Geotechnical Engineering

Laboratory Manual - I

Name :
Roll no. :
 General Instructions

Do’s
 Bring observation note books, lab manuals and other necessary things for the
class.
 Check the instruments for proper working conditions while taking and returning
the same.
 Thoroughly clean your laboratory work space at the end of the laboratory session.
 Maintain silence and clean environment in the lab.

Don’ts
 Do not operate the machines without the permission of the staff
 Do not put hands or head while equipment is in running condition.
 Do not fix or remove the test specimen while the main is switch on.
 Contents
Experiment No. 1 1

WATER CONTENT DETERMINATION

Experiment No. 2 3

DETERMINATION OF PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION BY SIEVING

(GRAIN SIZE ANALYSIS)

Experiment No. 3 7

HYDROMETER ANALYSIS

Experiment No. 4 11

SPECIFIC GRAVITY TEST

Experiment No. 5 15

LIQUID LIMIT TEST

Experiment No. 6 18

PLASTIC LIMIT TEST

Experiment No. 7 21

SHRINKAGE LIMIT TEST

Experiment No. 8 25

PERMEABILITY TEST-CONSTANT HEAD METHOD

Experiment No. 9 29

PERMEABILITY TEST-FALLING HEAD METHOD

Experiment No. 10 33

DIRECT SHEAR TEST

Experiment No. 11 38

CONSOLIDATION TEST- (OEDOMETER TEST)

 Experiment No. 1

WATER CONTENT DETERMINATION

IS: 2720 (Part 2) – 1973

OBJECTIVE:
To determine the water content of soil solids by Oven Drying method.

SPECIFICATIONS:

The soil specimen should be representative of the soil mass. The quantity of the specimen taken
would depend upon the gradation and the maximum size of the particles. For more than 90% of the
particles passing through 425 micron IS sieve, the minimum quantity is 25g.

EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED:

a) Non-corrodible airtight containers.

b) Weighing balance, with accuracy of 0.04% of the mass of the soil taken
c) Desiccator with suitable desiccating agent.
d) Thermostatically controlled oven to maintain temperature 110 C  5 C.
e) Tongs

THEORY:

In almost all soil tests natural moisture content of the soil is to be determined. The knowledge
of the natural moisture content is essential in all studies of soil mechanics. The water content of fine
grained soils, such as silts and clays is higher than coarse grained soils, such as gravels and sands. The
natural moisture content will give an idea of the state of soil in the field. Water content, w of a soil
mass is defined as the ratio of mass of water in the voids to the mass of solids:

𝑊2 −𝑊3
w= × 100
𝑊3 −𝑊1
Where, W1= Weight of empty container in grams
W2 = Weight of container + wet soil in grams
W3 = Weight of container + dry soil in grams

PROCEDURE:

1. Clean the container, dry it and weigh it with lid (W1 in g).

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2. Select the required quantity of moist soil sample, place it in the container, place the lid on it, and
weigh it (W2 in g).
3. Keep the container in the oven with lid removed and dry it for at least 24 hr. at a temperature of
110 C till the mass remains constant.
4. Remove the container from the oven, replace the lid, and cool it in desiccators. Find the mass (W3
in g).
5. Determine the water content ‘w’ by using the above equation.
6. Repeat the experiment with other test samples.

OBSERVATION AND CALCULATIONS:

Determination No.
Observations
1 2 3
Container no.
weight of container(g) - W1
weight of container + wet soil(g) = W2
weight of container + dry soil(g) = W3
Calculations
Mass of water, Mw = W2 – W3
Mass of soil, Ms = W3 – W1
water content, w (%) = Mw/Ms x 100

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION:

The water content of the sample is …..%

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 Experiment No. 2

DETERMINATION OF PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION BY SIEVING

(GRAIN SIZE ANALYSIS)

IS: 2720 (Part 4) – 1985 (Reaffirmed-2006)

OBJECTIVE:
To determine the particle size distribution by sieving (Grain size analysis) and to determine
the effective size, coefficient of curvature and coefficient of uniformity.

THEORY:

Soil gradation (sieve analysis) is the distribution of particle sizes expressed as a percent of the
total dry weight. Gradation is determined by passing the material through a series of sieves stacked
with progressively smaller openings from top to bottom and weighing the material retained on each
sieve. The distribution of different grain sizes affects the engineering properties of soil. Grain size
analysis provides the grain size distribution, and it is required in classifying the soil. The data obtained
from grain size distribution curves is used in the design of filters for earth dams and to determine
suitability of soil for road construction, air field etc.

Percentage retained on any sieve = (weight of soil retained / total weight) 100

NEED AND SCOPE:

The results of testing will reflect the condition and characteristics of the aggregate from which
the sample is obtained. Therefore, when sampling, it is important to obtain a disturbed representative
sample that is representative of the source being tested because the distribution of different grain sizes
affects the engineering properties of soil.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. A series of sieve sets ranging from 4.75mm to 75μm
(4.75mm, 2.00mm, 1.00mm, 425μm, 212μm, 150μm, 75μm)
2. Balance sensitive to ± 0.01g

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 Stack of sieves
PROCEDURE:
Dry Sieving:
Soil passing 4.75mm I.S. Sieve and retained on 75micron I.S. Sieve contains no fines. Those soils
can be directly dry sieved rather than wet sieving.
1. Take 500g of the oven dried soil sample from disturbed representative sample.
2. Set the sieves one over the other with an ascending order (sieves having larger opening size
i.e., lower numbers are placed above the one with smaller opening sizes i.e., smaller numbers).
The very last sieve is #200 (75  sieve). A pan is attached to the lowest 75  sieve to collect
the portions passing #200 sieve and fit the nest to a mechanical shaker.
3. Conduct sieve analysis using a set of standard sieves as given in the data sheet.
4. The sieving may be done either by hand or by mechanical sieve shaker for 10 minutes.
5. Weigh the material retained on each sieve.
6. The percentage retained on each sieve is calculated on the basis of the total weight of the soil
sample taken.
7. From these results the percentage passing through each of the sieves is calculated.
8. Draw the grain size curve for the soil in the semi-logarithmic graph provided.

Wet Sieving:
If the soil contains a substantial quantity (say more than 5%) of fine particles, a wet sieve
analysis is required. All lumps are broken into individual particles.
1. Take 500g of oven dried soil sample and soak it in water.
2. For heavy clays if deflocculation is required, 2% calgon solution is used instead of water.

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 3. The sample is stirred and left for soaking period of at least 10 minutes.
4. The material is sieved through 75 micron sieve.
5. The material is washed until the water filtered becomes clear.
6. The soil retained on 75 micron sieve is collected and dried in oven.
7. It is then sieved through the sieve shaker for ten minutes and retained material on each sieve
is collected and weighed.
8. The material that would have been retained on pan is equal to the total mass of soil taken for
dry sieve analysis minus the sum of the masses of material retained on all sieves.
9. Draw the grain size distribution curve for the soil in a semi-logarithmic graph.

OBSERVATION AND CALCULATIONS:

Sample Details: ___________________

Weight of Sample taken for Sieve Analysis = ______ g.

Location: _____________________________

Cumulative Percent (%) Percent (%)

Weight
S. No. I.S. Sieve No. weight weight weight
retained in g
retained in g retained passing
4.75mm
1.
2.00mm
2.
1.00mm
3.
425 microns
4.
212 microns
5.
150 microns
6.
75 microns
7.
Pan
8.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION:

Percentage of Gravel (>4.75mm) =

Percentage of Coarse Sand (4.75-2.00mm) =
Percentage of Medium Sand (2.00-0.425 mm) =
Percentage of Fine Sand (0.425-0.075mm) =

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Percentage of Silt Clay fraction(<0.075mm) =
Coefficient of curvature, Cc =
Coefficient of uniformity, Cu =

PRECAUTIONS:

 Clean the sieves set so that no soil particles were struck in them
 While weighing put the sieve with soil sample on the balance in a concentric position.
 Check the electric connection of the sieve shaker before conducting the test.
 No particle of soil sample shall be pushed through the sieves.

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 Experiment No. 3

HYDROMETER ANALYSIS

IS: 2720 (Part 4) – 1985 (Reaffirmed-2006)

OBJECTIVE:

To determine the particle size distribution of fine grained soils using hydrometer method.

THEORY:

Hydrometer analysis is based on the principle of sedimentation of soil grains in water. When a
soil specimen is dispersed in water, the particles settle at different velocities, depending on their shape,
size, weight, and the viscosity of the water. The method is based on Stoke’s law governing the rate of
sedimentation of particles suspended in water. For simplicity, it is assumed that all the soil particles
are spheres.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. Glass cylinders of 1000-ml capacity
2. Thermometer
3. Hydrometer
4. Electric mixer with dispersing cup
5. Balance sensitive to ± 0.01g
6. Stop watch
7. Beaker

RE-AGENTS REQUIRED:
Dispersing solution- 4% (Dissolve 5 g of sodium hexa-metaphosphate in de-ionized water of 125 ml)

PROCEDURE:
Soil passing 4.75mm I.S. Sieve and retained on 75micron I.S. Sieve contains no fines. Those
soils can be directly dry sieved rather than wet sieving.
Wet Sieving:
If the soil contains a substantial quantity (say more than 5%) of fine particles, a wet sieve
analysis is required. All lumps are broken into individual particles.
1. Take 200g of oven dried soil sample and soaked with water.

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 2. If de-flocculation is required, 2% calgon solution is used instead of water.
3. The sample is stirred and left for soaking period of at least 1 hour.
4. The slurry is then sieved through 4.75 mm sieve and washed with a jet of water.
5. The material retained on the sieve is the gravel fraction, which should be dried in oven and
weighed.
6. The material passing through 4.75 mm sieve is sieved through 75 micron sieve.
7. The material is washed until the water filtered becomes clear.
8. The soil passed through 75 micron sieve is collected and dried in oven.

Graduated Hydrometer Hydrometer immersed in soil water soiution

Hydrometer Analysis:
9. Take 40 g of the oven dry soil sample after removing soluble salts and organic matter if
any.
10. It is then mixed with 4% solution of dispersing agent in water to get a known amount of
suspension by volume and stirred well.
11. This suspension should be made 24 hrs before testing.
12. After 24 hours, the suspension is again mixed using Electric mixer with dispersing cup.
13. Following stirring with mixer, the suspension which is made up to 1000 ml in the
measuring cylinder is turned end to end for even distribution of particles before the time‘t’
begins to be measured.

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 14. The hydrometer readings are recorded at regular intervals as indicated in the data sheet.
From the data obtained the particle size distribution curve is plotted in the semi-logarithmic
graph sheet along with the dry sieve analysis results.

CORRECTIONS (INDIVIDUAL):
Meniscus Correction (Cm):
Since the suspension is opaque, the readings will be taken at the top of the meniscus while the actual
should be from the bottom of the meniscus. It is constant for a hydrometer (Always positive).
Temperature Correction (Ct):
If the temperature is less than 270C, the correction is negative and vice-versa. Temperature should be
measured from starting till end of the tests at regular intervals and are averaged. Then it is compared
with the standard temperature (270C).
Dispersion Agent Correction (Cd):
Addition of calgon always increases the specific gravity of the specimen. Hence, this correction is
always negative.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION:

% clay fraction :

PRECAUTIONS:
 Clean the mixer properly.
 Ensure soil particles do not form lumps.

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OBSERVATION AND CALCULATIONS:
1. Sample No:
2. Soil’s specific gravity oil (Gs) =
3. Weight of oven dried soil
In suspension (WS) = 40 g
4. Hydrometer No. = 8. Cross-sectional area of the jar =
5. Dispersing agent correction (Cd) = 9. Weight of soil for sieve analysis (W) = 500 g
6. Temperature correction (Ct) = 10. Weight passing from 0.075 mm sieve (W f) =
7. Meniscus correction (C m) =

Actual L, L/T Particle size Percent % Finer on

Elapsed time Hydrometer R’H / = R= R’H + K
time in Effective Depth (L in cm & √L/T D=K√L/T Finer the total wt.
‘T’ (in min) Reading (RH) (RH + Cm) (Ct – Cd) See Table II
IST [See Chart] T in min) (in mm) N' % N
30 sec
1 min
2 min
5 min
10 min
15 min
30 min
1 hr.
2 hrs.
4 hrs.
8 hrs.
24 hrs.

N' % = GS × R × 100 Where GS = Specific Gravity of Soil N % = Wf × N' %

(GS –1) × WS WS = Dry Wt. of Soil sample W

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 Experiment No. 4

SPECIFIC GRAVITY TEST

(IS-2720-PART-3/section-1-1980) (Reaffirmed-2002)

OBJECTIVE:
To determine the specific gravity of soil solids by density bottle method.

THEORY:
The specific gravity of a soil is the ratio of the mass of a given volume of the material at a stated
temperature to the mass of an equal volume of de-aired or gas-free distilled water at a stated
temperature. The specific gravity of a soil is used in the phase relationship of air, water, and solids in
a given volume of the soil. The specific gravity of the solid substance of most inorganic soils varies
between 2.60 and 2.80. Tropical iron-rich laterite, as well as some lateritic soils, usually have a specific
gravity between 2.75 and 3.0 (could be higher). Sand particles composed of quartz have a specific
gravity ranging from 2.65 to 2.67. Inorganic clays generally range from 2.70 to 2.80. Soils with large
amounts of organic matter or porous particles (such as diatomaceous earth) have specific gravities
below 2.60.

NEED AND SCOPE:

The specific gravity of a soil is used in relating a weight of soil to its volume and in calculation
of phase relationship, i.e. the relative volume of solids to water and air in a given volume soil. The
specific gravity is used in the computations of most of the laboratory tests, and is needed in nearly all
pressure, settlement, and stability problems in soil engineering.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. Density bottle - glass bottle of 50 ml capacity with a fitted glass
stopper
2. Stopper - glass with small hole through center to permit emission of
air and water
3. Balance - 0.001 g sensitivity
4. Oven - capable of 1050C  10C
5. Thermometer
6. Funnel
7. Sand bath for heating Density Bottle

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PROCEDURE:
1. First weigh ‘W1’ the specific gravity bottle
2. Transfer the oven dried soil sample to the density bottle (about 50g when the 250ml volumetric
flask is used, about 10-20g when 50cc stoppered bottle is used or 100g when 500ml
pyconometer is used).
3. Weigh the bottle ‘W2’ again with the soil.
4. Add distilled water to fill the bottle to fill about three fourths.
5. Remove the entrapped air either by subjecting the contents to a partial vacuum or by boiling
gently in a sand-bath till the air bubbles cease to appear while occasionally rolling the bottle
to assist in removal of air.
6. Then cool to room temperature and fill the bottle with distilled water up to the mark and clean
and dry the outside surface with a clean, dry cloth and note down the temperature.
7. Determine the weight of the bottle with water and soil, ‘W3’.
8. Then remove the soil and water from the bottle and clean it.
9. Again weigh ‘W4’ after filling with distilled water up to the mark and drying outside.
10. From data obtained determine specific gravity of the soil.

OBSERVATION AND CALCULATIONS:

Test No. 1 2 3

Temperature ºC

Bottle No.

Weight of sp. Gr. Bottle (W1) (g)

Weight of sp. Gr. Bottle + soil (W2) (g)

Weight of sp. Gr. Bottle + soil + water (W3) (g)

Weight of sp. Gr. Bottle + water (W4) (g)

Specific gravity of soil at temperature ºC
G's = (W2 - W1 ) .
(W4 – W1) – (W3 – W2 )
Temperature Correction, K27
Specific gravity of soil at temperature 27 ºC
Gs = K27 x G's ( see K27 from Table I )
Average

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RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

The specific gravity of the given sol is =

Type of soil =
(according to your interpretations from specific gravity of the soil)

PRECAUTIONS

 The cap should be removed during sand bath.

 Density bottles should be handled with care.
 The weights should be carefully noted.

Table-I: Correction Factor for Variation in Specific Gravity of water due to Temperature

Temperature C K27
15 1.0026
16 1.0024
17 1.0023
18 1.0021
19 1.0019
20 1.0017
21 1.0015
22 1.0013
23 1.0010
24 1.0008
25 1.0005
26 1.0003
27 1
28 0.9997
29 0.9994
30 0.9991
31 0.9988
32 0.9985
33 0.9982
34 0.9979
35 0.9975
36 0.9972
37 0.9968
38 0.9964
39 0.9961
40 0.9957

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Page 14
 Experiment No. 5

LIQUID LIMIT TEST

IS: 2720 (Part 5) – 1985 (Reaffirmed-2006)

OBJECTIVE:
To determine the liquid limit of soil specimen using Casagrande’s apparatus.
THEORY:
When clay minerals are present in fine-grained soil, the soil can be remolded in the presence of
some moisture without crumbling. This cohesive nature is caused by the adsorbed water surrounding
the clay particles. The moisture content, in percent, at which the transition from plastic to liquid state
takes place is defined as the liquid limit. In Casagrande’s apparatus, the liquid limit is the moisture
content at which the groove, formed by a standard tool into the sample of soil taken in the standard
cup, closes for 10 mm on being given 25 blows in a standard manner. This is the limiting moisture
content at which the cohesive soil passes from plastic state to liquid state.

NEED AND SCOPE:

Liquid limit is significant to know the stress history and general properties of the soil met with
construction. From the results of liquid limit the compression index may be estimated. The
compression index value will help us in settlement analysis. If the natural moisture content of soil is
closer to liquid limit, the soil can be considered as soft. If the moisture content is lesser than liquid
limit, the soil is brittle and stiffer.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. Balance,
2. Cassagrande’s Liquid limit device,
3. Grooving tool,
4. Mixing dishes,
5. Spatula,
6. Electrical Oven,
7. Squeeze Bottle

PROCEDURE:
1. Take 250 g of oven-dried soil, passed thorough 425 m sieve, into an evaporating dish. Add distilled
water into the soil and mix it thoroughly to form uniform paste. (The paste should have a consistency
that would require 30 to 35 drops of cup to cause closer of standard groove for sufficient length.)

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2. Place a portion of the paste in the cup of Liquid Limit device and spread it with a few strokes of
spatula.
3. Trim it to a depth of 1 cm at the point of maximum thickness and return excess of soil to the dish.
4. Using the grooving tool, cut a groove along the center line of soil pat in the cup, so that clean sharp
groove of proper dimension (11 mm wide at top, 2 mm at bottom, and 8 mm deep) is formed.
5. Lift and drop the cup by turning crank at the rate of two revolutions per second until the two halves
of soil cake come in contact with each other for a length of about 13 mm by flow only, and record
the number of blows, N.
6. Take a representative portion of soil from the cup for moisture content determination.
7. Repeat the test with different moisture contents at least five more times for blows between 15 and
35.

Casagrande Apparatus

Details of apparatus and tools

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OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATION::
Details of the sample:
Natural moisture content: Room temperature:

Determination Number 1 2 3 4 5 6

Container number

Weight of container (w1)

Weight of container + wet soil

(w2)

Weight of container + dry soil

(w3)

Weight of water (Ww=w2-w3)

Weight of dry soil (Ws=w3-w1)

Moisture content (%)

=(Ww/Ws)

No. of blows

Plot the relationship between water content (on y-axis) and number of blows (on x-axis) on semi-
log graph. The curve obtained is called flow curve. The moisture content corresponding to 25 drops
(blows) as read from the represents liquid limit. It is usually expressed to the nearest whole number.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION:
Liquid limit, WL = (At 25 blows, from semi log- graph of water content Vs. No. of blows)

Flow index, If = (W2-W1) / log(N1/N2)

= slope of the flow curve

PRECAUTIONS:
 Soil and water should be mixed properly.
 The cut should be made from the cutting edge side in one swift motion.
 The soil pat should be leveled properly.

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 Experiment No. 6

PLASTIC LIMIT TEST

IS: 2720 (Part 5) – 1985 (Reaffirmed-2006)

OBJECTIVE:
To determine the plastic limit of soil specimen.
THEORY:
When clay minerals are present in fine-grained soil, the soil can be remolded in the presence
of some moisture without crumbling. This cohesive nature is caused by the adsorbed water
surrounding the clay particles. The moisture content, in percent, at which the transition from semi-
solid to plastic state takes place is defined as the plastic limit. The plastic limit (PL) is determined by
rolling out a thread of the fine portion of a soil on a flat, non-porous surface. The plastic limit is defined
as the moisture content where the thread breaks apart at a diameter of 3.2 mm (about 1/8 inch). A soil
is considered non-plastic if a thread cannot be rolled out down to 3.2 mm at any moisture.

NEED AND SCOPE:

Plastic Limit (PL or WP) is the water content in percent, of a soil at the boundary between the
plastic and semi-solid states. Soil is used for making bricks, tiles and soil cement blocks in addition to
its use as foundation for structures. The plastic limit of soils is also used extensively either individually
or together with other soil properties to correlate with engineering behavior such as compressibility,
permeability, compactability, shrink - swell and shear strength.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. Porcelain dish.
2. Squeeze Bottle and Spatula
3. Balance of capacity 200g and sensitive to 0.01g
4. Ground glass plate for rolling the specimen.
5. Containers to determine the moisture content.
6. Oven thermostatically controlled with interior of non-corroding material to maintain the
temperature around 1050 and 1100C.

PROCEDURE:
1. Take 20 g of oven-dried soil, passed through 425 micron sieve (In accordance with I.S. 2720: part-
1), into an evaporating dish. Add distilled water into the soil and mix it thoroughly to form uniform
paste (the soil paste should be plastic enough to be easily molded with fingers).

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2. Prepare several ellipsoidal shaped soil masses by squeezing the soil between your fingers. Take one
of the soil masses and roll it on the glass plate using your figures. The pressure of rolling should be
just enough to make thread of uniform diameter throughout its length. The rate of rolling shall be
between 60 to 90 strokes per min.
3. Continue rolling until you get the thread diameter of 3 mm.
4. If the thread does not crumble at a diameter of 3 mm, knead the soil together to a uniform mass and
re-roll.
5. Continue the process until the thread crumbles when the diameter is 3 mm.
6. Collect the pieces of the crumbled thread for moisture content determination. (Prepare threads at
least with 10g of soil for water content measurement).
7. Repeat the test at least 3 times and take the average of the results calculated to the nearest whole
number.

Rolling of soil into thread to determine plastic limit

OBSERVATION AND CALCULATIONS:

Description Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3

Container No.

Wt. of container + lid,W1

Wt. of container + lid + wet sample,W2

Wt. of container + lid + dry sample,W3

Wt. of dry sample = W3 – W1

Wt. of water in the soil = W2 – W3

Water content (%) =

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 (W2 – W3) / (W3 – W1)  100

Average Plastic Limit, (%)

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

Plastic limit, (PL) =

Plasticity Index, (Ip) = (LL - PL)

Toughness Index = Ip/IF

=
=

PRECAUTIONS:
 Only those specimens should be selected which form cracks at approx. 3mm width.
 Specimens should be collected in closed container to avoid moisture loss during the duration
of the test.

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 Experiment No. 7

SHRINKAGE LIMIT TEST

(IS-2720-PART-6-1972) (Reaffirmed-2001)

OBJECTIVE:
To determine the shrinkage limit of soil specimen.

THEORY:

When clay minerals are present in fine-grained soil, the soil can be remolded in the presence of
some moisture without crumbling. This cohesive nature is caused by the adsorbed water surrounding
the clay particles. The moisture content, in percent, at which the transition from solid to semi-solid
state takes place is defined as the shrinkage limit. At shrinkage limit, reduction in water content will
not cause a decrease in volume of the soil mass but an increase in water will increase the
volume. It is the minimum water content at which a soil is still in saturated condition. The value of
shrinkage limit is used for understanding the swelling and shrinkage properties of cohesive soils.

NEED AND SCOPE:

As the soil loses moisture, either in its natural environment, or by artificial means in laboratory it
changes from liquid state to plastic state to semi-solid state and then to solid state. The volume is also
reduced by the decrease in water content. But, at a particular limit the moisture reduction causes no
further volume change. A shrinkage limit test gives a quantitative indication of how much moisture
can change before any significant volume change and also indication of change in volume. The
shrinkage limit is useful in areas where soils undergo large volume changes when going through wet
and dry cycles (e.g. earth dams).

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1) Evaporating Dish of Porcelain,
2.) Spatula and Straight Edge,
3.) Balance-Sensitive to 0.01 g minimum.
4.) Shrinkage Dish - Circular, porcelain or non-corroding metal dish,
5.) Glass cup. 50-55 mm in diameter and 25 mm in height,
6.) Glass plates - Two, 7575 mm one plate of plain glass and the other prongs,
7.) Thermostatically controlled Oven,

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8.) Wash bottle containing distilled water,
9.) Graduate-Glass, with capacity of 25 ml.
10.) Mercury.

PROCEDURE:
Preparation of soil paste
1. Take about 100 g of soil sample from a thoroughly mixed portion of the material passing through
425 μm Sieve. Place about 30 g of the above soil sample in the evaporating dish and thoroughly
mixed with distilled water and make a creamy paste. (Use water content slightly higher than the
liquid limit.)
Filling the shrinkage dish
2. Coat the inside of the shrinkage dish with a thin layer of Vaseline to prevent the soil sticking to the
dish.
3. Fill the dish in three layers by placing approximately 1/3 rd of the amount of wet soil with the help
of spatula. Tap the dish gently on a firm base until the soil flows over the edges and no apparent air
bubbles exist. Repeat this process for 2nd and 3rd layers also till the dish is completely filled with
the wet soil. Strike off the excess soil and make the top of the dish smooth. Wipe off all the soil
adhering to the outside of the dish.
4. Weigh immediately the dish with wet soil and record the weight.
5. Air- dry the wet soil cake for 6 to 8 hrs, until the color of the pat turns from dark to light. Then
oven-dry the cake at 1050C to 1100C say about 12 to 16 hours.
6. Remove the dried disk of the soil from oven. Cool it in a desiccator. Then obtain the weight of the
dish with dry sample.
7. Determine the weight of the empty dish and record.
8. Determine the volume of shrinkage dish which is evidently equal to volume of the wet soil as
follows:
Place the shrinkage dish in an evaporating dish and fill the dish with mercury till it
overflows slightly. Press it with plain glass plate firmly on its top to remove excess mercury. Pour
the mercury from the shrinkage dish into a measuring jar and find the shrinkage dish volume
directly. Record this volume as the volume of wet soil pat.
Volume of the Dry Soil Pat
9. Determine the volume of dry soil pat by removing the pat from the shrinkage dish and immersing
it in the glass cup full of mercury in the following manner.

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 Place the glass cup in a larger one and fill the glass cup to overflowing with mercury. Remove the
excess mercury by covering the cup with glass plate with prongs and pressing it. See that no air
bubbles are entrapped. Wipe out the outside of the glass cup to remove the adhering mercury.
Then, place it in another larger dish, which is, clean and empty carefully.
 Place the dry soil pat on the mercury. Submerge the pat which is floating with the pronged glass
plate which is again made flush with top of the cup. The mercury spills over into the larger plate.
Pour the mercury that is displaced by the soil pat into the measuring jar and find the volume of the
soil pat directly.

Determination of volume of dry pat

OBSERVATION AND CALCULATIONS:

Sr.No Determination No. 1 2 3
1 Wt. of container in g,W1
2 Wt. of container + wet soil pat in g,W2
3 Wt. of container + dry soil pat in g,W3
4 Wt. of oven dry soil pat, W0 in g = (W3-W1)
5 Wt. of water in g = (W2-W3)
6 Moisture content (%), W
7 Volume of wet soil pat (V), in cm3
8 Weight of displaced mercury in g (Wm)
9 Specific gravity of the mercury (G)
10 Volume of dry soil pat (Vd) in cm3 = (Wm)/ (G)
11 Shrinkage limit (WS) = [W – {(V-Vd) x /Wo}] x 100
12 Shrinkage ratio (R) = {(V1-Vd)/Vd}*(W-Ws)*100

Page 23
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS:
Shrinkage limit (WS) =
Shrinkage ratio (R) =

PRECAUTION:
 DO NOT TOUCH THE MERCURY WITH GOLD ORNAMENTS.
 Keep specimens for air drying to avoid the formation of cracks.

Page 24
 Experiment No. 8

PERMEABILITY TEST-CONSTANT HEAD METHOD

(IS 2720-PART-17-1986) Reaffirmed-2002

OBJECTIVE:
To determine the permeability of soil specimen using constant head method.
THEORY:
The rate of flow under laminar flow conditions through a unit cross sectional area of porous
medium under unit hydraulic gradient is defined as coefficient of permeability. Usually, permeability
of soils is determined by two methods:
1. Constant head Permeability method
2. Falling Head Permeability method
The falling head method of determining permeability is used for soil with low discharge, whereas the
constant head permeability test is used for coarse-grained soils with a reasonable discharge in a given
time. Constant head method is elaborated in this section.
Magnitudes of permeability:
High permeability: k > 10-1 cm/sec
Medium permeability: k  10-1 cm/sec
Low permeability: k < 10-1 cm/sec
General values of permeability for different types of soils are given below:
 Gravel : 10-2 to 1 cm/sec
 Sand : 1 to 10-3 cm/sec
 Silt : 10-3 to 10-6 cm/sec
 Clay : less than10-6 cm/sec
 Fly Ash : 1× 10 -4 to 5× 10 -4cm/sec

NEED AND SCOPE:

Permeability is useful in solving problems involving yield of water bearing strata, seepage through
earthen dams, stability of earthen dams, and embankments of canal bank affected by seepage,
settlement etc.

PREPARATION OF THE SPECIMEN:

The preparation of the specimen for this test is important. There are two types of specimen, the
undisturbed soil sample and the disturbed or made up soil sample.

Page 25
A. Undisturbed soil specimen
1. Note down-sample no., borehole no., depth at which sample is taken.
2. Remove the protective cover (wax) from the sampling tube.
3. Place the sampling tube in the sample extract or and push the plunger to get a cylindrical shaped
specimen not larger than 95 mm diameter and height equal to that of the mould.
4. This specimen is placed centrally over the porous stone of base plate.
7. Porous stone is also placed at the top of the sample
8. The specimen is now ready for test.
B. Remolded specimen
The disturbed specimen can be prepared by static compaction or by dynamic compaction.
Preparation of Dynamically Compacted Disturbed sample:
1. Take 2500 gs of representative soil and mix it with water to get O.M.C, if necessary.
2. Assemble the permeameter for dynamic compaction. Grease the inside of the mould and place it
upside down on the dynamic compaction base. Weigh the assembly correct to a g (w). Put the
collar to the other end.
3. Now, compact the wet soil in 3 layers with 25 blows to each layer with a 2.6 kg dynamic tool.
Remove the collar and then trim off the excess. Weigh the mould assembly with the soil.
4. Place the filter paper or fine wire mesh on the top of the soil specimen and fix the perforated base
plate on it.
5. Turn the assembly upside down and remove the compaction plate. Insert the sealing gasket and
place the top perforated plate on the top of soil specimen. And fix the top cap.
6. Now, the specimen is ready for test.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. Permeameter mould of non-corrodible material having a capacity of 1000 ml, with an internal
diameter of 100 0.1 mm and internal effective height of 127.3 0.1 mm.
2. The mould shall be fitted with a detachable base plate and removable extension counter.
3. Compacting equipment: 50 mm diameter circular face, weight 2.6 kg and height of fall 310 mm as
specified in I.S 2720 part VII 1980.
4. Drainage bade: A bade with a 12 mm thick porous disc having its permeability 10 times of that for
soil.
5. Drainage cap: A porous disc of 12 mm thick having a fitting for connection to water inlet or outlet.

Page 26
6. Constant head tank: A suitable water reservoir capable of supplying water to the Permeameter
under constant head.
7. Graduated glass cylinder to receive the discharge.
8. Stop watch to note the time, and a meter scale to measure the head differences and length of
specimen.

Constant head permeability setup

PROCEDURE:
1. For the constant head arrangement, the specimen shall be connected through the top inlet to the
constant head reservoir.
2. Open the bottom outlet.
3. Establish steady flow of water.
4. The quantity of flow for a convenient time interval may be collected.
5. Repeat three times for the same interval.

OBSERVATION AND CALCULATIONS:

The flow is very low at the beginning, gradually increases and then becomes constant.
Project: ……… Tested By: ……..
Location: …….. Boring No. : …….. Depth: ………
Details of sample
Diameter of specimen ………………. cm Length of specimen (L) …………… cm

Page 27
Area of specimen (A) ………….…….cm2 Specific gravity of soil Gs ……………..
Volume of specimen (V) …………….cm3 Weight of dry specimen (Ws) ………. g
Moisture content, w …..………..…… % Dry density, γd = Ws / V = ……..… g /cc
Void Ratio, e = (Gs.γw / γd ) - 1 = ……….. Saturation, S = Gs.w / e = …………… %

Temperature 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22
ηt / η27 1.336 1.301 1.268 1.237 1.206 1.177 1.149 1.122
Temperature 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
ηt / η27 1.096 1.071 1.046 1.023 1.000 0.979 0.958 0.938

Variation of ηt / η27

Experiment No. 1 2 3

Discharge Q (cm3)

Time t (sec)

Height of water h(cm)

Temperature (oC)

Coefficient of Permeability at …… oC
cm/sec
k = Q.L / (A.h.t)

Average Permeability, kt cm/sec

Permeability at 27 oC: k27 = kt x ηt / η27 cm/sec

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

The permeability of the soil specimen is determined to be

PRECAUTION:
 During test there should be no volume change in the soil.
 Ensure that there should be no compressible air present in the voids of soil i.e. soil should be
completely saturated.
 The flow should be laminar and in a steady state condition.

Page 28
 Experiment No. 9

PERMEABILITY TEST-FALLING HEAD METHOD

(IS 2720-PART-17-1986) Reaffirmed-2002

THEORY:
The rate of flow under laminar flow conditions through a unit cross sectional area of porous
medium under unit hydraulic gradient is defined as coefficient of permeability. Usually, permeability
of soils is determined by two methods:
1. Constant head Permeability method
2. Falling Head Permeability method
The falling head method of determining permeability is used for soil with low discharge, whereas the
constant head permeability test is used for coarse-grained soils with a reasonable discharge in a given
time. For very fine-grained soil, capillarity permeability test is recommended. Falling head method is
elaborated in this section.
Magnitudes of permeability:
High permeability: k > 10-1 cm/sec
Medium permeability: k  10-1 cm/sec
Low permeability: k < 10-1 cm/sec
General values of permeability for different types of soils are given below:
 Gravel : 10-2 to 1 cm/sec
 Sand : 1 to 10-3 cm/sec
 Silt : 10-3 to 10-6 cm/sec
 Clay : less than10-6 cm/sec
 Fly Ash : 1× 10 -4 to 5× 10 -4cm/sec
NEED AND SCOPE:
Permeability is useful in solving problems involving yield of water bearing strata, seepage through
earthen dams, stability of earthen dams, and embankments of canal bank affected by seepage,
settlement etc.

PREPARATION OF THE SPECIMEN:

The preparation of the specimen for this test is important. There are two types of specimen, the
undisturbed soil sample and the disturbed or made up soil sample.
A. Undisturbed soil specimen

Page 29
1. Note down-sample no., borehole no., depth at which sample is taken.
2. Remove the protective cover (wax) from the sampling tube.
3. Place the sampling tube in the sample extract or and push the plunger to get a cylindrical shaped
specimen not larger than 95 mm diameter and height equal to that of the mould.
4. This specimen is placed centrally over the porous stone of base plate.
7. Porous stone is also placed at the top of the sample
8. The specimen is now ready for test.
B. Remolded specimen
The disturbed specimen can be prepared by static compaction or by dynamic compaction.
Preparation of Dynamically Compacted Disturbed sample:
1. Take 2500 gs of representative soil and mix it with water to get O.M.C, if necessary.
2. Assemble the permeameter for dynamic compaction. Grease the inside of the mould and place it
upside down on the dynamic compaction base. Weigh the assembly correct to a g (w). Put the
collar to the other end.
3. Now, compact the wet soil in 3 layers with 25 blows to each layer with a 2.6 kg dynamic tool.
Remove the collar and then trim off the excess. Weigh the mould assembly with the soil.
4. Place the filter paper or fine wire mesh on the top of the soil specimen and fix the perforated base
plate on it.
5. Turn the assembly upside down and remove the compaction plate. Insert the sealing gasket and
place the top perforated plate on the top of soil specimen. And fix the top cap.
6. Now, the specimen is ready for test.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. Permeameter with its accessories:
2. Standard soil specimen,
3. Deaired water,
4. Balance to weigh up to 1 g,
5. I.S sieves 4.75 mm and 2 mm,
6. Mixing pan,
7. Stop watch,
8. Measuring jar,
9. Meter scale,
10. Thermometer,
11. Container for water,

Page 30
 12. Trimming knife

Falling Head permeability set up

TEST PROCEDURE:
1. Prepare the soil specimen as specified.
2. Saturate the specimen preferably by using Deaired water.
3. Assemble the Permeameter (The Permeameter is made of non-corrodible material with a capacity
of 1000 ml, with an internal diameter of 1000.1 mm and effective height of 127.3 0.1 mm) in
the bottom tank and fill the tank with water.
4. Inlet nozzle of the mould is connected to the stand pipe. Allow the water to flow until steady flow
is obtained.
5. Note down the time interval‘t’ for a fall of head in the stand pipe ‘h’.
6. Repeat step 5 three times to determine‘t’ for the same head.

OBSERVATION & RECORDING:

Sample No. ………………… Molding water content: ………………..

Dry Density: ………………. Specific Gravity: ………………………..

Void ratio ………………….

S.No. Description 1st set 2nd set 3rd set

1. Area of stand pipe (dia. 5 cm) a (cm)

Page 31
 2. Cross sectional area of soil specimen A (cm2)
3. Length of soil specimen L (cm)
4. Initial reading of stand pipe h1 (cm)
5. Final reading of stand pipe h2 (cm)
6. Time t (sec)
7. Test temperature T (oC)
Coefficient of permeability at …….. oC k
8.
k = 2.303.a.L.(log10 (h1/h2) )/ (A.t) (cm/sec)
kt
9. Average Permeability, kt
(cm/sec)
Coefficient of permeability at 27o C : k27
10.
k27 = kt x t / 27 (cm/sec)

Variation of ηt / η27

Temperature 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22
ηt / η27 1.336 1.301 1.268 1.237 1.206 1.177 1.149 1.122
Temperature 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
ηt / η27 1.096 1.071 1.046 1.023 1.000 0.979 0.958 0.938

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

The permeability of the soil specimen is determined to be

PRECAUTION:
 During test there should be no volume change in the soil.
 Ensure that there should be no compressible air present in the voids of soil i.e. soil should be
completely saturated.
 The flow should be laminar and in a steady state condition.

Page 32
 Experiment No. 10

DIRECT SHEAR TEST

(IS-2720-PART-13-1986) Reaffirmed-2002

OBJECTIVE:
To determine the shear strength parameters of soil sample using direct shear apparatus.

THEORY- CONCEPT:

In many engineering problems such as design of foundation, retaining walls, slab bridges,
pipes, sheet piling, the value of the angle of internal friction and cohesion of the soil involved are
required for the design. Direct shear test is used to predict these parameters quickly. The direct shear
test is mostly recommended for granular soils, and it can also be performed on soils containing some
cohesive content. The cohesive soils have issues regarding controlling the strain rates to drained or
undrained loading. In granular soils, loading can always assumed to be drained. A schematic diagram
of shear box shows that soil sample is placed in a square box which is split into upper and lower halves.
Lower section is fixed and upper section is pushed or pulled horizontally relative to other section; thus
forcing the soil sample to shear/fail along the horizontal plane separating two halves. Under a specific
Normal force, the Shear force is increased from zero until the sample is fully sheared. The relationship
of Normal stress and Shear stress at failure gives the failure envelope of the soil and provide the shear
strength parameters (cohesion and internal friction angle).

Equation:

Coulombs equation is used for computing the shear parameters.

For clay soils: S = c +  tan 

For sand: S=  tan 

Where,

S = shear strength of soil in kg/cm2

c = unit cohesion (kg/cm2)

 = angle of shearing resistance (degrees)

 = normal load applied on the surface of the specimen (kg/cm2)

Page 33
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1) Direct shear box apparatus and Loading frame (motor attached).
2) Two Dial gauges, Proving ring, Weighing Balance with accuracy of 0.01g.
3) Sample Extractor (Undisturbed sample) / Sampler for preparation of remolded sample of dimension
(60mm*60mm*25mm).
4) Tamper, Straight edge, Spatula.
5) Filter paper
6) Two porous stones
7) Two corrugated metallic plates with perforation (drained) / metallic imperforated plates with
corrugation (undrained)
8) Metallic Pressure pad

PROCEDURE:
1. Check the inner dimension of the soil sampler, and put the parts of the direct shear apparatus
together.
2. Calculate the volume of the sampler. Weigh the sampler.
3. Place the soil inside the sampler in three smooth layers (approximately 10 mm thick each before
tamping). If dense sample is desired, tamp the soil with appropriate equal number of blows in
each layer for the required density.
4. After completing three layers, level the top layer and weigh the soil sampler with soil. Find the
weight of wet soil and calculate the density of soil to confirm the obtainment of required density.
5. Place the soil specimen inside the direct shear apparatus and put the upper porous stone, pressure
pad and loading block on top of soil.
6. Adjust the dial gauges and proving ring to zero position after setting up the specimen set up. Apply
the desired normal stress say 0.5 kg/cm2 , add water at the top of direct shear box set up and wait
for at least 20 minutes to ensure saturation and Remove the shear pin.
7. Measure the final vertical dial gauge reading which measures the deformation in vertical direction
due to saturation.
8. Record the initial reading of the dial gauge and proving ring values before starting the shearing.
9. Check all adjustments to see that there is no connection between two parts except sand/soil.
10. Fix the strain controlled frame to the required strain rate. Start the motor. Take the reading of the
shear force in proving ring with respect to the change in horizontal dial gauge reading and vertical
deformation in vertical dial gauge till failure.

Page 34
11. The steps from 1to 10 has to be repeated for another two normal stresses (1.0 kg/cm 2 and 1.5
kg/cm2).

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATION:

Data calculation sheet for direct shear test:

Normal stress = _____ kg/cm2

Size of the sample = 60 mm x 60 mm x 25 mm Least count of dial gauge (Horizontal) = _____

Area of the sample (Cross Sectional ) = 36 cm2 Least count of dial gauge (Vertical) = _______
Volume of the sample = 90 cm3 Proving Ring No. = _______
Weight of the sample (g) = _______ Proving ring constant = _______
Density of the sample (g/cc) = _______ Water content (%) = _______

Time
1 2 3 4 5 6 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 90 120
(min)
Vertical
Dial
Reading

Horizontal Dial reading 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180

Proving Ring Reading
Shear Stress (kg/sq.cm)
Horizontal Dial reading 200 220 240 260 280 300 320 340 360
Proving Ring Reading
Shear Stress (kg/sq.cm)
Horizontal Dial reading 380 400 420 440 460 480 500 520 540
Proving Ring Reading
Shear Stress (kg/sq.cm)
Horizontal Dial reading 560 580 600 620 640 660 680 700 720
Proving Ring Reading
Shear Stress (kg/sq.cm)
Horizontal Dial reading 740 760 780 800 820 840 860 880 900
Proving Ring Reading
Shear Stress (kg/sq.cm)

*L.C – Least Count, P.R.C – Proving Ring Constant

Water content calculation:

Name of container =
Weight of container, w1=
Weight of container and wet soil, w2 =
Weight of container and dry soil, w3 =
Water content, (%) =

Page 35
 Horizontal Horizontal Corrected Proving Ring Shear Force Shear Stress
Dial Guage displacement area (mm2) Reading (N) (kPa)
Reading (mm)
0 0 3600 0 0 0

1. Shear stress (τ) on the horizontal failure plane are calculated as

τ = S/A
where, S is shear force
A is the cross sectional area of the sample
2. Corrected area (Acorr) needs to be calculated for calculating the shear stress at failure.
Acorr = A0-(60*δ),
where, δ is horizontal displacement due to shear force applied on specimen (mm)
A0 is the initial area of the soil specimen (mm2)
3. i. Shear Stress = (Proving ring reading x Proving ring constant)/Acorr
ii. Horizontal displacement = Horizontal dial gauge reading x Least count of horizontal dial gauge
iii. Vertical displacement = Vertical dial gauge reading x Least count of vertical dial gauge
4. Shear stress at failure needs to be calculated for all three tests performed at three different normal
stresses to plot the failure envelope.
From three samples the following results are obtained:
TEST NO. Normal stress (kPa) Shear stress at failure (kPa)
1 50
2 100
3 150

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS:

Angle of internal friction  = ______
Unit cohesion c = ______kPa

PRECAUTIONS:

1. The dimensions of the shear box should be measured accurately.

2. Before allowing the sample to shear, the screw joining the two halves of the box should be
taken out.
3. Rate of strain or shear displacement rate should be constant throughout the test.
4. The spacing screws after creating required spacing between two halves of the shear box,
should be turned back to make them clear of the lower part.

Page 36
5. For drained test, the porous stones should be saturated by boiling in water.
6. Add the self-weight of the loading yoke in the vertical load.
7. Failure of the soil specimen is assumed when the proving ring dial gauge reading begins to
recede after reaching its maximum or at a 20% shear displacement of the specimen length.

Page 37
 Experiment No. 11

CONSOLIDATION TEST- (OEDOMETER TEST)

(IS 2720-PART-15-1986) Reaffirmed-2002

OBJECTIVE:
To determine the compressibility parameter of soil specimen using 1D Consolidation
apparatus.

THEORY:
Consolidation of a saturated soil occurs due to expulsion of water under a static, sustained load.
When a compressive load is applied to soil mass, a decrease in its volume takes place, the decrease in
volume of soil mass under stress is known as compression and the property of soil mass pertaining to
its tendency to decrease in volume under pressure is known as compressibility. In a saturated soil mass
having its void filled with incompressible water, decrease in volume or compression can take place
when water is expelled out of the voids. Such a compression resulting from a long time static load and
the consequent escape of pore water is termed as consolidation. When load is applied on the saturated
soil mass, the entire load is carried by pore water in the beginning. As the water begins escaping from
the voids, the hydrostatic pressure in water gets gradually dissipated and the load is shifted to the soil
particles which increases effective stress on them, as a result the soil mass decrease in volume. The
rate of escape of water depends on the permeability of the soil.
Coefficient of compressibility, av = - e /  𝜎̅
Coefficient of volumetric compressibility, mv = av /(1 + e0)
− 𝑒
Compression Index, Cc = ̅ +∆𝜎
𝜎 ̅
𝑙𝑜𝑔10 0𝜎
̅ 0

NEED AND SCOPE:

The test is conducted to determine the settlement due to primary consolidation.
a. Rate of consolidation under normal load.
b. Degree of consolidation at any time.
c. Pressure-void ratio relationship.
d. Coefficient of consolidation at various pressures.
e. Compression index.
The above information can be used to predict the time rate and extent of settlement of structures
founded on fine-grained soils. It is also helpful in analyzing the stress history of soil.

Page 38
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. Consolidometer consisting essentially;
a) A ring of diameter = 60mm and height = 20mm,
b) Two porous stones
c) Guide ring.
d) Outer ring.
e) Water jacket with base.
f) Pressure pad.
2. Loading device consisting of frame, lever system, loading yoke dial gauge fixing device and
weights.
3. Dial gauge (accuracy of 0.01 mm), Thermostatically controlled oven, Stopwatch, sample
extractor, balance, soil trimming tools, spatula, filter papers, sample containers.

SAMPLE PREPARATION:
1. Undisturbed Sample:
From the sample tube, eject the sample into the consolidation ring. The sample should project
about one cm from outer ring. Trim the sample smooth and flush with top and bottom of the ring
by using wire saw. Clean the ring from outside and keep it ready for weighing.
2. Remolded sample:
a. Choose the density and water content at which sample has to be compacted from the moisture-
density curve, and calculate the quantity of soil and water required to mix and compact.
b. Compact the specimen in compaction mould in three layers using the standard rammers.
c. Eject the specimen from the mould using the sample extractor.

PROCEDURE:
1. Saturate two porous stones either by boiling in distilled water about 15 minute or by keeping them
submerged in the distilled water for 4 to 8 hrs. Fittings of the Consolidometer which is to be
enclosed shall be moistened.
2. Assemble the Consolidometer, with the soil specimen and porous stones at top and bottom of
specimen, and providing a filter paper between the soil specimen and porous stone.
3. Position the pressure pad centrally on the top porous stone. Mount the mould assembly on the
loading frame, and center it such that the load applied is axial. Make sure that the porous stone and
pressure pad are not touching the walls of mould on their sides.

Page 39
4. Position the dial gauge to measure the vertical compression of the specimen. The dial gauge holder
should be set so that the dial gauge is in the beginning of its releases run, and also allowing
sufficient margin for the swelling of the soil, if any.
5. Fill the mould with water and apply an initial load to the assembly. The magnitude of this load
should be chosen by trial, such that there is no swelling. It should be not less than 50 g/cm 2 for
ordinary soils & 25 g/cm2 for very soft soils. The load should be allowed to stand until there is no
change in dial gauge readings for two consecutive hours or for a maximum of 24 hours.
6. Note the final dial reading under the initial load. Apply first load of intensity 0.1 kg/cm2(Approx.)
and start the stop watch simultaneously. Record the dial gauge readings at various time intervals.
The dial gauge readings are taken until 90% consolidation is reached. Primary consolidation is
gradually reached within 24 hrs.

Oedometer Setup Consolidation test in progress

7. At the end of the period, specified above take the dial reading and time reading. Double the load
intensity and take the dial readings at various time intervals. Repeat this procedure for successive
load increments. The usual loading intensity is as follows (Approx.): 0.1, 0.2, 0.5, 1, 2, 4 and 8
kg/cm2.
8. After the last loading is completed, reduce the load to ¼ of the value of the last load and allow it
to stand for 24 hrs. Reduce the load further in steps of ¼ the previous intensity till an intensity of
0.1 kg/cm2 is reached. Take the final reading of the dial gauge.
9. Reduce the load to the initial load, keep it for 24 hrs and note the final readings of the dial gauge.
10. Quickly dismantle the specimen assembly and remove the excess water on the soil specimen in
oven, note its dry weight.

Page 40
CALCULATIONS:
1. Height of solids (HS) is calculated from the equation
HS = WS/ (GS.wA)

2. Void ratio. Voids ratio at the end of various pressures are calculated from equation
e = (H – HS)/HS

3. Coefficient of consolidation. The Coefficient of consolidation at each pressure increment is

calculated by using the following equations:
i. Cv = 0.197 d2/t50 (Log fitting method)
ii. Cv = 0.848 d2/t90 (Square fitting method)

In the log fitting method, a plot is made between dial readings and logarithmic of time, and the time
corresponding to 50% consolidation is determined.
In the square root fitting method, a plot is made between dial readings and square root of time, and the
time corresponding to 90% consolidation is determined. The values of Cv are recorded in Table.

4. Compression Index. To determine the compression index, a plot of voids ratio (e) Vslog (t) is
made. The virgin compression curve would be a straight line and the slope of this line would give the
compression index Cc.

5. Coefficient of compressibility. It is calculated as follows

av = e/ 
e – Change in void ratio
 - Change in vertical stress
6. Coefficient of permeability. It is calculated as follows
k = Cv.av.w/ (1+eo).
GRAPHS:
Dial reading VS log of time or
Dial reading VS square root of time.
Voids ratio VS log (average pressure for the increment).

Page 41
General Remarks:
1. While preparing the specimen, attempts has to be made to have the soil strata orientated in the
same direction in the consolidation apparatus.
2. During trimming care should be taken in handling the soil specimen with least pressure.
3. Smaller increments of sequential loading have to be adopted for soft soils.

OBSERVATION AND READING (LOADING):

Ring Dimensions: Diameter (cm): Area (cm2): Height (cm):
Initial Data: Specimen Ht (cm). Specific Gravity of Soil:
Weight of wet soil + Ring (g): Weight of Ring (g): Bulk Density (g/cc):

Pressure
Intensity 0.1 0.2 0.5 1 2 4 8
(Kg/cm2)

Time (min)

0.25

15

30

1 hr

2 hrs

4 hrs

8 hrs

24 hrs

Page 42
UNLOADING:

Removed Pressure (kg/cm2) Retained Pressure (kg/cm2) Dial Gauge reading

0 8

4 4

2 2

1 1

0.5 0.5

0.3 0.2

0.1 0.1

0.1 0.05 (Seating pressure)

Table II: Data Sheet for Consolidation Test: Pressure-Voids Ratio

Change
Final Final Height Height Average Fitting Coefficient of
Applied in Void
dial Specimen of of Height during Time, Consolidation,
Pressure Specimen ratio
reading Height solids voids Consolidation t90 cv
Height
0

0.1

0.2

0.5

1.0

2.0

4.0

8.0

2.0

0.5

0.1

Page 43
Water Content determination:

Weight of Saturated Sample + Ring (g): ____________

Weight of oven dried soil +Ring (g): ____________

Water Content (%): ________

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS:

Compression Index Cc =
Re- compression Index Cr =

PRECAUTIONS:
 The water outlet should be checked prior to placing the sample.
 The sample should be kept in saturated state throughout the duration of the test.
 The porous stones used should be boiled before placing in the setup.
 Each increment of loading should be kept carefully such that the dial guage reading is not
disturbed due to placement of load.
 Readings should be recorded at regular intervals.

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