World Civilization Since 1500

Lecture Outlines for First Exam

New Encounters—Age of Exploration:
What is the age of exploration and expansion?
Vasco de Gama was the start of the age of exploration.
In the age of exploration, they were looking for new spice routes for trade and new land.
Exploration of the Atlantic.
I. Motives and Means (Why and How)- “Three Gs”, Caravel, portolani, lateen, astrolabe
Why did they start the age of exploration?
They wanted the Three G’s: God, Gold, and Glory.
The boats that they used were called the caravel. The caravels were large ships that were large
enough to hold substantial weaponry and goods, but mobile enough to move around easily in
the wind and to have naval attacks.
While navigating the world, they used Portolani, which were detailed maps made by navigators
and mathematicians. They showed coastal contours, distances between ports, and compass
readings. They did not account for earth’s curve :(.
One innovation that helped people travel the world were lateens, Triangular sails that could sail
into the wind or navigate around.
Astrolabe: an astronomical instrument that served as a star chart. It can help you precisely
measure astronomical positions. It helped the Europeans navigate during their explorations.
II. Portuguese and Spice Trade
What was the role of the Portuguese in the age of exploration and what were they looking
for?
The Portuguese, lead by prince henry the navigator, explored the coast of Africa in search of
spice routes and gold, and ended up finding African people and started the slave industry.
A. Prince Henry the Navigator
Who is prince Henry the Navigator and why does he care about the age of exploration?
Prince henry the navigator was a central figure in the early days of the Portuguese, their sea
journeys and their expansion. He was the main instigator of the age of discovery. He explored
western Africa, the islands of the Atlantic ocean, and searched for spice routes.
B. Circumnavigation of Africa--Bartholomew Dias
Who is Bartholomew dias? What is the circumnavigation of Africa. 1487, Bartholomew dias
was probing the cape of good hope, but returned home because he thought his crew was going
to rebel against him.
C. Reaching India- Vasco de Gama, Calicut, Cabral, Brazil
10 years after bartholomew días, vasco de gama rounded the cape and stopped at a couple ports
controlled by muslims, and ended in Calicut on the Indian coast in 1498. The Portuguese
royalty had sponsored the trip to destroy the muslim control over the spice trade, which had
gotten worse after the fall of Constantinople in 1453.
Calicut was a major port for goods to be exported or imported in the spice islands to
Mediterranean spice route. The Europeans thought Calicut was the source of all the spices
(where they came from. De gama brought back spices which returned a significant profit to the
investors.
 Cabral was a Jesuit missionary who lived in hoogly (a Portuguese trading post in northern
india) at the time that it was attacked by the Mughal ruler in 1632. Loosing hoogly made the
Portuguese lose their influence on the area.
While the Europeans were traveling and conquering land, the Portuguese were focused
on spices. They established a colony in brazil by the treaty of Tordesillas which gave the
Portuguese the east coast of south America. The Portuguese first saw their new colony only as a
source for their hope of gold and silver, but then they recognized the other goods it could give
them, and they established a formal system in 1549 and migrants came to establish plantations
to harvest sugar, coffee, and other products to export to Europe.
D. Portuguese Empire—Albuquerque, Goa, Malacca, Macao
After vasco de gama’s success, the Portuguese wanted to gain control of the spice trade. In
1510, Admiral Afonso de Albuquerque made his headquarters in Goa, on the west coast of
india. They then raided arab shippers by taking their ships, killing some one board and saving
others as slaves. 1511, they seized malacca and threatened the local muslim community.
Having control of Malacca gave the portguese a direct route to the spice islands
(moluccas), but also gave them the ability to hurt the arab spice trade by blocking the passage
through malacca.
After gaining control, they sent expiditions in 1514 to china and the spice islands. They
eventually seized control of the spice trade from the muslim spice traders. They were successful
because of their guns and sea skills and equipment.
At first, the Chinese did not like the protuguese. But then they were allowed to occupy
Macao on the south coast of china. This gave them a footing in the regional trade between china
and Japan, but then started transporting trades between china and the Americas.
III. Spain and the New World
Spanish Conquisadors: motivated by glory, greed, and religious zeal. They had good
weapons, organization, and determination. This helped them succeed.
A. Exploration—Reconquista, Granada, Columbus, Balboa, Magellan
The Reconquista, is a series of campaigns by the Christian states to recapture territory from the
muslims, who possessed most of the Iberian peninsula.
Granada: a Granada is a medieval kingdom/city along the Mediterranean coast of spain.
Christopher Columbus (1451-1506) was an Italian. He thought that spain could be reached by
sailing straight west instead of east and around Africa. Queen Isabella financed a expedition,
reached ameria in 1492 and explored cuba and hispanola. Thought he found asia. Nope.
Balboa: Europeans were convinced that they needed to introduce civilized manners in the
heathen people
Magellan. 1519 sailed around the southern tip of Africa. Landed on a phillipien island. He and
fourty of his men were killed. After this, one boat sailed on the molucccas, and ended around
the cape of good hope
B. Conquest of Aztecs—Cortez, Montezuma, Tenochtitlan
Cortez. Hernando Cortes in 1519 landed at Veracruz on the gulf of Mexico. He then marched
with a small troop to Tenochtitlan, the Aztec capital and was greeted by the king muntezuma.
Tension grew, they took Montezuma captive and started to destroy religious things. The local
people drove them out. The Aztecs and their land destroyed + practices.
Montezuma. Montezuma was an Aztec monarch.
Tenochitilan: the capital of the Aztecs, now in Mexico city, that was governed by Montezuma.
C. Pizarro and Inca
-Pizzaro 1470-1541. Destroyed the inka high power in the peruvian andes. The conquests were
aided by the arrival of European diseases which killed a large porition of the population.
D. Spanish rule in Americas—encomiendas, Las Casas, viceroys, mestizo, creole,
mulatto
Encomiendas system. the Spanish exploited and used misguaided paternalism this meant
English people received land grants and could collect from the indigenous people and use them
as laborers.
Viceroy: the position at the top of the Portuguese and Spanish pyramid. They were eventually
developed into smaller units. Most political positions held by Spaniards.
Creole: American born decendents of Europeans. They could hold a government post in the city
councils even though they did not have a similar position like a viceroy.
Las casas, was an Dominican monk who participated in the conquest of cuba. And received
land and Indians for his valiant effort. Then his mindset changed in 1514. He now thought the
Indians were maltreated by the Spaniards. Then he fought for them.
Mestizo. A latin ameria a man of mized race
Mulatto: mixed person of white and black ancestry.
IV. Global impact of exploration
A. Columbian Exchange
The exchange of animals, plants, and culture, but also communicable diseases and human
populations including slaves, between the western and eastern hemispheres that occurred after
columbus’s voyages to the Americas.
B. African Slave Trade:
When the Europeans arrived, they switched from having European slaves to African slaves.
Used to just have slaves as prizes and extra stuff. Started plantations and needed laborers.
Started large slave capturing.
C. Impact on Europe
D. “ “ Asia

The Reformation
I. Background
The protestant reformation is the religious reform movement that divided the catholics and
protestants.
The growth of state power: there were attempts to make monarchial governments. These created
“new monarchies”. High concentration of royal authority, trying to suppress their nobility,
trying to control the church on their land. Wanted to obtain and expand on their political power.
Manufacturing and trad volume increased, Printing press
II. Martin Luther and Reformation in Germany
A. Luther’s background—Augustinian, Wittenberg
Martin luther, he was a Augustinian monk and a professor at wittenberg. Between 1513-1516,
he found an answer to his problem on the assusurance of salvation.
Catholics stood for faith and good works in order to reach salvation.
protestant docturine: People could never do enough good works to please God. According to
him, people are saved purely on their faith
B. 95 Theses—Johann Tetzel, indulgences, justification by faith
The 95 theses were 95 things that martin luther thought needed reform in the church. He nailed
them on the church door. He was made about the selling on indulgences and church positions.
Johann Tetzel: selling indulgences with “as soon as the coin in the coffer rings, the soul from
purgatory sings”
1517 nailed the 95 theses to the church door. They were reprinted a spread around Europe.
1521 excommunicated.
Justification by faith: the primary doctrine of the protestant reformation. Taught that humans are
savced not through good works but by the grace of God, bestowed freely through the sacrifice
of Jesus.
C. Diet of Worms—Elector Frederick of Saxony, Emp. Charles V/Habsburgs
Diet of worms in front of Charles the V, they wanted him to deny his claims. He made some
comment, people were mad and wanted him to be arrested. Elector Frederick of saxon stepped
in and saved him.
Hapsburg is some of the area he controlled. He controlled the Habsburg empire which was the
roman empire, Spanish empire, Burgundian low countries and the Austrian lands
D. Politics and religion—Peasants’ Rebellion, Peace of Augsburg
Luther’s movement made an impact on common people and also created new challenges.
Peasants war 1524. Social discontent with their bad working conditions became a religious
revolt, and the people looked to luther. When they revolted they learned that luther was
conservative. He turned against the peasants and called the german princes to control them. By
may 1525, the german’s suppressed the peasants.
Luther realized he needed the state authorities for his church advancement.
1555 peace of Augsburg. Formally awknowldged the division of chritianity. Lutherans had the
same legal rights as catholics. Did not talk about religious toleration. Each german ruler was
allowed to pick their own relion, but the people did not have the ability to choose.
III. John Calvin and Reformed Protestantism
A. Beginning of Swiss Reformation—Ulrich Zwingli
Swizerland had two reform movements. Zwlinglianism and Calvinism. Zwingli was ordained a
priest in 1506. His preaching created unrest. They started evangelical reforms. Relics and
images were banned. Paintings and decorations removed. Scripture readings, prayer and
sermons replaced the mass. Monasticism, pilgrimages, the recognition of the saints, celibacy,
and the pope’s authority were abolished.
B. Calvin’s background—arrival in Geneva, Consistory of Elders
John Calvin, 1509-1564, after converting to Protestantism, he had to flee to Switzerland.
1536 reform Geneva. Made a order of clergy and laypeople called the consistory which inforced
moral discipline. Genevans punished for dancing, singing obscene songs, being drunk, swearing
and playing cards. He was successful, and Geneva became the capital of Protestantism.
C. Calvinism—Institutes of the Christian Religion, predestination, elect/reprobate
1536 he published his “institutes of the Christian religion” summary of protestant thought and
lead him to be one of the major protestant leaders.
Agreed with luther on the justification by faith. But he also believed in the absolute sovernty of
god. Predestination came from this idea.
Unconditional election vs reprobation. Some people are predestined and are called to faith by
God, and others are reprobated. Reprobation is a doctrine that says people can reject the gospel
to a point where God rejects them and curses them.
D. Spread of Reformed Christianity—Huguenots, Presbyterians, Puritans
Huguenots (French protestant): 40-50% of the French nobility were protestant Huguenots. This
became a threat to the monarch to have protestants in the line for the throne. Edict of nantes in
1598 said that catholicim was the official religion of France, but hugunots could do their own
worship. Persecuted by catholics before.
Puritans: protestants within the Anglican church who wished to eliminated every trace of roman
catholicim from the church of England. They throught the reforms of the church of England did
not do enough.
Presbyterians, followed Calvinism and their ideas.
IV. English Reformation—Anglicanism
A. Henry VIII—Tudor Dynasty, Catherine of Aragon, Anne Boleyn
The English reformation was rooted in politics, not religion. King Henry VIII wanted to divorce
his wife Catherine because he did not have a male heir. He had fallen in love with anne Boleyn
and wanted to marry her. The pope would not give him an annulment, so he turned to england’s
church courts for their opinion. Arch bishop Thomas Cranmer ruled in May 1533 that the
marriage was void.
B. Divorce and break with Rome—Act of Supremacy, Thomas More
1534 the act of supremacy declared that the king was the only supreme head of the church of
England. Nothing really changed with the religion itself. St. thomans more would not let him
get a divorce, thus he was executed.
C. Religious reforms – Thomas Cranmer
Cranmer and others wanted a relious and political reform, but the king did not do it. after the
king died and his son came to the throne, Thomas cranmer worked on the religious reform and
allowed clergy to marry and created a more protestant service.
D. Later Tudors – Edward VI, Mary, Elizabeth
Edward the 6th was sickly and more reform to the church (church of England or the Anglican
church) was allowed to happen cause he was too little to make decisions on his own.
Mary 1553-1558 attempted to return England to Catholicism. She burned 300 protestant
heretics. “bloody mary”. There were more protestants at the end of her reign than the beginning.
Queen elizabeth (daughter of anne Boleyn) became queen and she was tolerant of other
religions as long as they did not openly disobey her.
V. Catholic Reformation – Counter-reformation
A. Society of Jesus—Ignatius Loyola
Ignatius of Loyola was a Spanish nobleman. He collected a group of people who were
recognized by the pope as an order in 1540. They were grounded in absolute obiediency to the
pope, a strict hierarchal order of society, and the use of education to accomplish goals. They
wanted them to engage in conflict for god.
B. Jesuits missionaries—Francis Xavier, Matteo Ricci
Increased Christianity in non Christians. Francis Xavier was one of the original members of
ignatius’s society of jesus. He carried Christianity to the east. He found tens of thousands of
converts in india and then he went to Japan. These missionaries restored Catholicism to parts of
Germany and east Europe and poland
C. Reformed papacy—Pope Paul III
Corruption from finances and political and military affairs. Pope Paul III 1534-1549. He asked a
reform commission to come in and tell them their problems. They said the corruption came
from policies from the popes and cardinals. He then recognized the Jesuits as an order and
summoned the council of trent
D. Council of Trent
1545. met from 1545-1563 in three major sessions. Scriptiure and tradition were affirmed as
equal authorities in religious matters. Only the church could interpret scripture. Both faith and
good works are necessary for salvation. We need to believe in purgatory and indulgences, but
you could not sell them.

Crisis and Stability—Rise of the Early Modern State

I. Age of Religious Warfare
A. French Wars of Religion—Henri IV, House of Bourbon, Edict of Nantes
After thirty years of disagreement between the catholics and Calvinists in France, in 1589
Henry IV became the leader of the hugunots and of the bourbon dynasty. He converted to
catholic. When he converted the wars of religion ended.
The edict of natntes in 1598 said that Catholicism was the main religion in France, but other
religions could practice.
B. Philip II and militant Catholicism—Netherlands, Spanish Armada
King Philip of spain. He inherited the 17 provinces of the netherlands when he became king and
ital and the Americas. He tried to conform everyone to Catholicism and monarchal authority.
The nobles of the Netherlands fought back. Ended in a 12 year truce. Lots of power shifted to
Europe.
Spanish armada was a fleet of ships sent to invade England by Philip II. It failed.
C. Elizabethan England
She became the leader of a protestant nation. The government was basically protestant under
elizabeth. She was drawn into conflict with spain. If Philip over threw, Europe would be
catholic again.
D. Thirty Years War—Peace of Westphalia
1618 in the Germanic lands of the holy roman empire. Struggle between catholics led by the
Habsburg holy roman empourer and protestants and calvinsts who rebelled against the
Habsburg authority. Bourbon of France vs Habsburg spain dynasties. Most destructive war to
date in Europe. Eneded 1648
Peace of westphila said that all german states were free to choose their own religion. This gains
public respect and authority
II. Social and economic changes
A. Marriage and the family
Husband dominated. Arranged marriages for interest of family. Dowry important. Love not
important, looked at as a downside that will distract.
 B. Demographic trends
C. Witchcraft mania
100,000 people prosecuted in Europe over the 16th and 17th centuries. Poor people without
property were commonly accused. Milkmaids, peasant women, and servant girls. Single or
widowed mostly. 1450-1750. 50% executed.
D. Mercantilism, joint-stock companies
Mercantilism: a economic theory that says a nation’s properity depends on its supply of gold
and silver and that the total volume of trade is unchangeable. Believes that the government play
a role in economy to enourage exports and discourage imports. Exports more valuable than
imports. Gains money.
III. France under Louis XIV
Louis XIV 1643-1715
A. The Divine Right of Kings
A monarchy based on the belief that monarchs receive their power directly from God and are
responsible to no one except god.
B. Political institutions—Versailles
Louis was successful because he could control the central policy making part of the court
because they lived in his house and were his court in Versailles. It had three purposes. It was the
house of the king, it was the location of the central government, and the place where subjects
cam to find favors and jobs.
C. Economic and military power—Jean-Baptiste Colbert
Louis ran into a financial issue. Cost of building palaces, maintaining his court, and pursuing
wars. He was helped by having jean baptiste colbert to control finances. Help finances by
adhering to mercantilism. People were substidized for establishing new companies for exports.
Raised taxes on foreign goods.
D. Rise of Prussia, Austria, and Russia
Frederick William the great elector. 1640-1688. The land he had had no physical boundaries or
safeguards. He built an army of 40,000 men which was the fourth largest in Europe. Civil
government formed by sustaining army. In 1701 fredrick’s son became king and Prussia and
brandenberg became Prussia and the great power in Europe.
Austria.
IV. England and limited monarchy
A. Early Stuarts—James I, Charles I
After queen elizabeth, king james became king of England. He esposed the devine right of
kings. Now the king and parliament did not operate in balance. Then the puritans were alienated
by the king’s strong support of the Anglican church. Most of the lower part of parliament, the
house of commons, were puritan.
After james was Charles I and he still had religious contention with parliament. King wanted to
further develop the Anglican church, but the puritans saw it as going back to catholic. This
caused many puritans to go to the Americas.
B. Conflict with Parliament, English Civil War
Civil war, 1642-1648. War won by parliament because of oliver Cromwell.
C. Oliver Cromwell
Oliver Cromwell had a “new model army” composed of the extremist puritans. Following the
Calvinist belief, they saw it as a battle for god.
After Charles was executed, they abolished the house of lords and proclaimed England a
republic or common wealth. Cromwell’s army dispersed parliament by force and made a
military dictatorship. After Cromwell died in 1658, they saw they could not run a country with
military and charless II took the throne.
D. Restoration and Glorious Revolution—Charles II, James II, William and Mary
Charles II was sympathetic to catholics and issued the declaration of indulgences. This
suspended the laws against catholics and puritans. Then parliament force the king to suspend
the declaration.
James II. New constitutional crisis for England. He was an openly devout catholic. Game
catholics high positions in parliament and military. He had a catholic son who could also
become king. Someone invited the dutch, husband of mary, to invade England. Mary and
William took throne in 1689 with the bill of rights. It gave parliament the ability to make laws
and levy taxes. Citizens could keep arms and have a jury trial. Through deposing of one king
and electing another, they demolished the divine right theory of kingship.

Muslim Empires
I. Development of Islamic Civilization
A. 7th c. Origins of Islam
1. Islam is a monotheistic religion that began in the early 7th century in the
Arabian Peninsula.
2. Muslims believe Muhammad is God’s final prophet
B. Qur’an and Five Pillars
1. Qur’an—the holy book of Islam.
2. There are “Five Pillars” or main practices of this faith. Faith, prayer, fasting,
almsgiving, and pilgrimage.
C. Expansion of Islam, Caliphate
1. Muhammad died in 632. Within two centuries a vast empire from Spain to
Pakistan took shape: the Caliphate.

D. Medieval Islamic world

II. Ottoman Empire
A. Rise of Ottoman Turks
1. The Turks (originally from Anatolia/Asia Minor) conquered Constantinople in
1453
2. This expansion continued under Suleiman the Magnificent (r. 1520-66).

3. The Battle of Mohács in 1526 saw Hungary massacred

4. A siege of Vienna failed in 1529, but the Turkish threat continued—
5. Watch https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zOAIIAN8nGQ
6. Ottoman naval control over the Mediterranean was only stopped by a combined
Spanish/Papal/Venetian fleet at the Battle of Lepanto in 1571.
7. After a second failed siege of Vienna (1683), the Turks lost Hungary to Austria.
The empire slowly declined, but survived into the early 1900s.
B. The vast Ottoman Empire spanned three continents
1. The Turks were descended from nomads from Central Asia, with tribal leaders
called beys, who now held territories called beyliks.
2. Ottoman provinces in the Middle East, North Africa, and southeastern Europe
(Balkans) were governed by beys and pashas (another title for high-ranking
officials), who collected taxes, etc…
3. The harem— with wives, concubines—was a center of palace intrigues that led
to succession struggles.
4. Imperial revenues included a human tax: devshirme. The Ottomans collected
Christian boys, converted them to Islam, and raised them as elite soldiers, or
Janissaries. They could also serve in the government.
Watch: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lSGiiJWPgrs
5. A Grand Vizier presided over the Sultan’s government, and the Ottomans had a
centralized bureaucracy decisions are made by state officials rather than elected
people.
C. Religion, society, arts
1. The Ottoman Sultan claimed the title of caliph, leader of Sunni Islam (majority,
orthodox).
 2. Shiites were considered heretics—the Safavid Persian Empire was a
geopolitical rival, and its Shiite rulers were deadly enemies.
3. The Ottoman Empire was religiously and ethnically diverse, including
Christians and Jews—they enjoyed toleration but legal discrimination,
including special punitive taxes.
4. Women had limited rights and had to be covered in public, but they had more
freedom to own property (and even secure divorces) than most women in other
Muslim as well as European Christian societies.
5. Ottoman art included distinctive blue tiles, mosaics, ceramics, textiles;
architecture included great palaces and domed mosques.
6. The Turks also brought coffee to Europe, leading to a proliferation of
coffeehouses.
D. Ottomans in decline
1. A land-based empire in an age of increasingly maritime power, lack of
economic development.
2. disinterest in science and technology
3. Long wars with Europeans and Persians took their toll.
4. A decline in the ability of rulers left more power to viziers, the bureaucracy,
and the janissary corps.
III. Safavid Persia
A. Rise of Safavids
1. An unstable region: by the early 1400s the Mongol-Turkic warlord Tamerlane
created an empire that terrorized central and western Asia.
a. He killed around 17 million people, i.e. 5% of the world’s population.
b. His empire fell apart after his death, leaving a power vacuum.
2. The Persian Safavid dynasty arose in the early 1500s under Ismail Safavi.
a. He united nomadic tribes into an unstoppable fighting force—called “red
heads” because of their distinctive red turbans.
b. Ismail and his warriors were followers of Shiite Islam.
3. 1508 saw the conquest of Baghdad in strategically important Iraq.
B. Conflict with the Ottomans—Shiites against Sunnis

1. The Ottoman-Safavid Wars raged throughout the 1500s and 1600s.

 2. The Safavids and the Habsburgs allied against the Ottomans.
C. Safavid Empire’s peak under Abbas the Great (r. 1587-1629)
1. Abbas made the city of Isfahan his capital, forcibly resettling hundreds of
thousands of his subjects there.
2. The Safavids modernized their army with gunpowder weapons and hired
European military advisors like the Englishman Robert Shirley.
3. But Shah Abbas also was a religious zealot—he massacred Sunnis and forced
the conversion of Christian Armenians, etc.… in his empire.
4. Religious dissension eventually contributed to the decline and fall of the
Safavid Empire in the early 1700s.
D. Politics, society, and culture
1. The Safavids created a Shiite theocracy—Abbas also controlled the aristocracy
and encouraged middle class growth.
2. Cities like Isfahan were centers of commerce, learning, and arts.
3. Poetry and painting flourished; Persian carpets were prized in the West.
IV. Mughal India
A. Rise of Mughals
1. Babur was a warrior chieftain descended from Tamerlane.
2. He conquered Afghanistan, then invaded northern India.
3. In 1526, his 12,000 troops and artillery defeated an army ten times their size
and captured Delhi, the greatest city in northern India.
B. Akbar the Great (r 1556-1605—contemporary of Elizabeth)

C. Indo-Muslim civilization
1. Akbar made his capital at Agra and expanded the empire through successful
military campaigns (in blue).
 2. Akbar was a Muslim ruler over a majority Hindu population.
3. The Din-i-Ilahi: Akbar tried to establish a new monotheistic religion—he
consulted Muslims, Hindus, even Jesuits. The faith emphasized an infallible
ruler. (It never became popular.)

4. He appointed Zamindars—royal officials who collected taxes. Akbar employed

both Muslims and Hindus in civil service.
5. The Jizya—the special punitive tax on non-Muslims—was suspended. Akbar
sought to end religious discrimination and make the justice system more
humane and impartial.
D. Akbar’s successors
1. Akbar’s son Jahangir reigned in the early 1600s. He held the empire together,
but he was addicted to alcohol and opium.

2. His son Shah Jahan reigned in the mid-1600s.

a. He came to the throne as a strong, ruthless ruler, killing all rivals.
b. He extended the empire into southern India.
c. But the empire began to show administrative and financial strain, with many
military campaigns and building projects.
E. Most famously, Shah Jahan mourned the death of his favorite wife Mumtaz Mahal
and built a magnificent mausoleum for her called the Taj Mahal.
Watch: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EeIwMPaV858
F. Aurangzeb and the beginning of Mughal decline
1. In the late 1600s, he killed his brothers and seized the throne from his aged,
ailing father Shah Jahan, whom he imprisoned.
2. Aurangzeb was a sober, righteous ruler, but an intolerant Muslim—he
destroyed many Hindu temples and restored the hated jizya tax.
3. When he finally died in 1707, he left India in growing division and strife.
Subsequent Mughal emperors had less and less control over India.
4. By the mid-18th century, India was increasingly dominated by the British East
India Company, a global trading corporation with its own army.

5. A century later the last Mughal emperor was deposed, and India became the
“Jewel in the Crown” of the British Empire.