous researches help to focus on the question of the pres-
ent study. The unit of analysis is GSTC criteria (“sustainable management”,
“cultural sustainability”, “Socio-economic sustainability”, and “environmen-
tal sustainability”) (Table 4). In this regard, 59 indicators were extracted
that explain the criteria of structure and management framework, stake-
holder participation and pressure management. In the field of social and

4
F. Hafezi et al. Science of the Total Environment 891 (2023) 164411

Table 2
Sources of content analysis in Iran with a common subject area (SCBET).
Publisher Journals Number of References Studied component Study area
articles (in Iran)

Hakak et al. (2019) Tourism development model Lorestan

Iran Tourism Scien-
Tourism and development 3 Moradi et al. (2020) Ecotourism development model design Kermanshah
tific Association
Amini Kashani and Alalhesabi (2021) Development of sustainable ecotourism Mazandaran
Iranian Journal of Agricultural
1 Tavalaee et al. (2017) Local community participation in sustainable tourism Sareyn
Economics and Development Research
Sistan and
Human Geography Research 1 Moradzadeh et al. (2018) Drivers of SCBET development
Baluchistan
University of Tehran
Journal of Entrepreneurship Criteria and measuring the level of development of
1 Asadpouriuan et al. (2019) Lorestan
Development (JED) sustainable ecotourism
Adapting sustainable eco-tourism practices to specific local
Journal of Rural Research 1 Hesam and Baghiani (2018) Guilan
conditions
ACECR, Tourism Badkou et al. (2022) CBT and rural development Paveh
Social Studies in Tourism 2
Research Institute Khalil Abad Kalantari et al. (2014) CBT capacity building Yazd
Shafii et al. (2015) Sustainable tourism from theory to realization Esfahan
Iranian Geographical
Iranian Geographical Society 3 Safarabadi and Maairi (2017) Development of CBT with emphasis on local ethnic aspects Kermanshah
Society
Saqai et al. (2015) Formation of CBT in rural areas Golestan
Book: Sustainable tourism from mass
ACECR, Mashhad – Seifi et al. (2016) Sustainable tourism Iran
tourism to ecotourism
Sustainable Ecotourism, Local Community Participation in Tourism, Community-based ecotourism (CBET), Community-based tourism (CBT), Sustainable
Keywords to search:
tourism, CBT development model
Total: 12 articles +1 book

economic sustainability, 46 indicators have been used, which explain some
criteria such as providing local economic benefits and social welfare. Expla-
nation of the concepts related to the cultural sustainability of CBET (cultural
heritage protection and visiting cultural places) were defined with 24 indica-
tors and the concepts related to environmental sustainability of CBET in inter-
national and local documents based on waste management and publications
and resource management were explained with 73 indicators.
3.1. Localized standards and SCBET model design
The results obtained from document analysis indicated that the con-
cepts were explained in the form of management sustainability, social
and economic sustainability, cultural sustainability and environmental sus-
tainability of ecotourism. As the main goal was to achieve a suitable and na-
tive set of SCBET standards in Lorestan (Iran), it was attempted to achieve
the mentioned goal using the survey method (survey of experts). At this
stage, the respondents were asked to give their opinions about the use of
each of the performance indicators mentioned in the international and
local documents and GSTC for SCBET in the form of two options of agree
and disagree (Table 5), then they could present their suggestions in this
field. In the next step (Table 6), their proposed indicators were presented
under a category (criterion) of income and an appropriate and localized
set of dimensions and criteria of SCBET based on what they had in common
with each other. Thus, CBET can be implemented in the form of the
Hartmut model (planning, implementation, evaluation, situation analysis),
which is one of the models presented in extension planning (Malek
Mohammadi, 2016). In this model, four dimensions (stages) of the CBT im-
plementation process have been presented, in all of which the participation
of researchers, environmentalists, policy makers and local people is
Table 3
Interviewees: including officials and subject experts related to tourism and ecotour-
ism.
Row Organizational responsibility of the interviewee Number of interviewees
1 Responsible for tourism facilities 1 four stages for planning and implementation in the local community.
2 Nature tourism expert 3 Developing the plan and planning is actually achieving all the points
3 Expert of tourism service offices 1
4 Tourism education expert 1
5 Marketing and advertising expert 2 be prepared as that can be approved and implemented. At this stage, it is
6 Expert in issuing tourism permits 1 necessary to find the required factors and facilities, and each of the stake-
7 Academic faculty members with expertise in tourism 2
8 Locals 10
Total 21
considered necessary. This process shows that for designing and explaining
the SCBET model in Lorestan province, it is necessary to use GSTC criteria
as a basis for the sustainability of community-based ecotourism. These
criteria indicate what should be performed, that this role is performed by
its performance indexes, and all of them are complements to SCBET.
The framework and rotation process of this model are presented in
Fig. 3 and Table 6, and each of the stages of this process is explained in
the following.
According to the experts, for the realization of SCBET (Table 6), the
criteria of “planning and preparation” can be defined in the form of “collab-
orative teaching and learning”, “exchange of ideas”, “awareness and recog-
nition of natural, military and human resources”, “public trust and security
factor”, and “developing skills and empowering communities”. Also, the
criteria of the “implementation” stage can be summarized in the form of
two criteria: “Local economic benefits and social welfare “and “physical is-
sues and infrastructure services”. The criteria of the “evaluation” stage are
presented in the form of four “cultural and social”, “economic”, “environ-
mental” and “institutional” criteria.
The criteria of “situation analysis” are also summarized in the form of
four criteria of “attractions”, “access and services”, “costs”, and “image”
of the host community.
4. Conclusion
The tourism industry is a versatile industry that can have positive im-
pacts on other sections of a region. Considering the social, cultural, political
and economic conditions of Lorestan (Iran), sustainable community-based
ecotourism is one of the most suitable types of tourism development that
can have positive impacts in these fields. Thus, the main focus of the re-
search is to develop and design a model by reviewing research documents
and analyzing the information part by part, and using the opinions and
knowledge of tourism experts while examining the challenges of imple-
menting this type of tourism. This model is based on the four stages of plan-
ning feedback, implementation, evaluation and analysis of the situation,
each of which is a multi-dimensional variable itself and has been used in
that were stated theoretically during the previous discussions and should
holders should find their place in it and perceive the assigned duties cor-
rectly, because experience has shown that one of the biggest causes of
failure in the community development and protection is the lack of

5
F. Hafezi et al. Science of the Total Environment 891 (2023) 164411

Table 4
The results of qualitative content analysis of sustainable tourism documents: criteria and indicators.
Main criteria
Component

Sub-criteria Indicator (Number) Sources

Financial plan and budget that shows current and future financial resources
(3); Creating links and interacting with others (3); Transparency in operations
Management and renting contracts (3): Consulting with stakeholders and conducting
structure and meetings to formulate plans (4); Assessing existing assets, issues and risks
framework (2); Pursuing sustainable development goals (4); Monitoring and reporting
Sustainable management
WTO (2003); Manyara &; Jones (2009); Khalil Abad
Kalantari et al .(2014); Tibabo Stone (2015); Saqai et al.
(2015); Wang et al. (2016); Sonja et al. (2018);
Moradzadeh et al. (2018); Giampiccoli (2021); Yang
Zhang et al. (2020); Gunter & Ceddia (2020); Mohd Noh

actions and planning for future reviews (2)
Acting on the seasonality of tourism and expanding visits to manage tourists
Managing (2); Marketing strategy and selection of target markets (3); Special
pressure and regulations on property rental and tourism operations based on their
change application and implementation (4); Informing the public Climate change (3);
Risk and crisis management and identification of risks and natural disasters,
terrorism, health, resource depletion, etc. (6)
The number and percentage of businesses that have been approved based on
tourism sustainability standards (2); The list of certified companies related to
Stakeholder tourism (1); Providing educational programs to residents and surveying them
engagement (4); Surveying tourists and their reactions to issues Sustainability (4);
Presentation of advertising materials with appropriate content (3);Tourism
education for residents (3); Evidence of public participation in the
development of policies, regulations and guidelines (3)
The annual report of the direct and indirect economic contribution of tourism
(3); Providing data that covers a wide range of economic criteria (for
Delivering example, employment, investment and the expansion of economic benefits in
Socio-economic
et al. (2020); Giampiccoli (2021); Woldemariam et
al.(2022); Badkou et al. (2022)
WTO (2003); Mensah & Ernest (2013); Đukić et al. (2014);
Khalil Abad Kalantari et al .(2014); Saqai et al. (2015);
Auesriwong et al. (2015); Wang et al. (2016); Mehedi
Masud et al. (2017); Mtapuri & Giampiccoli (2019);
Badkou et al. (2022)
WTO (2003); Belsky (2009); Đukić et al. (2014); Khalil
Abad Kalantari et al. (2014); Hussin & Kunjuraman
(2014); Mehedi Masud et al. (2017); Moradzadeh et al.
(2018); Ghidouche (2019); Kim et al. (2019); Mohd Noh et
al. (2020); Zheng et al. (2021; Woldemariam et al. (2022)
WTO (2003); Fiorello & Bo (2012) Mensah & Ernest
(2013); Đukić et al. (2014); Auesriwong et al. (2015);

local society) (6); Promoting educational and job opportunities For local people,
sustainability

economic including women, youth, minorities and people with disabilities (7);
benefits Participation of trade unions (5);Supporting local entrepreneurs (2);
Encouraging companies to purchase goods and services locally (2);
Identifying and promoting local handicrafts and products (4)
Sustainable tourism
Saqai et al. (2015); Mehedi Masud et al. (2017); Walter et
al. (2018); Moradzadeh et al. (2018); Chica et al. (2022);
Akbar et al. (2022); Badkou et al. (2022)

Implementation of special laws related to human rights, exploitation,
Social discrimination and harassment in the destination (3); Participation of
wellbeing companies, tourists and local people in social projects (3); Ownership laws
and user rights (4); Security and health services and meeting the needs of
tourists (4); Access to sites, facilities and services for tourists (3)
Financial plan and budget that shows current and future financial resources
Cultural sustainability
WTO (2003); Khalil Abad Kalantari et al. (2014); Fiorello
& Bo (2012); Yang Zhang et al. (2020); Giampiccoli
(2021); Woldemariam et al.
(2022); Setokoe & Amukumba (2020)
WTO (2003); Ştefănică & Gurmeza (2010); Fiorello & Bo
(2012) Mensah & Ernest (2013); Đukić et al. (2014); Khalil

Protecting (3); Creating links and interacting with others (3); Transparency in operations
cultural and renting contracts (3); Consulting with stakeholders and conducting
heritage meetings to formulate plans (4); Assessment of existing assets, issues and
risks (2); Pursuing sustainable development goals (4); Monitoring and
reporting measures and planning for future reviews (2)
Acting on the seasonality of tourism and expanding visits to manage tourists
(2); Marketing strategy and selection of target markets (3); Special
Visiting regulations on property rental and tourism operations based on their
cultural sites application and implementation (4); Informing the public Climate change (3);
Risk and crisis management and identification of risks and natural disasters,
terrorism, health, resource depletion, etc. (6)
The number and percentage of businesses that have been approved based on
tourism sustainability standards (2); The list of certified companies related to
Management tourism (1); Providing educational programs to residents and surveying them
of waste and (4); Surveying tourists and their reactions to issues Sustainability (4);
Environmental sustainability
Abad Kalantari et al. (2014); Auesriwong et al. (2015);
Shafii et al. (2015); Saqai et al.
(2015); Seifi et al. (2016); Mehedi Masud et al. (2017);
Tavalaee et al. (2017); Safarabadiet al. (2017);
Moradzadeh et al. (2018); Walter et al. (2018); Setokoe &
Amukumba (2020); Chica et al. (2022); Akbar et al. (2022)
WTO (2003); Mensah & Ernest (2013); Đukić et al. (2014);
Auesriwong et al. (2015); Wang et al. (2016); Mehedi
Masud et al. (2017); Mtapuri & Giampiccoli (2019); Yang
Zhang et al. (2020); Giampiccoli (2021); Badkou et al.
(2022)
Foucat (2002); WTO (2003); Belsky (2009); Đukić et al.
(2014); Khalil Abad Kalantari et al .(2014); Hussin &
Kunjuraman (2014); Shafii et al. (2015);
(2015); Saqai et al. (2015); Seifi et al. (2016); Mehedi
Masud et al. (2017); Moradzadeh et al. (2018);

emissions Presentation of advertising materials with appropriate content (3); Tourism
education for residents (3); Evidence of public participation in the
development of policies, regulations and guidelines (3)
The annual report of the direct and indirect economic contribution of tourism
(3); Providing data that covers a wide range of economic criteria (for
Conservation example, employment, investment and the expansion of economic benefits in
of natural society) (6); Promoting educational and job opportunities For local people,
heritage including women, youth, minorities and people with disabilities (7);
Participation of trade unions (5); Supporting local entrepreneurs (2);
Encouraging companies to purchase goods and services locally (2);
Identifying and promoting local handicrafts and products (4)
Implementation of special laws related to human rights, exploitation,
discrimination and harassment in the destination (3); Participation of
Resource companies, tourists and local people in social projects (3); Ownership laws
management and user rights (4); Security and health services and meeting the needs of
tourists (4); Access to sites, facilities and services for tourists (3)
Safarabadiet al. (2017); Tavalaee et al. (2017); Ghidouche
(2019); Asadpouriuan et al. (2015); Kim et al. (2019);
Hakak et al. (2019); Zheng et al. (2021; Woldemariam et
al.(2022)
WTO (2003); Khalil Abad Kalantari et al .(2014); Shafii
et al. (2015); Saqai et al. (2015);
Seifi et al. (2016); Tavalaee et al. (2017); Mehedi Masud et
al. (2017); Safarabadiet al. (2017); Ghidouche (2019); Kim
et al. (2019) Hakak et al. (2019); Asadpouriuan et al.
(2015); Mohd Noh et al. (2020); Zheng et al. (2021;
Woldemariam et al.(2022); Badkou et al. (2022)
Foucat (2002); WTO (2003); Belsky (2009); Đukić et al.
(2014); Seifi et al. (2016); Hussin
&Kunjuraman (2014); Mehedi Masud et al. (2017);
Tavalaee et al. (2017); Safarabadiet al. (2017); Ghidouche
(2019); Kim et al. (2019); Hakak et al. (2019); Mohd Noh
et al. (2020); Zheng et al. (2021; Woldemariam et al.(2022)

persistence and commitment of community members. In this regard, all as-
pects of economic development need planning to achieve their goals.
Community-based ecotourism is not an exception to this rule because it is
a multi-sector activity and has economic, social and environmental dimen-
sions, and tourism planning and management maximizes economic benefits
and reduces the relevant negative social and cultural impacts. In other
words, establishing sustainability in community-based ecotourism depends
on planning in economic, social, environmental and cultural dimensions.
On the other hand, one of the most important items to improve
community-based ecotourism after determining the plan and planning is to
create conditions that can be implemented. In the implementation stage,
what is developed in the planning stage will be implemented and manifested

6
F. Hafezi et al. Science of the Total Environment 891 (2023) 164411

Table 5
The opinion of experts and experts based on the use of sustainable tourism indicators (based on GSTC) in SCBET.

The opinion of experts based

Component

on the application of these

criteria
Main

standards in SCBET
Sub-criteria Indicators of sustainable tourism (based on GSTC and documents)
Agree Disagree

Financial plan and budget that shows current and future financial resources √
Creating links and interacting with others √
Management Transparency in operations and renting contracts √
structure and Consulting with stakeholders and conducting meetings to formulate plans √
framework Assessing existing assets, issues and risks √
Pursuing sustainable development goals √
Sustainable management

Monitoring and reporting actions and planning for future reviews √

Acting on the seasonality of tourism and expanding visits to manage tourists √
Marketing strategy and selection of target markets √
Managing Special regulations on property rental and tourism operations based on their application and
pressure and √
implementation
change Informing the public Climate change √
Risk and crisis management and identification of risks and natural disasters, terrorism, health,
√
resource depletion, etc.
The number and percentage of businesses that have been approved based on tourism sustainability
√
standards
The list of certified companies related to tourism √
Stakeholder
engagement Providing educational programs to residents and surveying them √
Surveying tourists and their reactions to issues Sustainability √
Evidence of public participation in the development of policies, regulations and guidelines √
The annual report of the direct and indirect economic contribution of tourism √
Social and economic sustainability

Providing data that covers a wide range of economic criteria (for example, employment, investment and √
the expansion of economic benefits in society)
Sustainable tourism

Delivering Promoting educational and job opportunities For local people, including women, youth, minorities and √
local people with disabilities
economic Participation of trade unions √
benefits Supporting local entrepreneurs √
Encouraging companies to purchase goods and services locally √
Identifying and promoting local handicrafts and products √
Implementation of special laws related to human rights, exploitation, discrimination and
√
harassment in the destination
Social Participation of companies, tourists and local people in social projects √
wellbeing
Ownership laws and user rights √
Security and health services and meeting the needs of tourists √
Assessment, reconstruction and protection of cultural assets √
Protecting
sustainability

Identifying and cataloging intangible cultural heritage (art, music, language, food and other aspects
cultural √
Cultural

of identity)
heritage
Presenting, repeating and interpreting living culture and traditions √
Monitoring the movement of tourists and its impact on the culture of the local community √
Visiting
cultural sites Providing informative materials in relevant languages in the region and in formats that are available
before the arrival of tourists √
Implementation of waste disposal management program for offices and public facilities √
Management Implementation of low-impact transportation √
of waste and Identifying and monitoring potential sources of noise and light pollution related to tourism and
Environmental sustainability

emissions √
mechanisms to empower residents to report noise and light pollution.
Prioritizing accessible visitor markets with shorter and more sustainable transportation options √
Providing a list of natural places with reference to the type, protection status and vulnerability √
Invasive species eradication and control programs √
Identifying, monitoring and reducing the effects of tourism on biodiversity and natural heritage √
Conservation Monitoring the movement of tourists and its impact on natural areas √
of natural Cooperating with local conservation bodies to identify environmental hazards √
heritage Provide training for guides √
Measures to monitor the health of wildlife (such as not touching, hunting and feeding them) √
Providing information to tourists about avoiding trade in endangered species √
Issuing permits and checking the qualifications of personnel responsible for wildlife √
Investment in renewable energy √
Resource
Monitoring and control of sources and volume of water used for tourism purposes √
management
Incentives for energy reduction by companies √

objectively. Thus, the implementing ideas, following the policy and increasing
public ecotourism infrastructure and services as private sectors are encour-
aged to invest in tourism and development facilities is one of the important
debates in the implementation of the CBET program. Local institutions are re-
quired to promote tourism regulations and enact comprehensive legal regula-
tions to ensure the implementation of tourism-related laws, regulations and
standards. At this stage, the mentioned concepts should have supervision
and executive guarantee based on sustainable development and local require-
ments, because any unauthorized entry of tourists into touristic areas will lead
to habitat destruction, migration and extinction of animal species.
Besides being flexible and compatible with the conditions and needs of
tourists, the community-based ecotourism program should also have the ca-
pability to be changed. Hence, the actors of this program should evaluate
their actions regularly and indicate how the community-based ecotourism

7
F. Hafezi et al. Science of the Total Environment 891 (2023) 164411

Table 6
Extraction of localized criteria and indicators as perceived by experts.
Component

Dimension

Criteria Suggested indicator

Clear information about appropriate behavior in the area should be available.

Buildings and activities should be accessible for disabled people.
Information about local natural and cultural heritage should be available.
Collaborative teaching Employees should be trained about cultural and natural heritage.
and learning Foreign languages should be taught to guides.
The map of the village should be provided to the visitors.
The information and experiences of tourists should be used to empower the local community.
Planning and preparation

Local heroes should be Identified.

The society should be divided into categories of mentors (leaders), women, elderly citizens and youth in order to
train tourist guides.
Key leaders should be identified to guide things.
Exchange of ideas Ask local people for their opinions before and after doing each project and program.
Journalists should be invited to the community.
Recruiting in local management positions from among indigenous people should be done by organizations.
Sign contracts with travel and tourism companies.
The participation of foreign partners for financing should be sought.
Native culture and art should be promoted and forgotten traditions should be revived.
Awareness and Laws and regulations related to property rights should be implemented.
recognition of natural, Agricultural products, livestock, handicrafts and traditional foods should be introduced.
military and human Use and access to land and water resources should be documented.
resources Websites for CBT investments should be launched.
Sustainable community-based ecotourism (SCBET)

Reservation system for tourists should be established.

Public trust and A police station for foreign tourists and the patrolling of the unit's forces in the areas should be established.
security factor Trust should be established between people with people/people with tourists/people with accommodation
managers/people with the government.
Developing skills and It is necessary to build capacity at the local level.
empowering Political freedom and local decision-making for local needs should be extended.
communities Any decrease in the access of tourists to basic services should be identified.
Small social businesses must thrive.
Local economic To provide services, standard prices should be considered.
The local market should be strengthened.
Implementation

benefits and social It is necessary to produce internationally competitive tourism products.

wellbeing Medical services should be provided.
Constructions should be carried out according to the plan and without changing the user.
Physical issues and It is necessary to expand the airways.
infrastructure services The abundance of natural resources and the non-predominance of man-made landscape should be evident.
It is necessary to organize tourist tours.
Eco museum should be established in the community to preserve some old works of art of the people.
The degree of sense of belonging of the residents to the original homeland and the reduction of immigration
The level of respect for cultural differences and human dignity
Cultural and social The amount of crime and delinquency
The level of increase in people's awareness and knowledge about their society
The level of people's participation in the implementation of plans and programs
The amount of government and private sector investment in ecotourism
The amount of job opportunities and unemployment
The level of involvement in global tourism markets through electronic commerce
Economic The amount of expenses created for the municipality, cultural heritage, etc.
Evaluation

The level of support for local entrepreneurs

The rate of increase in the satisfaction of the local community from tourism income
The rate of absorption of surplus labor in the agriculture sector
The degree of impact on wildlife habitats
The amount of use of native plants in landscape beautification
The amount of waste disposal in an appropriate way
The amount of movement towards the supply and consumption of renewable energy in the field of tourism
Environmental The degree of protection of local plants and wildlife (such as not touching and feeding them)
The rate of using alternative and sustainable tools to reduce water consumption
The amount of alternative transportation (picking up and delivering tourists)
The amount of restoration of damages caused to nature
The amount of control of disposable containers
The rate of land expansion for tourism activities and the rate of user change
The rate of increase in the number of local institutions in the tourism field
Institutional The rate of increase in tourist information centers
The rate of increase in comprehensive tourism plans for local development
Performance and level of satisfaction with the existence of natural landscapes, views, vegetation and pristine and
Situation analysis

Attractions of the host beautiful waterfalls

community Performance and satisfaction level of local foods and handicrafts
Performance and level of satisfaction with the beauty and quality of architecture
Performance and level of satisfaction with public transportation
Access and services in Performance and level of satisfaction with the amount of traffic
the host community Performance and level of satisfaction with the existence of infrastructures and signs
Performance and level of satisfaction with access to restaurants and accommodation units
Performance and satisfaction level of tourism information centers
Costs of the host Performance and satisfaction level of accommodation, food, souvenirs and transportation expenses
community
Image of the host Performance and level of satisfaction with the level of cooperation and guidance of the host community and their
community culture and hospitality

activities have developed and progressed. Therefore, the programs should resource allocation and the amount of standard investment are also vital
be evaluated during and after the implementation in order to provide the in this regard. Considering the inputs of this industry (human resources
necessary feedback to demonstrate the progress of the programs and to en- and the amount of investment), its efficiency will increase in terms of the
sure that the results arising from the implementation of the program are amount of income and tourists intending to visit again.
consistent with the pre-determined results. At this stage, the main purpose Finally, the infrastructure approach that is used in planning for the
is to meet the essential needs of local communities and tourists. Also, the SCBET implementation is to achieve sustainable development, so that the

8
F. Hafezi et al.
Fig. 3. Sustainable community-based ecotourism (SCBET) model.
economic, social, cultural and environmental resources are protected for
continuous use in the future and at the same time the needs of the tourists
and the destination are fulfilled at the present. In this regard, the analysis of
the local community situation in order to provide social, economic, cultural
and environmental goals to ensure a better life for the local individuals and
the satisfaction of the tourists is considered. In this process, local people and
groups get aware of the existing situation in the communities, and if there is
a need to change the existing conditions, the cycle will start again and they
will perform appropriate planning and scientific forecasting. Hence, it is
suggested that the SCBET cycle should be carried out in Lorestan province
at least once every three to six months in order to continuously evaluate
and control the sustainability indicators to review the achievements and
short-term progress and to plan for the start of the next cycle.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
The authors of this manuscript are: Fereshteh Hafezi, Masoud Bijani,
Saeed Gholamrezai, Moslem Savari & Sabine Panzer-Krause. This
manuscript has been read and approved by all the authors. The criteria
for authorship have been met. The authors also do not have any financial
interest or any other conflict of interests. The manuscript contains nothing
that is abusive, defamatory, libelous, obscene, fraudulent, or illegal. It is
worth mentioning that data will be provided if needed.
Data availability
No data was used for the research described in the article.
Declaration of competing interest
This manuscript has been read and approved by all the authors. The
criteria for authorship have been met. The authors also do not have any fi-
nancial interest or any other conflict of interests. The manuscript contains
9
Science of the Total Environment 891 (2023) 164411
nothing that is abusive, defamatory, libelous, obscene, fraudulent, or
illegal.
Acknowledgements
Part of the cost of this research has been provided by Tarbiat Modares
University, thereby appreciating the relevant officials.
References
Akbar, I., Aigul Maksatovna, S., Zabira Kazbekkyzy, M., Akmaral Zhaksybekkyzy, T., Altynbai
Tagabayevich, S., Serik Abdukarimovich, M., 2022. Sustainability of the community-
based ecotourism development in the Aksu-Zhabagly nature reserve, Kazakhstan: an eval-
uation through local residents’ perception. Region 9 (1), 69–82. https://doi.org/10.
18335/region.v9i1.335.
Amini Kashani, A., Alalhesabi, M., 2021. Rural tourism development planning based on sus-
tainable ecotourism case study of Kojoor area in Mazandaran province. J. Tour. Dev.
10 (4), 89–111 (In Persian) 10.22034/jtd.2021.263523.2217 (In Persian).
Ary, D., Jacobs, L.C., Sorensen, I., Sorencen Irvine, C.K., Walker, D.A., 2019. Introduction to
Research in Education. CENGAGE Learning. Eight editions. USA. 2019. available at: URL.
Asadpouriuan, Z., Rahimian, M., Gholamrezai, S., 2019. Identification of criteria and assess-
ment of the level of sustainable ecotourism development in tourism poles of Lorestan
Province. Iranian J. Agric. Econ. Dev. Res. 50 (3), 483–499 (In Persian) 10.22059/
ijaedr.2019.267477.668666 (In Persian).
Astuti, V., Dyah Widiastuti, P., 2016. Identification of specific characteristic of Kampung
Jayengan as community based industrial tourism. Soc. Behav. Sci. 227 (2016),
485–492. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2016.06.104.
Auesriwong, A., Nilnoppakun, A., Parawech., W., 2015. Integrative participatory community-
based ecotourism at Sangkhom District, Nong Khai Province, Thailand. Econ. Financ. 23
(2015), 778–782. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2212-5671(15)00529-8.
Badkou, B., Ghasemi, S.M., Hoseini, S., 2022. Investigating the impact of community-based
tourism on development of rural communities from the perspective of the local commu-
nity: a case study of Paveh tourist villages. Tour. Soc. Stud. 9 (18), 205–230 (In Persian)
10.52547/journalitor.36164.9.18.0 (In Persian).
Belsky, JiU M., 2009. Misrepresenting communities: the politics of community-based rural
ecotourism in gales point manatee, Belize. Rural. Sociol. 64 (4), 641–666. https://doi.
org/10.1111/j.1549-0831.1999.tb00382.x.
Bo, D., Fiorello, A., 2012. Community-based ecotourism to meet the new tourist’s expecta-
tions: an exploratory study. J. Hosp. Mark. Manag. 21 (7), 758–778. https://doi.org/
10.1080/19368623.2012.624293 2012.
F. Hafezi et al.
Buckley, R., 2012. Sustainable tourism: research and reality. Ann. Tour. Res. 39 (2), 528–546.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annals.2012.02.003.
Burman, P. Deb, Cajee, L., Laloo, D.D., 2008. Potential for cultural and ecotourism in North
East India: a community-based approach. Sustainable development and planning. WIT
Trans. Ecol. Environ. 102, 1–10. https://doi.org/10.2495/SDP070692.
Caceres-Feria, R., Hernández-Ramírez, M., Ruiz-Ballesteros, E., 2021. Depopulation,
community-based tourism, and community resilience in southwest Spain. Rural Stud.
88 (6), 108–116. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrurstud.2021.10.008.
Chica, M., Hernández, J., Perc, P., 2022. Sustainability in tourism determined by an asymmet-
ric game with mobility. J. Clean. Prod. 355 (25), 131662. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
jclepro.2022.131662.
Đukić, V., Volić, I., Tišma, S., Angelina Jelinčić, D., 2014. Responsible community based eco-
tourism initiatives in protected rural areas of the Balkans: case studies from Serbia and
Croatia. Am. J. Tour. Manag. 3 (1B), 51–63. https://doi.org/10.5923/s.tourism.
201402.06.
Fallah Haghighi, N., Bijani, M., 2020. A gap analysis between current and desired situation of
economic factors affecting human resources development in Iran. GeoJournal 85 (4),
1175–1190. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10708-019-10017-1.
Fiorello, A., Bo, D., 2012. Community-based ecotourism to meet the new tourist’s expecta-
tions: an exploratory study. J. Hosp. Mark. Manag. 21 (7), 758–778. https://doi.org/
10.1080/19368623.2012.624293.
Foucat, V.S. Avila, 2002. Community-based ecotourism management moving towards sustain-
ability, in Ventanilla, Oaxaca, Mexico. Ocean Coast. Manag. 45 (8), 511–529. https://doi.
org/10.1016/S0964-5691(02)00083-2.
Ghidouche, A.K., Ghidouche, F., 2019. Community-based ecotourism for preventing over
tourism and tourism phobia: Algerian associations’ viewpoints. Worldw. Hosp. Tour.
Themes 11 (5), 516–531. https://doi.org/10.1108/WHATT-06-2019-0035.
Giampiccoli, A., 2018. Community-based tourism development model and community partic-
ipation. Hosp. Mark. Manag. 7 (4), 15–22.
Global Sustainable Tourism Council (GSTC), 2019. GSTC Destination Criteria. Available at
URL.
Gunter, U., Ceddia, M., 2020. Can indigenous and community-based ecotourism serve as a
catalyst for land sparing in Latin America? Travel Res. 60 (7), 114–119. https://doi.
org/10.1177/0047287520949687.
Hakak, M., Ahmadi Fard, M., Habibi, A., 2019. Presenting the tourism development model of
Lorestan province. Tour. Dev. Res. 2 (23), 183–196 (In Persian) 10.22034/
jtd.2019.178868.1699.
Hallaj, Z., Bijani, M., Abbasi, E., Valizadeh, N., Mohammadi, M., 2022. Tourism development
during the pandemic of coronavirus (COVID-19): evidence from Iran. Front. Public
Health 10, 881381. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2022.881381 (March 2022).
Hesam, M., Baghiani, H., 2018. Assessing the attitude of villagers towards the implementation
of community-based rural tourism (case study: Gurab Pas, Fuman county, Guilan prov-
ince). J. Rural Res. 9 (1), 72–87. https://doi.org/10.22059/jrur.2018.225971.1058.
Johnston, R.J., Tyrrell, T.J., 2005. A dynamic model of sustainable tourism. J. Travel Res. 44
(2), 124–134. https://doi.org/10.1177/0047287505278987.
Khalil Abad Kalantari, H., Pourahmad, A., Ghasemi, A., Mousavi, R., 2014. Local institutions
and their capacity in the development of sustainable urban tourism. J. Herit. Tour. 1 (1),
1–21 (In Persian). Available at URL).
Kim, M., Xie, Y., Cirella, G.T., 2019. Sustainable transformative economy: community-based
ecotourism. Sustainability 11 (18), 4977. https://doi.org/10.3390/su11184977.
Kiss, A., 2004. Is community-based ecotourism a good use of biodiversity conservation funds?
Trends Ecol. Evol. 19 (5), 232–237. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tree.2004.03.010.
Kry, S., Sasaki, N., Datta, A., Abe, I., Tsusaka, T., 2020. Assessment of the changing levels of
livelihood assets in the kampong Phluk community with implications for community-
based ecotourism. Tour. Manag. Perspect. 34 (6). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tmp.2020.
100664.
Kummitha, H.R., Kolloju, N., Jancsik, N., Szalók, Z.C., 2021. Can tourism social entrepreneur-
ship organizations contribute to the development of ecotourism and local communities:
understanding the perception of local communities. Sustainability 13 (19), 11–31.
https://doi.org/10.3390/su131911031.
Kunjuraman, V., Hussin, R., 2014. Sustainable community-based tourism (CBT) through
homestay programme in Sabah, East Malaysia. Environ. Plan. D: Soc. Space 10 (2),
160–174 (Available at URL).
Ma, B., Yin, R., Zheng, J., Wen, Y., Hou, Y., 2019. Estimating the social and ecological impact
of community-based ecotourism in giant panda habitats. Environ. Manag. 25 (15).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2019.109506.
Malek Mohammadi, I., 2016. Extention and Education of Agriculture and Natural Resources:
Basics. 2. University of Tehran Publication Center (In Persian).
Manyara, G., Jones, E., 2009. Community-based tourism enterprises development in Kenya:
an exploration of their potential as avenues of poverty reduction. Sustain. Tour. 15 (6),
628–644. https://doi.org/10.2167/jost723.0.
Mayaka, M. Glen, Croy, W., Cox, J., 2019. A dimensional approach to community-based tour-
ism: Recognising and differentiating form and context. Tour. Res. 74 (2019), 177–190.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annals.2018.12.002.
Mayring, P., 2000. Qualitative content analysis. Forum qualitative Sozialforschung / forum.
Forum Qual. Soc. Res. 1 (2). https://doi.org/10.17169/fqs-1.2.1089.
Mehedi Masud, M., Aldakhi, A., Nassan, A., NurulAzamcd, M., 2017. Community-based ecotour-
ism management for sustainable development of marine protected areas in Malaysia. Ocean
Coast. Manag. 136 (2017), 104–112. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2016.11.023.
Mendoza-Moheno, J., Cruz-Coriab, E., González-Cruzc, T.F., 2021. Socio-technical innovation
in community-based tourism organizations: a proposal for local development. Technol.
Forecast. Soc. Chang. 171 (20), 120–194. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techfore.2021.
120949.
Mensah, I., Ernest, A., 2013. Community participation in ecotourism: the case of Bobiri Forest
reserve and butterfly sanctuary in Ashanti region of Ghana. Tour. Manag. 2 (81), 34–42.
https://doi.org/10.5923/s.tourism.201304.04.
10
Science of the Total Environment 891 (2023) 164411
Meyer, M., Klingelhoeffer, E., Naidoo, R., Wingate, V., Börner, J., 2021. Tourism opportunities
drive woodland and wildlife conservation outcomes of community-based conservation in
Namibia’s Zambezi region. Ecol. Econ. 180 (2021), 106863. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
ecolecon.2020.106863.
Mohd Noh, A.N., Razzaq, A.R.A., Mustafa, M.Z., Nordin, M.N., Ibrahim, B., 2020. Future
community-based ecotourism (Cbet) development. Palarch’s J. Archaeol. Egypt/Egyptol
17 (9) ISSN 1567-214x. Availble at: file:///C:/Users/Masoud/Downloads/4733-Article
%20Text-9105-1-10-20210102.pdf.
Moradi, H., Poursaeed, A.R., Vahedi, M., Arayesh, M.B., 2020. Designing the ecotourism de-
velopment model of the tourist destination villages of Kermanshah province. J. Tour.
Dev. 9 (1), 25–46. https://doi.org/10.22034/jtd.2019.188908.1758.
Moradzadeh, A., Ghasemi, M., Salarzehi, H., Yaghoubi, N.M., Bazrafshan, J., 2018. Prioritiz-
ing the propellants of developing community-based tourism with the approach of
community-based empowerment. J. Entrep. Dev. 11 (1), 161–179. https://doi.org/10.
22059/jed.2018.252524.652494.
Mtapuri, O., Giampiccoli, A., 2019. Tourism, community-based tourism and ecotourism: a
definitional problematic. S. Afr. Geogr. J. 101 (90), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1080/
03736245.2018.1522598.
Ota, T., Lonn, P., Mizoue, N., 2021. Contribution of community-based ecotourism to Forest
conservation and local livelihoods. Decis. Sci. Future Earth, 197–207 https://doi.org/
10.1007/978-981-15-8632-3_9.
Payahour, M., Karimizand, M., Asgari, G., 2020. Presenting a theoretical marketing mix
model for the development of Iranian tourism industry via mixed research method.
New Market. Res. J. 10 (1), 1–16. https://doi.org/10.22108/nmrj.2020.122062.
2062.
Phelan, A., Ruhanen, L., Mair, J., 2019. Ecosystem services approach for community-based
ecotourism: towards an equitable and sustainable blue economy. Sustain. Tour. 28
(10), 1665–1685. https://doi.org/10.1080/09669582.2020.1747475.
Pookaiyaudom, G., 2013. The integrated learning of community based tourism in Thailand.
Soc. Behav. Sci. 106 (2013), 2890–2898. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2013.12.334.
Ruiz-Ballesteros, E., 2011. Social-ecological resilience and community-based tourism: an ap-
proach from Agua Blanca, Ecuador. Tour. Manag. 32 (3), 655–666. https://doi.org/10.
1016/j.tourman.2010.05.021.
Safarabadi, A., Maairi, M., 2017. Development of community-oriented tourism with emphasis
on local ethnic aspects (case study: Kermanshah city). The Scientific-research and Inter-
national Quarterly of the Iranian Geographical Society. 15(52), pp. 170–182 (In Persian).
Available at URL).
Saqai, M., Gahfarakhi, Z., Eidi, M., 2015. Evaluation of the formation of community-oriented
tourism in the rural areas of Golestan province. Geography 14 (49), 95–113 (In Persian).
Available at URL).
Scott, D., Lemieux, C., 2010. Weather and climate information for tourism. Environ. Sci. 1
(12), 146–183. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proenv.2010.09.011.
Seifi, S., Nikjo, A., Tawanger, M., 2016. Sustainable Tourism From Mass Tourism to Ecotour-
ism. first edition. Academic Jihad Publications, Mashhad branch (In Persian).
Setokoe, T., Amukumba, T., 2020. Challenges of community participation in SCBET (case
study: South Africa). 248 (10), 13–22. https://doi.org/10.2495/ST200021.
Shafii, Z., Farkhian, F., Rajai Rezi, M., Mowgli, M., 2015. Sustainable tourism from theory to
realization: a critical approach. The scientific-research and international quarterly of the
Iranian Geographical Society. 14 (49), pp. 153–171 (In Persian). Available at URL).
Siphannara, P., 2019. Overview of Community-Based Ecotourism for Sustainable Develop-
ment in Cambodia, Parliamentary Institute of Cambodia, (PIC) Available at: URL.
Soonja, A., Bushell, R., Hawkins, M., Staiff, R., 2018a. Community-based ecotourism: beyond
authenticity and the commodification of local people. Ecotourism 17 (3), 252–267.
https://doi.org/10.1080/14724049.2018.1503502.
Soonja, A., Bushell, R., Hawkins, M., Staiff, R., 2018b. Community-based ecotourism: beyond
authenticity and the commodification of local people. Ecotourism 17 (3), 252–267.
https://doi.org/10.1080/14724049.2018.1503502.
Ştefănică, M., Gurmeza, M.V., 2010. Ecotourism Model of Sustainable Tourist Development.
Studies and Scientific Researches͘EconomicƐ Edition. “Vasile Alecsandri”. University of
Bacau, Faculty of Economic Sciences https://doi.org/10.29358/sceco.v0i15.161.
Tavalaee, S., Soleimany, M., Jahani Dowlatabad, R., Jahani Dowlatabad, E., 2017. The role of
participation in sustainable tourism industry (case study: Sarein). Hum. Geogr. J. 49 (1),
95–113 (In Persian) 10.22059/jhgr.2017.53814 (In Persian).
Teshome, E., Shita, F., Abebe, F., 2021. Current Community Based Ecotourism Practices in
Menz Guassa Community Conservation Area, Ethiopia. , pp. 2135–2147 https://doi.
org/10.1007/s10708-020-10179-3.
The International Ecotourism Society (TIES), 2007. Online Accessed June 16, 2007 Available
at: URL.
Tibabo Stone, T., 2015. Community-based ecotourism: a collaborative partnerships perspec-
tive. J. Ecotour. 14 (2), 166–184. https://doi.org/10.1080/14724049.2015.1023309.
Trira, S., Poung-ngamchuena, J., Ponghan, S., Dangsuwann, M., Ponghan, K., 2014. Green
Map: Agricultural Resources Management Tool for Community-Based Tourism. 8.
APCBEE Procedia, pp. 248–253. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apcbee.2014.03.035 2014.
UNWTO: Definition of Sustainable Development of Tourism., 2017. United Nations World
Tourism Organization. [accessed Oct 20 2017]. (Available at URL).
Valizadeh, N., Haji, L., Bijani, M., Fallah Haghighi, N., Fatemi, M., Parra-Acosta, Y.K., Kurban,
A., Azadi, H., 2021. Development of a scale to remove farmers’ sustainability barriers to
meteorological information in Iran. Sustainability 13 (22), 12617. https://doi.org/10.
3390/su132212617.
Walter, V., Regmi, K., Khanal, P., 2018. Host learning in community-based ecotourism in
Nepal: the case of Sirubari and Ghalegaun homestays. Tour. Manag. Perspect. 26 (3),
49–58. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tmp.2018.02.002.
Wang, C.H., Cate, R.C., Low, T., 2016. Political challenges in community-based ecotourism.
Sustain. Tour. 24 (11), 115–135. https://doi.org/10.1080/09669582.2015.1125908.
Woldemariam, G., Abie, K., Tadele, H., Petros, I., 2022. The impact of community-based eco-
tourism program on livelihood of local community: result of propensity score matching
F. Hafezi et al.
from Adaba-Dodola District, Ethiopia. J. Ecol. Nat. Environ. 14 (1), 15–27. https://doi.
org/10.5897/JENE2019.0784.
WTO, 2003. Sustainable Development of Ecotourism - A Compilation of Good Practices in
SMEs. World Tourism Organization (UNWTO) January 1, 2003.
Yang, J., Ryan, C., Zhang, L., 2013. Social conflict in communities impacted by tourism. Tour.
Manag. 35, 82–93. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2012.06.002.
Yan-li, G., Yan-gang, F., Ji-sheng, L., 2004. Community-based ecotourism in nature re-
serve of China. Chin. Geogr. Sci. 14 (34), 276–282. https://doi.org/10.1007/
s11769-003-0059-7.
11
Science of the Total Environment 891 (2023) 164411
Yazdanpanah, M., Komendantova, N., Zobeidi, T., 2022. Explaining intention to apply renew-
able energy in agriculture: the case of broiler farms in Southwest Iran. Int. J. Green En-
ergy 19 (8), 836–846. https://doi.org/10.1080/15435075.2021.1966792.
Zheng, B., Li, M., Yu, B., Gao, L., 2021. The future of community-based ecotourism (CBET) in
China’s protected areas: a consistent optimal scenario for multiple stakeholders. Forest 12
(12), 17–53. https://doi.org/10.3390/f12121753.
Zobeidi, T., Yaghoubi, J., Yazdanpanah, M., 2022. Exploring the motivational roots of
farmers’ adaptation to climate change-induced water stress through incentives or
norms. Sci. Rep. 12, 15208. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-19384-1.