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TOXICOLOGY
TOXICOLOGY
TOXICOLOGY
TOXICOLOGY sola dosis facit venenum – “the dose makes the poison”
• Branch of Pharmacology that deals with the study of poison, - a.k.a. deleterious/ toxic
mechanism of toxicity and its treatment., Side effects
Adverse 1. Hypersensitivity
Effects 2. Idiosyncrasy
I. INTRODUCTION TO TOXICOLOGY Effects
3. Tolerance/
- related to therapy Desensitization
Forensic Toxicology Clinical Toxicology 4. Teratogenicity
– medicolegal Mechanistic – diseases cause by
US FDA Pregnancy Risk Classification
aspects of poisoning Toxicology toxicants
(mechansim of Category Animal studies Human studies
action) A Safe Safe
B Safe None
Risk NOT SAFE Safe
Assessment C NOT SAFE None
Regulatory None None
Descriptive
Toxicology D NOT SAFE: benefits outweigh risk
Toxicology
(decides if a X Contraindicated in pregnancy = Teratogenic
(toxicity effects
substance
testing)
possess a risk
Teratogens Presentation
Thalidomide Amelia/ Phocomelia
Warfarin Hypoplastic nose
Tetracycline Tooth discoloration
Environmental Toxicology – Lithium Ebstein’s anomaly
harmful effects of chemicals to ACE inhibitors Renal dysgenesis
the environment/ organisms Methimazole Aplasia cutis
Carbamazepine, Valproic acid Neural tube defects (spina bifida)
Diethylstilbestrol (DES) Clear cell adenocarcinoma of the
RISK ASSESSMENT vagina/ cervix
Phenytoin Fetal hydantoin syndrome
• estimate of potential effects of poison to human health and Ethanol Fetal alcohol syndrome
environmental significance of various types of chemical • Facial anomalies
exposure • Growth retardation
• Hazard – ability of a chemical agent to cause injury in a • Neuro-developmental
defects
given situation or setting
• Risk – expected frequency of the occurrence of an
undesirable effect arising from exposure to a chemical or Effects of Poison
Immediate vs. Delayed
physical agents
Immediate Delayed
• Seen after single • Seen after a lapse of time
POISON administration
4. Cathartics
• Enhances gastrointestinal transit
• Contraindications:
• Ileus/ intestinal obstruction
• Renal insufficiency (Na/ Mg – containing cathartics)
Poison Antidote
Paracetamol N-Acetylcysteine
Organophosphate, Carbamates Atropine, Pralidoxime
Anticholinergics Physostigmine
CCBs, Fluoride Calcium
Iron Deferoxamine
Digoxin Digoxin antibodies (Digibind®)
Theophylline, Caffeine Esmolol
Methanol, Ethylene glycol Ethanol; Fomepizole
Benzodiazepines Flumazenil
β-blockers glucagon
Cyanide Hydroxocobalamin
Opioids Naloxone
Carbon monoxide Oxygen 3. Peritoneal Dialysis
• Only 10-15% as effective as hemodialysis
SOLVENTS
• Alcohols • Treatment:
• Aldehydes • Ethanol
• Hydrocarbons • Fomepizole
• ↑ lipophilic, ↑ capacity to cause CNS disturbance
• Aldehydes are generally irritating Aldehydes
• Amides are sensitizers and may cause allergic reactions
• Hydrocarbons may be cytotoxic or mutagenic Formaldehyde
• Colorless liquid with pungent odor
Alcohols • Embalming fluid, used in cosmetics, deodorants, detergents,
• Examples: dyes
• Ethylene glycol
• Methanol Presentation
• General Mechanism of Toxicity (MOT): CNS depression Local effects: mucosal irritation → oral, pharyngeal, conjunctival
Metabolic acidosis
Hydrocarbons
• Treatment:
• Mineral oil: to increase viscosity and ↓ risk of aspiration
• O2 support
• β2-agonists
CYANIDE
• Sources:
• Prunus sp. (almond, cherry, apple), cassava, lima
beans → cyanogenic glycosides
Presentation • Silver jewelry cleaner (SJC)
1st stage 30 mins to 12 hrs CNS depression • MOT: inhibits cytochrome oxidase
2nd stage 12-48 hrs Metabolic acidosis • Presentation:
Cardiopulmonary symptoms • CNS and CVS disturbances
• Arrhythmia • Respiratory depression
• Tachypnea → compensatory • Treatment:
respiratory alkalosis
• Cyanide Kit
3rd stage 24-72 hrs Acute renal failure: Oliguria/ anuria ↑
BUN/ Creatinine • Amyl nitrite (inhalational) + NaNO2 (IV) →
methemoglobinemia + CN →
• Treatment: cyanomethemoglobinemia + NaS2O3 → SCN
• Ethanol: competitive inhibition (relatively nontoxic, more polar)
• Fomepizole: 94-methylprazole): alcohol dehydrogenase • Hydroxocobalamin → Cyanocobalamine
inhibitor
• Vitamin B1 and B6
Presentation
Acute ingestion:
Heavy • Milky vomitous
Cadmium Mercury
metals • Black stools
• Encephalopathy
Chronic cumulative exposure:
• Lead palsy (wrist and foot drop): weakening of extensor muscles
Iron Copper • Anemia
• Burton line: black-blue line on gums
• Developmental delay in children
Carbamates
V. ENVIRONMETAL TOXICOLOGY • Displaces organophosphates thus preventing bond aging
Atropine
Air Pollutants
Insecticides Chlorinated Hydrocarbons and Pyrethroids
Chlorinated Hydrocarbons Pyrethroids
Rodenticides • DDT • More commonly used
(Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane) insecticide
Herbicides • Lindane • Thousand times more
• Chlordane toxic to insects than
Fungal/ Animal Toxins humans
MOT: MOT: ↑ NA+ conductance and
AIR POLLUTANTS • Altered K / Na flux → CNS
+ +
↓ Cl conductance → CNS
-
hyperexcitability hyperexcitability
• Produces myocardial irritability
• Carbon monoxide Presentation Presentation:
• Sulfur dioxide • CNS excitation: tremors, • Dizziness, headache,
• Nitrogen oxides agitation, headache, fatigue
• Ozone disorientation, coma • Coma/ Seizures
• Airway irritation → Pulmonary edema • Respiratory depression after
• Chronic exposure → Gradual lung damage → Chronic seizures
pulmonary disease • Nausea and vomiting
Saxitoxin • Inorganic:
• Source: Dinoflagellates • KNO3 (saltpeter)
• Causes red tide poisoning, paralytic shellfish poisoning • NaNO3 (Chile saltpeter, salitre)
(PSP) • NaNO2 (used in cyanide poisoning)
• MOT: Na+ channel blocker (important for muscle • Organic:
depolarization → contraction) → flaccid paralysis • NTG
• Complication: respiratory depression → death • ISGN
• Treatment: airway support (intubation) • ISMN
• Glyceryl trinitrate
Amatoxin • MOT:
• Source: Amanita phalloides (destroying angel)
• MOT: inhibits RNA polymerase II in the liver →↓ protein
synthesis → hepatotoxicity
• Treatment:
• Supportive (IV fluids, electrolytes)
• Benzylpenicillin (Penicillin G): competitively inhibits
amatoxin in its liver receptors (theoretical)
Latrotoxin
• Source: Latrodectus mactans (black widow/ hourglass
spider)
• MOT: causes presynaptic release of acetylcholine
• Presentation:
• Parasympathomimetic effects: DUMBELS
• Conjunctivitis
• Restlessness
• Hypertension
• Treatment: Antivenom • Presentation
• Dizziness
• Lightheadedness
PARACETAMOL • Treatment:
• Digoxin Fab fragments (Digibind®)
NAPQ: N- • Lidocaine: DOC for digoxin-induced ventricular
acetylparabenzo- tachycardia
quinoneimine
Toxic dose: >4g/day DRUGS OF ABUSE
Presentation:
• Nausea and Opioids and Opiates
vomiting
• Abdominal pain
Opioids = semi-synthetic/ synthetic: heroin, fentanyl, tramadol,
• Jaundice
Treatment:
nalbuphine
• N-acetylcysteine
(NAC) → replenish Opiates = natural: morphine, codeine
GSH stores • Source: Papaver somniferum
Presentation Presentation
Children: Reye syndrome → hepatitis → encephalitis Triad of: Pinpoint pupils, Coma, Respiratory depression
Adults:
• Treatment: Naloxone (opioid receptor antagonist)
Sedative hypnotics
Presentation
Slurred speech, altered mental status
Ataxia, drowsiness
Paradoxical hyperactivity (children) → d/t anxiolytic effect
Hallucinogens
• LSD
• Treatment: supportive • PCP
• Activated charcoal, gastric lavage, emesis • Stimulants
• Alkalinize the urine (NaHCO3) • Marijuana
• Ice blanket (for hyperthermia)
Management
ISONIAZID • Most have no specific antidote → supportive treatment
• Hypertension: Labetalol, Na nitroprusside
• Isoniccotinylhydrazide (INH) • Seizure: Diazepam, Phenytoin, Barbiturates
• 1st line anti-TB medication • Hyperthermia: ice blanket
• MOA: (as inti-TB agents): inhibits mycolic acid synthesis
• MOT: inhibits pyridoxal phosphokinase → coverts pyridoxine a. LSD
to pyridoxal phosphate • Lysergic acid diethylamine, acid
• Presentation: • Ergot derivative (rye parasite)
• Peripheral neuropathy • MOT: targets 5-HT2a receptors → hallucination
• Hepatotoxicity • Presentation:
• Triad of: Seizure, Coma, Metabolic acidosis • Hypertension
• Treatment: Pyridoxine/ Vitamin B6 (1:1) • Tremors
• Vomiting
DIGOXIN • Profound mydriasis
c. Stimulants
• Cocaine, amphetamine, methamphetamine, ecstasy
(methylenedioxymethamphetamine/ MDMA)
• MOT: inhibits reuptake of adrenergic neurotransmitters,
could also directly stimulate adrenergic receptors
• Presentation:
• Hypertension
• Mydriasis
• Seizure
• Bruxism (teeth grinding)
• Delusional parasitosis
• Hyperthermia (most toxic)
d. Marijuana
• Source: Cannabis sativa (hemp)
• Weed, pot, grass, damo, Mary Jane, hash
• Active ingredient: tetrahydrocannabinol (THC)
• MOT: Activates cannabinoid receptors
• Improves concentration, memory
• Feeling of being “high”, uncontrollable laugh
• Alters depth and time perception
• Presentation:
• Rhinitis
• Conjunctivitis
• Musty sweet odor
ALCOHOL
Presentation
“Head to toe” progression
Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome: d/t Vitamin B1 deficiency → loss of
memory/ black out
Hypoglycemia: inhibition of hepatic gluconeogenesis
Reference/ Source:
• Casarett & Doull’s Toxicology (The basic
science of poison)
• Review notes (Manor review center)
• PACOP