Lecturer Notes of Design of Pressurized

DEPARTMENT OF WATER RESOURCES AND IRRIGATION ENGINEERING
ACADEMIC YEAR 2023
MODULE: DESIGN OF PRESSURISED IRRIGATION SYSTEMS
LECTURER NOTES OF DESIGN OF PRESSURIZED IRRIGATION SYSTEM
BY TOLOSSA NEGASSA
lecturer in Water Resources and Irrigation Engineering
DESIGN OF PRESSURIZED IRRIGATION SYSTEMS BY TOLOSSA N Page 1

MODULE PRESENTATION
Name of institution: Mattu University
Department:Water Resource and Irrigation Engineering

Year of study: 3
Semester of Study: 2
Module name: Design of pressurized irrigation systems
Module code: WRIE 3113
Number of Credit hours: (3 Credits)
COURSE OBJECTIVE
At the end of the course, students will be able to:

  Understand the adoptability of different pressure

  Determination of different design parameters


Making and understanding a proper design, layout, operation, maintenance and performance evaluation of
drip, sprinkler and center pivot irrigation system systems.
INDICATIVE CONTENTS
Unit I: Introduction Unit

II: Pumping stations
(Head, Pump terminologies,Pump types, Centrifugal pump&its operation,pump curves&system
curve characteristics,energy requirements in pumps, Pump selection for irrigated agriculture)
Unit III: Sprinkler irrigation system (bubblers,mini-sprinklers, Microsprinklers, etc)
Unit IV: Drip irrigation system

Unit V: Center pivot irrigation system
Unit VI: Miscellaneous (Fertigation,Fertilizer injectors,automatic pressurized irrigation

systems,etc.
Assessment:
Assignment, Quiz&reports: /60 marks
Final exam: /40 marks

Table of Contents
PRESSURIZED IRRIGATION SYSTEMS .................................................................................. 7
CHAP-1: INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................... 7
1.1 PRESSURIZED IRRIGATION CONCEPT ........................................................................ 7
1.2 SYSTEM COMPONENTS .................................................................................................. 7
1.3 NETWORK LAYOUT ........................................................................................................ 8
1.4 SYSTEM CLASSIFICATION............................................................................................. 9
1.5 PRESSURIZED IRRIGATION EQUIPMENTS ............................................................... 10
1.6 HYDRAULICS OF PRESSURE IRRIGATION SYSTEMS ............................................ 11
1.6.1 Definition ..................................................................................................................... 11
1.6.2 Hydraulic losses ........................................................................................................... 12
1.6.3 Computing Friction Loss ............................................................................................. 13
CHAP-2: PUMPING STATION ................................................................................................. 15
2.1 INTRODUCTION TO PUMPING STATIONS ................................................................ 15
2.2 FUNCTIONS ..................................................................................................................... 15
2.3 MAJOR COMPONENTS OF PUMPING STATION ....................................................... 16
2.4 PUMPS ............................................................................................................................... 16
2.4.1 Definition, Purpose, and Classification of Pumps ....................................................... 16
2.4.2 Factors Affecting the Practical Suction Lift of Suction-Mode Pump ......................... 20
2.4.3 Centrifugal Pumps ....................................................................................................... 21
2.4.4 Some Relevant Terminologies to Centrifugal Pump ................................................... 25
2.4.5 Pump Efficiency .......................................................................................................... 27
2.4.6 Pump priming ............................................................................................................. 30
2.4.7 Cavitation..................................................................................................................... 31
2.4.8 Power Requirement ..................................................................................................... 32
2.4.9 Pump Installation, Operation, and Control .................................................................. 33
2.4.10 Pump Performance and Pump Selection ................................................................... 36
2.4.11 Pump Curves and pump characteristics curves ........................................................ 38

2.4.12 Pumping Plant Evaluation ......................................................................................... 39
2.5 SAMPLE WORKOUT PROBLEMS ON PUMPING STATION..................................... 40
CHAP-3: SPRINKLER IRRIGATION SYSTEM....................................................................... 43
3.1 INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................................. 43
3.2 ADVANTAGES OF SPRINKLER IRRIGATION ........................................................... 43
3.3 GENERAL CLASSIFICATION OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF SPRINKLER SYSTEMS 43
3.4 COMPONENTS OF SPRINKLER IRRIGATION SYSTEM ........................................... 45
3.5 GENERAL RULES FOR SPRINKLER SYSTEM DESIGN ........................................... 47
3.6 SYSTEM SELECTION ..................................................................................................... 48
3.6.1 Selecting sprinkler system capacity............................................................................. 48
3.7 CONSTRAINTS IN APPLICATION OF SPRINKLER IRRIGATION........................... 49
3.8 DESIGN OF SRPINKLER IRRIGATION SYSTEM ....................................................... 49
3.8.1 INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................... 49
3.8.2 Principles of preliminary design .................................................................................. 49
3.8.2 Principles of design adjustment ................................................................................... 50
3.8.3 Preliminary sprinkler irrigation design steps ............................................................... 51
3.8.4 Determination of design parameters ............................................................................ 51
3.8.5 Theoretical Aspects in Sprinkler System..................................................................... 59
CHAP-4 DRIP IRRIGATION SYSTEM .................................................................................... 64
4.1 INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................................. 64
4.2 MERITS ............................................................................................................................. 64
4.3 DEMERITS ........................................................................................................................ 64
4.4 ADAPTABILITY OF DRIP IRRIGATION SYSTEM ..................................................... 64
4.5 DRIP IRRIGATION SYSTEM LAYOUT ........................................................................ 65
4.6 COMPONENTS AND ITS SELECTION FOR A TYPICAL DRIP IRRIGATION
LAYOUT .................................................................................................................................. 66
4.6.1 HEAD EQUIPMENTS ................................................................................................ 66
4.6.2 DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM ........................................................................................ 66
4.6.3 Filtration system and types of filters .......................................................................... 67
4.7 INSTALLATION, OPERATION OF DRIP IRRIGATION SYSTEM ............................. 72
4.7.1Installation of head equipment ..................................................................................... 72

4.7.2 Connecting mains and sub mains ................................................................................ 72
4.7.3 Laying of laterals and drippers .................................................................................... 73
4.7.4 Standard procedure for assessing disperformance .......................................................... 73
4.7.5 Operating drip system .................................................................................................. 74
4.7.6 Wetting patterns ........................................................................................................... 74
4.8 DRIP IRRIGATION SYSTEM DESIGN .......................................................................... 75
4.8.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................. 75
The design of drip system is similar to that of the sprinkler system except that the spacing of
emitters is much less than that of sprinklers and that water must be filtered and treated to prevent
blockage of emitters. Another major difference is that not all areas are irrigated. ...................... 75
4.8.2 Determination of design parameters ............................................................................ 75
CHAP-5: CENTER PIVOT IRRIGATION SYSTEM ................................................................ 81
5.1 INTRODUCTION AND DEFINITION ............................................................................ 81
5.2 SYSTEM WORKING PRINCIPLE .................................................................................. 82
5.3 HYDRAULICS ASPECT .................................................................................................. 82
5.4 SYSTEM SUITABILITY .................................................................................................. 85
5.5 POWER REQUIREMENTS .............................................................................................. 85
5.6 ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATION .............................................................................. 85
5.6.1 Advantages ...................................................................................................................... 85
5.6.2 Limitations ...................................................................................................................... 86
5.7 COMPONENTS OF CENTER PIVOT IRRIGATION SYSTEM .................................... 87
5.8 CENTER-PIVOT IRRIGATION SYSTEM DESIGN ...................................................... 88
5.8.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................. 88
5.8.2 Calculations of design parameters.......................................................................... 88
CHAP-6: MISCELLANEOUS (FERTIGATION AND FERTILIZER INJECTORS,
AUTOMATIC PRESSURIZED IRRIGATION SYSTEM)........................................................ 93
6.1 FERTIGATION AND FERTILIZER INJECTORS .......................................................... 93
6.1.1 Fertigation .................................................................................................................... 93
6.2 AUTOMATIC PRESSURIZED IRRIGATION SYSTEM ............................................. 102
6.2.1 Overview ................................................................................................................... 102
6.2.2 Classification ............................................................................................................. 102
6.2.3 Functions ................................................................................................................... 102
DESIGN OF PRESSURIZED IRRIGATION SYSTEMS BYTOLOSSA N Page 5

6.2.4 Flow-meters ............................................................................................................... 103
6.2.5 Metering-valves (Hydrometers) ................................................................................ 104
6.2.6 Control Patterns ........................................................................................................ 104
6.2.6.2 Closed-control Loop Systems ................................................................................. 105
6.2.7 Irrigation Timers ........................................................................................................ 105
6.2.8 Controllers ................................................................................................................ 106
6.2.9 Sensors ...................................................................................................................... 106
6.2.10 Computer-based Irrigation Control Systems ........................................................... 106
6.2.11 Communication ...................................................................................................... 107
6.2.12 Configuration ........................................................................................................... 108
6.2.13 Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition (SCADA) .......................................... 108
6.2.14 Field units ................................................................................................................ 110
6.2.15 Internet Mediated Communication .......................................................................... 111
REFERENCES: .......................................................................................................................... 112

PRESSURIZED IRRIGATION SYSTEMS
CHAP-1: INTRODUCTION
1.1 PRESSURIZED IRRIGATION CONCEPT
Application of water to the cropped land can be done in different forms in addition to the natural
rainfall. It can be applied through surface irrigation methods that deliver water through channels
with aid of gravity action. The other application pattern may be through pressurized irrigation,
which delivers water under high pressure to the point of interest. With this respect, either a
power supply system or an optimum elevation difference between the critical points to create
suitable head for the water to flow is required.
A pressure piped irrigation system is a network installation consisting of pipes, fittings and other
devices properly designed and installed to supply water under pressure from the source of the
water to the irrigable area. The basic differences between traditional surface irrigation and piped
irrigation techniques are:

The water flow regime: With traditional surface methods the size of the stream should be
  in pressure piped irrigation systems very small flows, even 1 m3/h, can be
large, while
utilized.

The route direction of the flow: With traditional surface methods the irrigation water is
conveyed from the source and distributed to the field through open canals and ditches by
gravity following the field contours. The piped system conveys and distributes the
irrigation water in closed pipes by pressure following  the most convenient (shortest)
 route, regardless of the slope and topography of the area.

The area irrigated simultaneously: With traditional surface methods the water is applied
in large volumes per unit of area, while piped irrigation systems distribute the water at
 small rates over a very large area.

The external energy (pressure) required: Traditional surface gravity methods do not need
external energy for operation, while piped irrigation systems require a certain pressure,
which is provided from a pumping unit or from a supply tank situated at a high
2-3 bars,
 point.
1.2 SYSTEM COMPONENTS

 
 Water sources
 
 Energy sources (Gravity, Mechanical, Internal combustion) and
 
Distribution network (pipe or canal) are basic irrigation components.

1.3 NETWORK LAYOUT
The pipelines that convey and distribute the irrigation water to the individual plots are usually
buried, and are so protected from farming operations and traffic hazards. Offtake hydrants, rising
on the surface, are located at various spots according to the planned layout. With surface
methods the irrigation water can be delivered directly to the open ditches feeding the furrows or
the basins.
In micro-irrigation and other complete systems, e.g. sprinkler, the hydrants are coupled with
smaller manifold feeder pipelines placed along the edges of the plots. These feed the lateral
irrigating lines which are laid along the plants rows perpendicular to the manifolds. The laterals
are equipped with water emitters at frequent spaces and distribute uniformly the irrigation water
to the plants under certain pressure.
There are many kinds of pressurized irrigation systems. However, a thorough examination of
the various system layouts, the equipment and the principles in operation shows that the same
approach is always employed from the planning procedure to their application and that all of
them have most of their features and components parts in common.

In all piped systems the main component parts are:
 
 The control station (head control unit);
 
 The mains and submains (pipelines);
 
 The hydrants;
 
 The manifolds (feeder pipelines);
 
The laterals (irrigating pipelines) with the emitters.

Head control: This consists of a supply line (rigid PVC, or threaded galvanized steel)
installed horizontally at a minimum height of 60 cm above ground. It is equipped with an
air release valve, a check valve, and two -in hose outlets for connection with the fertilizer
injector, a shut-off valve between the two outlets, a fertilizer injector and a filter. Where a
 
gravel filter or a hydrocyclone sand separator is needed, it is installed at the beginning of
the unit complex.

Main pipeline: It is the largest diameter pipeline of the network, capable of conveying
the flow of the system under favourable hydraulic conditions of flow velocity and friction
losses. The pipes usedare generally buried permanent assembly rigid PVC, black high
density polyethylene
(HDPE), layflat hose, and quick coupling galvanized light steel pipes in sizes ranging from 63 to
160 mm (2-6 in) depending on the area of the farm.

Submains: These are smaller diameter pipelines which extend from the main lines and to
which the system flow isdiverted for distribution to the various plots. The pipes are the
same kind as the mains.


Offtake hydrants: These are fitted on the submains or the mains and equipped with a 2-
  valve. They deliver the whole or part of the flow to the manifolds (feeder
3-in shut-off
lines).

Manifolds (feeder lines): These are pipelines of a smaller diameter than the submains
and are connected to the hydrants and laid, usually on the surface, along the plot edges to
feedthe laterals. They can be of any kind of pipe available (usually HDPE) in sizes of 2-3
 in.

Laterals (irrigating lines): These are the smallest diameter pipelines of the system. They
 laid along the plants
are fitted to the manifolds, perpendicular to them, at fixed positions,
rows and equipped with water emitters at fixed frequent spacing.
A water emitter for irrigation is a device of any kind, type and size which, fitted on a pipe, is
operated under pressure to discharge water in any form: by shooting water jets into the air
(sprinklers), by small spray or mist (sprayers), by continuous drops (drippers), by small stream or
fountain (bubblers, gates and openings on pipes, small diameter hoses), etc.
These component parts replace the ones in the traditional surface systems, i.e. the main gate, the
main and submain canals, the canal gates the field ditches, and the furrows or the basins,
respectively.
1.4 SYSTEM CLASSIFICATION

Pressurized irrigation systems are classified according to
 
 Pressure required for operation
 
 Method of delivering water to plants,
 
Type of installation.

Pressure
Systems can be classed as:
 
 Low pressure systems, where the pressure required is 2.0-3.5 bars
 
 Medium pressure, where the pressure required is 3.5-5.0 bars
 
High pressure, where the pressure required exceeds 5.0 bars.
 
 Water delivery method

We have the following types

Sprinkler irrigation method

 
 Drip irrigation method
 
Center pivot irrigation method
 
 Type of installation

Systems can be classed as:

 where all the components are laid or installed at fixed
Solid installations (fixed systems),
permanent or seasonal positions.


 and submains are permanent while the laterals are
Semi-permanent installations, where the mains
portable, hand move or mechanically move.
 
 Portable installations, where all the component parts are portable.
1.5 PRESSURIZED IRRIGATION EQUIPMENTS

Irrigation system installations consist of various pipes, fittings, valves and other equipment
depending on the kind of system and the type of installation. Most installations have the same
structure, and thus a relatively small range of equipment can meet the requirements of a whole
region. Irrigation equipment can be divided into:
  Pipes 
  Pipe connector fittings

  Flow control devices


  
Filters
  Fertigation equipment

  Water emitters

  Automation equipment

  Operation equipment

 
Water-lifting devices.
The main characteristics of the irrigation equipment are:
 
 Material e.g. galvanized steel, rigid PVC, etc.

Size, i.e. the nominal diameter (DN) of theISO metric range in millimeters (16-160 mm) and/or
of the BSP threaded range in inches (4 in)
  
Type of joint, e.g. threaded, quick coupling, solvent welded, etc.;
  Working pressure PN (nominal pressure) or PR (pressure rating) in bars, e.g. 6.0 bars

 
National and/or international standards conformed to, e.g. DIN, ISO, BS, ASTM.
The working pressure of a pipe or a fitting is the maximum internal water pressure to which the
pipe or the fitting is subjected continuously in ordinary use, with certainty that failure of the pipe
will not occur. It is specified as nominal pressure (PN) or pressure rating (PR).

1.6 HYDRAULICS OF PRESSURE IRRIGATION SYSTEMS
1.6.1 Definition
Hydraulics is defined as the study of fluid behavior, at rest and in motion. Properly designed
piping, with sound hydraulics, can greatly reduce maintenance problems over the life of an
irrigation system. Controlling the water flow velocity, holding velocity within proper limits
reduces wear on the system components and lengthens service life.
Poor hydraulic design results in poor performance of the irrigation system, leading to stressed
landscaping material, or even broken pipes and flood damage. Lack of design know-how can
also cost the system owner more money because the designer may over-design the system to
avoid unknown factors.
An understanding and use of hydraulics is absolutely essential for proper development and
operation of modern irrigation systems. Irrigation hydraulics involves the determination of the
pressure distribution in the system, the selection of pipe sizes and fittings to convey and regulate
water delivery, and the determination of the power and energy requirements to pressurize and lift
water.
Mistakes made in setting up an irrigation system are often very expensive to correct, whereas the
cost of appropriate planning to avoid errors is small.
One of the most important considerations in the hydraulics of irrigation systems is the amount of
energy that is available in the water at any point within the system. With water flow, energy can
be in the following forms:
1. Kinetic energy due to velocity
2. Potential energy due to elevation
3. Potential energy due to water pressure.
In this class, the energy in water is expressed as energy per unit weight of water. Energy has the
units of FL (force times length) and weight has the units of Force (F). Thus, energy per unit
weight has the units of FL / F or just the dimension of L (LENGTH).
Hence, the energy of water in an irrigation system includes velocity head, elevation head, and
pressure head.


The potential energy due to elevation is a result of the location of the water relative to an
arbitrary reference plane. Water at a higher elevation has more potential energy than
water at a lower elevation.
The water has the ability to do work as it flows downhill, such as eroding the soil surface,
generating power, etc. The potential energy of the water decreases as it flows downhill. The
letter Z will be used to represent elevation head or called gravitational head.

The potential energy due to the pressurization of water can be a very large component
 per unit area exerted on the walls of a
in an irrigation system. Pressure is the force
container. The pressure may be expressed as:

P = λh or h = P / λ

Where:
P = pressure
λ = weight of a unit volume of fluid (specifi h = pressure head,
In general, the maximum recommended average velocity in an enclosed pipeline is 5 ft/sec.

When the velocity in a pipeline exceeds 5 ft/sec, there is a potential to develop very high
pressure surges which may damage pipelines. Pressure surges are due to flow being stopped
suddenly while the upstream water has a large amount of momentum. When the flow is stopped
too quickly, the rapid change in momentum results in impulsive force called water hammer.
 
Kinetic energy is the result of the movement of the fluid and the term velocity head is given by:
Velocity Head = V 2 / (2g)
Where:
V = average velocity at a point in a pipe or channel
g = gravitational constant
The sum of the energy forms the total energy per unit weight called HYDRAULIC HEAD
(H). It is: H = + elevation head + pressure head + velocity head
H = Z + h + V2/(2g)
Figure-1: Total dynamic head description
1.6.2 Hydraulic losses

In any real moving fluid, energy is dissipated due to friction; turbulence dissipates even more
energy for high Reynolds number flows. Head loss is divided into two main categories, "major
losses" associated with energy loss per length of pipe, and "minor losses" associated with bends,
fittings, valves, etc.

For relatively short pipe systems, with a relatively large number of bends and fittings, minor
losses can easily exceed major losses. In design, major losses are estimated by using empirical
formulas or equations and minor losses are usually estimated from tables using coefficients or a
simpler and less accurate reduction of minor losses to equivalent length of pipe.
1.6.3 Computing Friction Loss

A pipeline with outlets has a lower friction loss than a conveyance pipe because the velocity
decreases with distance along the pipe. To correct for the effect of outlets, a multiple outlet
factor,
F is used. The value of F is one, for pipelines without outlets.
Major losses or head loss due to friction may be computed from the following formulae:
  Darcy-Weisbach formula 
  Hazen Williams formula 
  Manning's formula 
  Combined Darcy-Weisbach and 
 Colebrook-White equation 

 
The Darcy-Weisbach equation
Weisbach first proposed the equation we now know as the Darcy-Weisbach formula or Darcy
Weisbach equation:
Where:
hf = head loss due to friction (m)
f = friction factor. Some book use λ
L = length of pipe work (m)
d = inner diameter of pipe work (m)
v = average velocity of fluid (m/s)
g = acceleration due to gravity
(m/s²) Q = flow rate (m3/s)
The friction factor f generally varies from 0.02 for new smooth pipes to 0.075 for old rough
pipes. However, f depends upon Reynolds number Re = V


Hazen William's formula
This formula relates velocity of flow, hydraulic mean radius and hydraulic gradient.

Manning’s formula

CHAP-2: PUMPING STATION
2.1 INTRODUCTION TO PUMPING STATIONS

Pumping stations are:
 
 Facilities including pumps and equipment for pumping fluids from one place to another.

They are used for a variety of infrastructure systems, such as the supply of water to
 canals, pressurized irrigation, the drainage of low-lying land, and the removal of sewage
to processing sites.
 
 Domestic, commercial, industrial and agricultural services
 
Municipal water and wastewater services

2.2 FUNCTIONS
Pumping station in small communities are used for the following purposes
 
 Remove water from a source, such a river,lake,reservoir,well,spring, pond
 
 Move the water from the treatment plant to the distribution system or reservoir
 
Circulate water through a distribution system

 
 Maintain pressure in the distribution system
 
 Pump chemicals into the system
2.3 MAJOR COMPONENTS OF PUMPING STATION

A pumping station is composed of four sets of components:
 
 The building
 
 The hydraulic system: the pump and related piping
 
 The electrical system: the motor and its related components
 
 The control system: pressure, flow and level switches
2.4 PUMPS
2.4.1 Definition, Purpose, and Classification of

Pumps 2.4.1.1Definition of Pump
There are different definitions of pump. Simply speaking, it is a device or machine which is used
for transferring fluids and/or gases from one place to another, or to increase the pressure of a
fluid, or to create a vacuum in an enclosed space. Common definition of pump in the literature is
that pump is a device which converts mechanical energy into pressure energy.
2.4.1.2 Pumping Purpose

The primary function of a pump is to transfer energy from a power source to a fluid, and as a
result to create flow, lift, or greater pressure on the fluid. A pump can impart three types of
hydraulic energy to a fluid: lift, pressure, and velocity. In irrigation and drainage systems, pumps
are commonly used to lift water from a lower elevation to a higher elevation and/or add pressure
to the water. Most pumps are used to take water from a standing (or non-pressurized) source and
move it to another location. For example, a pump might take water from a lake and move it to a
sprinkler system. A booster pump, on the other hand, is used to increase the water pressure of
water that is already on its way somewhere.
2.4.1.3 Principles in Water Pumping

Basically there are four principles involved in pumping water:
(1) Atmospheric pressure
(2) Centrifugal force
(3) Positive displacement
(4) Movement of column of fluid caused by difference in specific gravity.
Pumps are usually classified on the basis of operation, which may employ one or more of the
above principles.

2.4.1.4 Classification of Pumps
Whether you are selecting an irrigation pump to a new-install system or replace the one in your
existing system, you will first need to understand the different types available. There are pumps
designed to fit each system.
The pumps can be classified based on different perspectives, such as
(a) Mode of intake of fluid to pumps
(b) Position of motor or prime mover
(c) The type of use (field of use)
(d) The principle by which energy is added to the fluid
(e) Specific geometries commonly used
(f) Design of the pump
Classification Based on Mode of Intake of Fluid to Pumps
According to the mode of intake of fluid to pumps, pumps can be classified into two groups:
(i) Suction mode pump
(ii) Force mode pump
Suction mode pumps are the pumps which draw water into the pump casing by applying suction
force. The pump is located above the water level (at the soil surface or at specified location of
the surface). The theoretical limit of lifting water from the soil surface is equal to the
atmospheric pressure of the location concerned. The reciprocating pump falls into this category.
In case of force mode pump, the pump is installed below the water level and the lifting capacity
is not limited by atmospheric pressure, rather on the force of the pump (or prime mover). Turbine
pumps and other submersible pumps fall into this category.
Classification Based on the Position of Prime Mover

Based on the position of motor (power), the pumps can be grouped into
•Surface mounted
•Submersible pump
Surface-mounted pumps have motors which are above ground –although deep well types may
have pump parts hundreds of feet below the surface. Submersible pumps are designed to spend
most of there life underwater, only being pulled out every several years for routine maintenance.
Classification Based on the Type of Water Use (or Field of Use)

Based on the type of water use, the pumps may be categorized into
•Water pumps
•Wastewater pumps
•Well pumps
•Sump pumps

•Sampling pumps
•Drum pumps
Water pumps are designed to move water that does not contain suspended solids or particulates.
Applications include water supply, irrigation, land and mine drainage, sea water desalination.
Wastewater pumps are used in the collection of sewage, effluent, drainage, and seepage water.
Well pumps are most commonly used to bring water from wells and springs to the surface.
Sump pumps are used in applications where excess water must be pumped away from a
particular area. Sump pumps generally sit in a basin or sump that collects this excess water.
Sampling pumps are used to monitor liquids, air, and gases. They are usually portable and
developed for specific tasks.
Drum pumps are used to transfer materials from a container into a process or other container.
They may be electrically, hydraulically, or pneumatically powered depending on the working
environment or application.
Classification based on the principle by which energy is added to the fluid
Under this system of classification, all pumps may be divided into two major categories:
(1) Dynamic pumps –where continuously added energy increases velocity of the fluid and later
this velocity is changed to pressure, and
(2) Displacement pumps –where periodically added energy directly increases pressure.
Dynamic pumps can be classified as one of several types of centrifugal pumps and a group of
special effect pumps. In centrifugal pumps, energy is imparted to a fluid by centrifugal action
often combined with propeller or lifting action. Centrifugal pumps can be classified by impeller
shape and characteristics.
With respect to type of impeller, all centrifugal pumps can be classified into three following
groups:
•Radial-flow pumps –which develop head mainly by the action of centrifugal force.
•Axial-flow pumps –produce flow by the lifting action of the propellers or vanes.
•Mixed-flow pumps –use both centrifugal force and some lifting action.
In addition, a centrifugal pump can be classified in one of four major groups depending on its
design and application:
• Volutemps pu
• Diffuser pumps
• Turbine pumps
• Propeller pumps
Turbine pump can be classified into

• Deep-wellturbine pump
• Submersible turbine pump
Deep-well turbine pump can be further divided into

• Single stage

• Multistage
Single-stage pump have one impeller in one case. In multistage pump, two or more impellers
enclosed in one casing to increase pressure (like pumps connected in series). Each separate
section is called a stage, and the greater the number of stages, the greater the pressure or lift that
is created.
Displacement Pumps
Displacement pumps have limited capacities and are not suitable for pumping large amounts of
water required for irrigation or drainage. They are used mainly for chemical injection in
agricultural irrigation systems.
Classification Based on the Means by Which the Energy Is Added
According to this approach, all pumps fall into two general categories:
•Rotodynamic (centrifugal, mixed flow and axial flow), and
•Positive displacement.
A rotodynamic pump converts kinetic energy to potential or pressure energy. The pumping units
have three major parts:
(i) The driver (that turns the rotating element),
(ii) The impeller and shaft (the rotating element), and
(iii) The stationary diffusing element.
Positive displacement (PD) pumps use gears, pistons, or helical rotors with tight tolerance to the
casing so that pressure can build up beyond normal rating.
PD pumps can be classified into two main groups: rotary and reciprocating.
Rotary pumps transfer liquid from suction to discharge through the action of rotating screws,
gears, rollers, etc., which operate within a rigid casing. It typically works at low pressure (up to
25 bars or 360 lb per square inch (psi)). In case of reciprocating pumps, the rotary motion of the
driver (such as diesel engine or electric motor) is converted to reciprocating motion by a
crankshaft, camshaft, or swash-plate. It typically works at high pressure (up to 500 bar).
Other Types of Pumps
Other pump types less common in irrigation include:

Non-positive displacement pumps have an impeller which spins to create pressure but
  to the casing. This type of pump will not build pressure
does not have close tolerance
beyond its normal rating.
 
 Helical rotor pumps force water through with an auger type action.

 are in-line pumps (series connection) used to increase the operating pressure of
Booster pumps
the system.


DC powered pumps use direct current from motor, battery, or solar power to move
liquids such asacids, chemicals, lubricants and oil, as well as water, wastewater, and
 potable water.

Hydraulic pumps deliver high-pressure fluid flow to the pump outlet. Hydraulic pumps are
powered by mechanical energy sources to pressurize fluid.
 
Submersible pumps can be mounted into a tank with the liquid media. The
pump‟s motor is normally-filledcavitythatsealedisprotectedfromincontactanwith theoil liquid.
2.4.2 Factors Affecting the Practical Suction Lift of Suction-Mode Pump
The following factors affect or limit the practical suction lift of pump:
(i) Elevation above the mean sea level, or actual atmospheric pressure at specified location
(ii) Density and viscosity of the fluid
(iii) Temperature of the fluid
(iv) Friction loss in suction pipe and well loss (entrance and formation loss, if applicable)
(v) Air-bubbling point of the liquid
Maximum theoretical suction lift in a location is equal to the atmospheric pressure at that
location. Temperature affects the density and viscosity of the fluid, which consequently affect
the friction loss. Air-bubbling point depends on the temperature of water and air pressure above
it.
Figure-2: Pump categories

Figure-3: Total head vs flow rate
Sub-classification of pump types as a function of operating head and discharge (Adapted
from Longenbaugh and Duke, 1980)
2.4.3 Centrifugal Pumps
2.4.3.1 Features and Principles of Centrifugal Pumps

Almost all irrigation pumps fall into this category. These types of pumps use centrifugal force
(hence the name, centrifugal pump) to push water out. Water entering the pump hits an impeller
(sort of like a propeller, but a little different) that imparts circular motion to the water, causing it
to spin. This spinning action moves the water through the pump by means of centrifugal force,
and forces it outward to the pump wall. As this happens, the water picks up speed, which
becomes pressure as the water exits the pump.
Centrifugal pumps may be “multistage,” havewhichmorethan meansoneimpeller andthey casing, and the
water is passed from one impeller to another with an increase in pressure
occurring each time. Each impeller/casing combination is referred to as a “ turf-irrigation pumps are centrifugal
pumps.
All centrifugal pumpsthat is,musttheremust havebewater in aboth “wettheintake inlet (inlet) pipe and the casing
when the pump is startedwater. upTheyintothe intakecan‟t su

pipe like you can suck soda up into an empty straw. They must be “primed” befo To prime them, you simply
fill the intake pipe with water and then quickly To put it simply, this type of pump can not suck air, only water,
so if there is no water already in
the pump it would not pull any water up into it. Once it gets water in it the first time, it will hold
the water with a small valve so the pump does not need to be primed again every time you turn it
on.
The force created by centrifugal action of the pump depends on the density of the fluid within the pump. As the density of air is too low (∼1.2 kg/m3, in contrast
1,000 kg/m3 for water), the force created is not enough to suck water from the water source.
With respect to type of impeller, all centrifugal pumps can be classified into the three following
groups:
  Radial-flow pumps 
  Axial-flow pumps

 
Mixed-flow pumps
Figure-4: Centrifugal pump
2.4.3.2 Pump assembly

In this point, the main parts, a centrifugal pump consist of are discussed. These are the casing,
the impeller, shaft, bearings and seals.
1. Casing

The pump‟s casing houses the hole assembly the fluid to discharge from the pump and convert velocity into
pressure.

The casings design does not influence TDH but is important to reduce friction losses.

It supports the shaft bearings and takes the centrifugal forces of the rotating impeller and axial
loads caused by pressure thrust imbalance.


Most of all centrifugal pumps are of simple spiral casing and are not equipped with a

guide vane aperture. Even if this would increase efficiency due to the simplicity of spiral
casings, this is the preferred type of construction.
2. Impeller
  The impeller is the essential part of a centrifugal pump. 
 
 The performance of the pump depends on the impeller diameters and design.
  The pump‟s TDH is basically defined by the pump‟s capacity is defined by the width of 


In general, there are three possible types of impellers, open, enclosed and semi open impellers,
each suitable for a specific application.

Standard impellers are made of cast iron or carbon steel, whileimpeller for aggressive fluids and
slurries require high end materials to ensure a long pump life.
3. Shaft

The shaft is the connection betweenimpeller and drive unit which is in most cases an electric
 motor but can also be a gas turbine.

It is mainly charged by a radial force caused by unbalanced pressure forces in the spiral
casing and an axial force due to the pressure difference between front and backside of the
 impeller.

Most common pump  shafts are made of carbon steel. There are several cranks to support the
bearings and seals.
 
A high surface quality and small clearances are required.

Especially in the areas of the bearing‟s, clearance ensure right positioning of the shaft in the casing and therefore
close positioning
clearances of the impeller.

  of the seals, particularly the surface quality is important to ensure an adequate seal
At the area
lifespan.

 small radiuses at cranks to minimize stress in these
In shaft design it is also important to avoid
areas which are susceptible for fatigue.
Figure-5: pump’s crank shaft

4. Bearings
 
 The bearings keep the shaft in place to ensure radial and axial clearance.

 
Some approximate bearing properties can be seen . The bearings lead radial and axial forces from
the impeller into the casing.

In double suction pumps bearings are located at both  sides of the impeller as at single suction
pumps all bearings are located behind the impeller.
 
 In horizontal process pumps, usually oil bath lubricated bearings are used.

Medium  and heavy duty process pumps are used in refineries, where highest reliability is
 required.
 
In these pumps axial loads are supported by universal single row angular contact ball bearings.
Figure-6: Bearings
5. Sealing

 the bearings against fluid and prevent leakage, there are several seals fitted into the
To protect
casing.
  Nowadays, rotary pumps are equipped with mechanical seals. 
 
 A mechanical seal consists of primary and secondary sealing.

In most cases the primary part, which is fitted to the casing, is made of a hard material like silicon
carbide or tungsten carbide.
 
 The other, the rotating part of the primary seal is made of a soft material like carbon.

Both parts are pressed against each other by e.g.  a spring. The secondary sealings are not rotating
 relative to each other and provide a fluid barrier.
 Mechanical seals can be separated into pusher/non‐pusher seals, seal driving/spring 
compression, balanced/unbalanced and inside/outside mounting.

2.4.3.3 Working mechanism of centrifugal pump

 pump is a rotodynamic pump that uses a rotating impeller to increase the pressure
A centrifugal
of a fluid.

  The fluid enters the pump near the rotating axis, streaming into the rotating impeller. 
  The impeller consists of a rotating disc with several vanes attached.

 
 The vanes normally slope backwards, away from the direction of rotation.

  at a certain velocity due to the suction system, it is captured by
When the fluid enters the impeller
the rotating impeller vanes.

  while following the curvature of the impeller vanes
The fluid is accelerated by pulse transmission
from the impeller centre (eye) outwards.
 
It reaches its maximum velocity at the imp into a diffuser or volute chamber as it is described at the figure below
Figure-7: working mechanism of centrifugal pump
2.4.4 Some Relevant Terminologies to Centrifugal Pump

Important concepts associated with the operation of centrifugal pumps include pump efficiency,
net positive suction head, specific speed, affinity laws, cavitation, and priming. Good design,
efficient operation, and proper maintenance require understanding of these concepts.
Suction Lift
The absolute pressure on the water at the water source is the driving force for the water moving
into the eye of the impeller. Theoretically, if a pump could create a perfect vacuum at the eye of
the impeller, and if it were operating at sea level, the atmospheric pressure of approximately 14.5
psi would be the driving force pushing water into the eye of the impeller.
This pressure could lift water a distance of about 8 m (1 psi = 2.31 ft of water). In practice, this
lift is much smaller due to lack of perfect vacuum in the impeller and friction losses in the intake
pipe. The practical value of maximum lift differs between pumps, but it is usually no greater than
24 ft.

Net Positive Suction Head Available
Net positive suction head available (NPSHa) is the absolute pressure of the water at the eye of
the impeller. It is atmospheric pressure minus the sum of vapor pressure of the water, friction
losses in the intake pipe, and suction head or lift. Since any variation of these four factors will
change the NPSHa, NPSHa should be calculated using the equation below. If the water source is
located above the eye of the pump impeller (submerged pump), suction head (SH) must be added
instead of subtracted. An accurate determination of NPSHa is critical for any centrifugal pump
application.
NPSHa = BP −SH −FL −VP
where
BP = barometric pressure at pump level
(m) SH = suction head or lift (m)
FL = friction losses in the suction pipe (m)
VP = vapor pressure of the liquid at given temperature (m)
Net Positive Suction Head required (NPSHr)
It is a measure of the head necessary to transfer water into the impeller vanes efficiently and
without cavitation. The NPSHr required by a specific centrifugal pump depends on the pump
design and flow rate. It is constant for a given head, flow, rotational speed, and impeller
diameter. However, it changes with wear and different liquids, since it depends on the impeller
geometry and on the density and viscosity of the fluid. For a given pump, NPSHr increases with
increases in pump speed, flow rate, and water temperature.
The value of NPSHr is provided by the manufacturer for each specific pump model, and it is
normally shown as a separate curve on a set of pump characteristic curves. To avoid cavitation,
NPSHa must be always equal to or greater than NPSHr
Static and Dynamic Head
Static Head
Static Suction Head

Static suction head (or static suction lift) is the vertical distance from the static water level in the
suction pipe to the centerline of the impeller.
Static Discharge Head
Static discharge head is the vertical distance from the center of the impeller to the discharge
outlet, or liquid level when discharging into the bottom of a water tank.

Dynamic Head
Dynamic Suction Head

Dynamic suction head is the sum of static suction lift plus friction loss in the suction pipe, plus
the loss of head in the formation (when the pipe is installed in a aquifer). During pumping, actual
water level lowers than the static level due to lifting of water column. This is observed outside
the suction pipe by observation well.
In addition, water entering the screen of the suction pipe through the formation, encounters
resistance hence requires energy. This is called formation loss
Dynamic Discharge Head

It is the sum of static discharge head, friction head for discharge pipe, and the velocity head of
the discharging fluid.
Total Head
Total dynamic head, or simplytotalhead‟ „is the sum of dynamic su discharge head.
This is the total pressure, in meter, that the pump must overcome to perform its work as
designed. Numerically, it is the sum of the suction head, delivery head (if any), velocity head,
friction head for the suction and discharge pipe, and formation loss (in terms of head) (if
applicable). That is,
HT = DH + SH + VH + FH + FL
Where:
DH = delivery head or discharge head (m)
SH = suction head or lift (m)
VH = velocity head (due to velocity of discharging water)
FH = friction losses in the suction pipe and delivery pipe (m)
FL = formation loss (m)
2.4.5 Pump Efficiency

The efficiency of a pump is a measure of its hydraulic and mechanical performance.
It is defined as the ratio of the useful power delivered by the pump (water horsepower) to the
power supplied to the pump shaft (brake horsepower). The efficiency of the pump is expressed in
percent and can be calculated using the following equation:

E = WHP X
100% BHP
Where
E = pump efficiency
WHP = Water horsepower
BHP = Brake horsepower
The efficiency range to be expected varies with the pump size, type, and design.
However, it is normally between 70 and 80%. A pump should be selected for a given application
so that it will operate close to its point of maximum efficiency.
Specific Speed
Two pumps are geometrically similar when the ratios of corresponding dimensions in one pump
are equal to the same ratios of the other pump. Specific speed is a constant for any geometrically
similar pump. It is an index number correlating pump flow, head, and speed at the optimum
efficiency point which classifies pump impellers with respect to their geometric similarity.
Specific speed is usually expressed as
Ns = N√Q
H3/4
Where
Ns = specific speed of the pump (rpm)
N = rotational speed of pump at optimum efficiency
(rpm) Q = flow of pump at optimum efficiency (m3/s)
H = head at optimum efficiency (m).
The specific speed is an index which is used when selecting impellers to meet different
conditions of head, capacity, and speed. Knowing this index is very helpful in the determination
of the maximum permissible suction lift, or minimum suction head, which is necessary to avoid
cavitation under different capacities, heads, and pump speeds. For a given head and capacity,
suction lift is greater for a pump with lower specific speed.
The calculation of specific speed allows for determination of the pump type required for a given
set of conditions to be determined. Usually high-head impellers have low specific speeds and
low-head impellers have high specific speeds.
There is often an advantage in using pumps with high specific speeds since, for a given set of
conditions, their operating speed is higher, and the pump is therefore smaller and less expensive.
However, there is also some trade-off since pumps operating at higher speeds will wear faster.
Affinity Laws
Effect of Change of Speed

Affinity laws state that for a given pump, the capacity will vary directly with a change in speed,
the head will vary as the square of speed, and the required horsepower will vary as the cube of
speed. Mathematically, affinity laws can be expressed as
For flow: Q∞N
For head: H∞N2
For BHP: BHP∞N3
Where
Q = pump capacity (gpm)
H = pump head (ft)
N = rotational speed of the pump (rpm)
BHP = required brake horse power
The above equations assume that the diameter of the pump impeller is constant.
In some cases the size of the impeller can be changed. Often a pump is very precisely matched to
a specific application by trimming the impeller. It is not feasible to increase impeller diameter.
Basically, the above relationships mean that an increase in pump speed will produce more water
at a higher head but will require considerably more power to drive the pump. These calculated
values are very close to actual test results, provided pump efficiency does not change
significantly. However, when conditions are changed by speed adjustment, usually there is no
appreciable change in efficiency within the range of normal pump operation speeds.
For increase in pump speed, the NPSHr increases but it cannot be determined from the affinity
laws. Also the laws do not say anything about how the efficiency of the pump will change with
speed, but generally this is not a significant change.
NPSHr and efficiency changes must be obtained from the pump manufacture(pump characteristic curves).
Effect of Change of Diameter

There is a second set of affinity laws, which describes the relationships between the same
variables when the impeller size is changed under constant speed conditions. These laws relate

the impact of impeller diameter changes to changes in pump performance. Since change of
impeller diameter changes other design relationships in a pump, therefore, this second set of
affinity laws does not yield the accurate results of the first three laws discussed above and must
be applied with caution.
Where
D1 = initial diameter of the impeller
D2 = diameter of the impeller after changes
This second set of affinity laws strictly applies only to radial-flow pumps. They are only
approximate for mixed-flow impellers. In addition, these equations only hold for small changes
in impeller diameter. Calculations for a trim of more than 10% of the original diameter can be
significantly in error.
Figure-8: pump installation
2.4.6 Pump priming
All centrifugal pumps must be primed by filling them with water before they can operate. The
objective of priming is to remove a sufficient amount of air from the pump and suction line to

permit atmospheric pressure and submergence pressure to cause water to flow into the pump,
when pressure at the eye of the impeller is reduced below atmospheric as the impeller rotates.
When axial-flow and mixed-flow pumps are mounted with the propellers submerged, there is
normally no problem with re-priming of these pumps because the submergence pressure causes
water to refill the pumps as long as air can readily be displaced. On the other hand, radial-flow
pumps are often located above the water source, and they can lose prime. Often, loss of prime
occurs due to an air leak on the suction side of the pump. Volute or diffuser pumps may lose
prime when water contains even small amounts of air or vapor. Prime will not be lost in a radial-
flow pump if the water source is above the eye of the impeller and flow of water into the pump is
unrestricted.
In some cases pumps are primed by manually displacing the air in them with water every time
the pump is restarted. Often, by using a foot valve or a check valve at the entrance to the suction
pipe, pumps can be kept full of water and primed when not operating. If prime is lost, the water
must be replaced manually, or a vacuum pump can be used to remove air and draw water into the
pump.
A self-priming pump is one that will clear its passages of air and resume delivery of liquid
without outside attention. Centrifugal pumps are not truly self-priming. So called self-priming
centrifugal pumps are provided with an air separator in the form of a large chamber or reservoir
on the discharge side of the pump. This separator allows the air to escape from the pump
discharge and entraps the residual liquid necessary during re-priming. Automatic priming of a
pump is achieved by the use of a recirculation chamber which recycles water through the
impeller until the pump is primed, or by the use of a small positive displacement pump which
supplies water to the impeller.
2.4.7 Cavitation
Pump cavitation is defined as the formation of cavities on the back surface of an impeller and the
resulting loss of contact between the impeller and the water being pumped. These cavities are
zones of partial vacuum which fill with water vapor as the surrounding water vaporizes due to
the reduced pressure in the cavities. The cavities are displaced with the flowing water along the
pump impeller surfaces toward the outer circumference of the impellers. As they move toward
the circumference, the pressure in the surrounding water increases, and the cavities collapse
against the impellers with considerable force. The force created by the collapse of the cavities
often causes erosion and rapid wear of the pump impellers as well as a characteristic noise during
pump operation. The process of cavitation is caused by the reduction in pressure behind the
impellers to the point that the water vaporizes. Thus, it can be caused by any combination of
factors which allow pressure to drop to that point, including inadequate submergence or
excessive suction lift, so that little pressure is available to move water into the pump, high
impeller speeds which cause extremely low pressures to be generated behind the impellers,
restricted pump intake lines which prevent water from moving readily into the pump, and high
water temperatures which decrease the pressure at which water vaporizes.

Cavitation can occur in all types of pumps and can create a serious problem.
In some cases of mild cavitation, the only problem may be a slight drop in efficiency.
On the other hand, severe cavitation may be quite destructive to the pump and result in pitting of
impeller vanes. Since any pump can be made to cavitate, care should be taken in selecting the
pump for a given system and planning its installation.
Pump manufacturers specify the Net Positive Suction Head required (NPSHr) for the operation
of a pump without cavitation. Pump cavitation can be avoided by assuring that the net positive
suction head available (NPSHa) is always greater than that required (NPSHr) by the pump.
2.4.8 Power Requirement
Power requirement in pumping can be expressed as follows:
Where
P = power requirement, in watt (W)
m = mass of fluid delivered, in kg
QT = total discharge for the time t, in m3
ρ= density of fluid, in kg/m3 (∼1,000 kg/m3 for normal water) g = acceleration due to gravity (∼9.81 m/s2)
H = total head of water, in m

t = pumping period, in seconds
QT =Q/t = discharge rate, m3/s
Let the efficiency of the electric motor to be used is Em, then the motor size or capacity would
be
Pm = (Q × ρ× g × H)1/Em
Where Pm = motor capacity, in W

If the density of water, ρ= 1,000 kg/m3, g = 9.81 m/s, then the above equation can be written as
Pm = (Q × 9.81 × H) × 1/Em [kW]
Units of other elements will be same as mentioned
earlier. 1 kilowatt (kW) = 1,000 W
Kilowatt can be converted into horse power by the
relation: 1 kW= 1.341 hp

Using ρ= 1,000 kg/m3, g = 9.81 m/s, 1 m3 = 1,000 l, and the relation of 1 kW
= 1.341 hp; energy of rdischarginghorsepower”water,ascan beor exp“w
WHP = (discharge in l/s × H)/76
Where H = total head, in m
2.4.9 Pump Installation, Operation, and Control
Pump Installation
Installation
The pump should be located as close as practical to the liquid source, this will minimize inlet
losses. Improper location of the pump may result in decreased pump performance. Other points
that should be considered are the following:
•The foundation should be designed to hold the pump assembly rigid and to absorb any vibration
or external strain that may be encountered. A concrete foundation on a solid base should be
adequate.
•Pump and driver should be accessible for inspection and maintenance.
•On permanent installations, it is recommended that the pumping assembly be secured to the
foundation by anchor bolts.
Alignment
Some pumps are shipped on baseplates without drivers. For these units, install and tighten each
coupling half on driver and pump shafts. Place driver on baseplate and set proper distance
between shafts and coupling hubs.
Final alignment of pump and driver should take place after unit is secured to foundation, and
after the suction and discharge piping is connected to the pump. The objective of any aligning
procedure is to align shafts (not align coupling hubs) by using methods that cancel out any
surface irregularities, shaft-end float, and eccentricity.
Grouting is recommended to prevent lateral shifting of baseplate, not to take up irregularities in
the foundation. For installations requiring grouting, a baseplate designed specifically for this
purpose is needed. For pumps driven through a separate gearbox or other device, first align
device relative to pump, and then align driver relative to device.
Alignment of pump and its driver should be checked and corrected, if necessary, at least every 6
months. If system experiences an unusual amount of vibrations or large variations in operating
temperatures, this should be done often.
Well-maintained alignment will help insure maximum equipment life.
Installation of Submersible Pump
The following steps should be followed in installing a submersible pump:

•Lift the motor vertically and lower into wel
•Make temporary electric connection to motor, bump starter to determine correct rotation
(counter clockwise).
•With the motor suspended in the well, on the “U” plate attachclampsto pumpan eleva end, lifting it vertically
over the motor.
Align the motor coupling with the motor shaft, while lowering the pump end onto the motor.
•Replace all capscrews and lockwashers furnished with the pump and bolt up tightly.
Figure-9: Views of single phase open-well submersible pump
Pump Operation
Suction Line
The suction line should be designed so pump inlet pressure, measured at pump inlet flange, is
greater than or equal to the minimum required pump inlet pressure (also referred to as Net
Positive Inlet Pressure Required or NPIPR). Suction line length should be as short as possible
with piping diameters being equal to or larg must be leak free.
Field Test
When a field test of the pump‟s performance i
•Discharge rate measurement
•Total head and horsepower measurement
•Rotating speed
•Liquid temperature
Compare the results of the field test with the performance curve for your pump.
Capacity (Discharge Rate) Measurement
Measure the rate of flow (volume per unit time) from the pump discharge, preferably in liter per
second (l/s) or m3/s. The volume and/or flow rate measurement may be done using any of the
following equipment: accurately measured reservoir, calibrated venturi meter, orifice meter,
flume, etc.
Total Head Measurement

The total pumping head consists of distance from the water level in the sump (when pumping) to
the center of the discharge pressure gauge, plus the discharge gauge reading, and the velocity at
the discharge. Convert gauge reading using the relation
P = ωh, where ωis the density of water.
Horse Power Requirement
Measure the horsepower consumption of the pump by a direct reading of a wattmeter and
applying the reading to the following formula: BHP = (kW Input × Efficiency)/0.746
Hydraulics in Pumping System
If you randomly select one pump, it will not automatically fit the needs of your system; unless
you have calculated the amount of flow your system needs and determined how much pressure it
will take to achieve the desired flow.
Velocity is used to increase pressure. Velocity of water being discharged is determined by the
size of the casing and impeller as well as the speed of the impeller spinning inside the case. Since
water is essentially a noncompressible liquid, it exhibits the unique trait of transferring pressure
horizontally when in a confined space. What this means is that water in a pipe exhibits the same
pressure as it would if the pipe were perfectly vertical, even if the pipe is not.
Pressure Vs Flow Rate
It is to remember here that there is always an inverse relationship between pressure and flow (for
a fixed conduit or pipe). Higher pressures mean lower flows. Lower pressures result in higher
flows.
Pressure and Head

The pumping head is normally expressed in feet of water; it is simply height of elevation.
Pressure is normally expressed weightas of “poundsthewaterin per pounds per square inch. Pressure and head
are related by the equation:
P = ωh where ωis the density of the fluid, and h is the height of the fluid column.
In most cases we measure water pressure in the static state when designing irrigation systems (or
any other water piping system for that matter). Then we use calculations to figure out the friction
loss that will occur in the pipes and subtract it from the static pressure to arrive at the dynamic
pressure. The following is oriented toward wells.
Dynamic Water Depth

When the pump is running, the water level in the well drops below the water table.
It may drop a few inches or more than several meters depending on the type of soil (or rock) the
well is drilled into and the discharge rate. Dynamic water depth is the depth of the water below
the top of the well, when the pump is running. When a well company drills a new well they

insert a temporary pump to “brtheakwellin”. andTheytestrefer to t well. As part of this process they also
measure the dynamic water depth of the new well at
various pumping rates.
Elevation Difference
It is the difference between the top of your well and the highest point in the area to be irrigated.
That is, how much higher (or lower) is the highest point in the irrigated area than the top of the
well. This may be a negative number if the well is higher than the irrigated area.
Pumps Connected in Series and Parallel

Multiple pumps can operate in series or parallel. Pumps placed in parallel provide additional
flexibility in the range of flow rates. When pumps are connected together in series (or multi
staged), the total flow (GPM) will stay the same, while the pressures generated by the pumps will
be additive. When pumps are connected in parallel, the pressure stays the same, while the flow
volume is additive.
Pumps should not be operated in series or parallel unless specifically procured for this purpose,
since serious equipment damage may occur. For parallel operation, the pumps must have
approximately matching head characteristics, otherwise the system operating head may exceed
the shut-off head of one or more pumps and the result in zero output flow.
2.4.10 Pump Performance and Pump Selection

Pump Performance
When selecting an irrigation pump, no relationship is more important than that of pressure and
flow. The performance of a pump depends on it. How much water the pump is moving directly
affects the pressure it is creating, and is the determining factor as to whether the pump is suitable
for your irrigation system. It is important to understand that pressure and flow have an inverse
relationship: as flow increases, pressure in the pump decreases.
Factors Affecting Pump Performance

For each model there are two variables which affect the pump performance. The first is the
horsepower of the motor attached to the pump. Remember, what we commonly refer to as a
pump is actually a pump and motor. The pump is the part that moves the water; the motor is the
part that moves the pump. Most pumps can be attached to several different sizes of motor. Bigger
motors mean more volume and pressure.
The second variable is the size of the impeller. The impeller spins inside the case and this is what
moves the water. Larger impellers fit tighter in the case leaving less room for slippage. This
results in higher pressures. But we don‟t alw what you need just waste energy.

Pump selection
Significant opportunities exist to reduce pumping system energy consumption through smart
design, retrofitting, and operating practices. Operating characteristics as supplied by the
manufacturer include relationships between flow rate, pumping head, rotational speed, and
power required. Optimum pump selection for agriculture depends on consideration of the
following:
(i) Discharge rate required
(ii) Source of water
(iii) Well characteristics (if applicable)
(iv) Quality of water to be pumped
(v) Type, grade, and characteristics of the pump
Special attention must be given to the pumping plant when the irrigation system changes, as may
occur when groundwater levels decline or operating pressure changes due to changing the type of
irrigation system. Such changes may result in temptation to ad or more pumps together into a common
distribution pipeline. These changes require a careful
assessment if the desired result is to be achieved. Economic operation of the entire irrigation
system can depend upon proper selection of the pump, power unit, and fuel type as well as
proper routine maintenance, testing, and adjustment. The performance of a pump varies
depending on how much water the pump is moving and the pressure it is creating.
This is an important relationship because (i) it determines whether the pump is suitable for your
irrigation system, and (ii) it is the pump characteristics which allow you to control the operation
of your pump.
Procedure for Selecting a Pump
All pumps have oddities and special and unique requirements. Before installing a new pump, it is
better to read the manufacturer‟s manual.
The basic procedure for selecting a pump for a new irrigation system is summarized below:
Estimate your flow (GPM) and pressure (feet of head) requirements and select a preliminary
pump model to use.
(b) Using your preliminary pump information, create a first draft irrigation design.
(c) Once you have a first draft of your irrigation, you may be able to fine tune your pump
selection based on that design. Would a different pump lower your irrigation costs or better fit
your irrigation system design? Return to the pump selection process and re-evaluate your pump
selection. Make your final pump selection.
(d) Return once again to your irrigation design. Can it be fine-tuned to better match your final
pump selection? Make any necessary adjustments.

Although this method requires considerable effort, it will give one an excellent balance between
pump and irrigation system, leaving one with a very efficient irrigation system.
2.4.11 Pump Curves and pump characteristics curves

A pump curve (or pump performance curve) is a simple graph which shows the performance
characteristics of a particular pump. Pump curves are created by the pump manufacturer based
on test results of the various pump models the manufacturer produces.
The pump manufacturer should be able to provide you with performance curves for the pumps
you are considering. Here is a sample pump curve for study
Figure-10: schematic of a pump performance curve
Each pump curve typically reflects a single model of pump made by the manufacturer.
At the top right of the chart it gives the pump speed. Finding the proper pump is just a matter of
selecting a model and size that will produce both the head and GPM that you need. To do this,
you select the horsepower and impeller size that will give you the desired performance.
The red color curved lines (the top one in represent the various impeller sizes. The green color straight lines
represent the motor horsepower ratings available for this pump. Together the impeller curves and
horsepower lines
represent the best performance the pump is capable of, if that horsepower or impeller size is
selected. Some pump curves do not have horsepower lines, and some pump curves combine the
horsepower and impeller lines into one single line. This is usually because the pump only is
available with one motor, so you don t get to select the horsepower. The pump may also only
come with one size of impeller, so you will only see a single line on the entire pump curve.
To use the curves, you select the pressure you want on the left and then move horizontally
across the chart to the vertical line that corresponds with the flow (GPM) that you want. You

then select an impeller size curve and horsepower line that are above this point to determine the
impeller size and horsepower you will need for your pump.
For example, a farmer wants a pump that produces 120 ft of head while pumping 100 gal/min
(GPM). For that, start at 120 ft head on the left of the pump curve. Now move straight across the
curve to the right until you reach the line that goes down to 100 GPM on the bottom of the curve.
From the point where the two lines intersect move up the chart to see what horsepower pump
will be needed. In this case a 5hp will be needed, as the next horsepower line above the
intersection point is the 5 hp line. Similarly, the impeller curve must also be higher in the chart
than our line intersection, so a 6.00 in. diameter impeller will work.
For the case the curve is midway between the 5.00 in. curve and the 6.00 in. curve, then you
would need a 5.50 in. impeller.
On many pump curves, additional set of ellipses labeled “efficiency” or simply labeled on them exists. These
ellipses indicate the efficiency of the pump. To use them, simply
look for the smallest ellipse that your line intersection point is inside. This is the efficiency at
which the pump will operate. A high-efficiency pump uses less energy to operate than a low-
efficiency pump. It is better to avoid any pump that has an efficiency of less than 60%.
Pump Selection Based on Pump Characteristics and Well

Characteristics
Pump can be selected based on the well characteristics, which best suits for the particular well. In
this approach, the well-characteristic curve is drawn with the same scale as that of pump
characteristic curve, made a copy on tracing paper.
Then the well-characteristic curve is placed over the pump curve (supplied by the manufacturer).
From the matching (intersection), a pump is selected.
2.4.12 Pumping Plant Evaluation

Pumping system efficiency can contribute substantially to energy saving. Pumping plant
evaluation requires a pump test, which checks the flow rate capacity, lift, discharge pressure
and/or velocity, rated discharge capacity, and input horsepower.
Pump discharge can be measured by flow meter, flume (at the vicinity of the pump outlet) or by
the coordinate method. Pump lift can be estimated by measuring the depth to water table during
non-pumping period using water-level indicator, or at least by inserting a rope with load up to
the water table and measuring the distance with a tap. Rated discharge capacity of the pump can
be read from the ormanufacturer‟sthepumpratingwrittenonthe pumpanualbody.If mechanical
engine is used to power the pump, its capacity can be read from its rating seal or manual.
If an electrical motor is used to operate the pump, power consumption by the motor can be measured-Onby
meter”“Clip-metore”“Multiorfrom thereadingchangeinthe in “electric meter”Ratedforcapacity
ofathecertainmotorcanberead fromperioditsbody..
Knowing the above information, overall pumping plant efficiency and efficiency of each
component (such as motor or engine efficiency, pump efficiency) can be calculated.

2.5 SAMPLE WORKOUT PROBLEMS ON PUMPING STATION
Example
1. Determine the net positive suction head available at the pump inlet from the following
data: suction head = 5 m friction loss = 1 m vapor pressure of the liquid at water
temperature = 0.5 m barometric (or atmospheric) pressure at pump level = 10 m
Solution
We know, net positive suction head available
NPSHa = BP −SH −FL −VP
Given,
Barometric pressure at pump level, BP = 10 m
Suction head, SH = 5 m
Friction loss, FL = 1 m
Vapor pressure of the liquid, VP = 0.5 m
Putting the values, NPSHa = 10 −5 −1 −0.5 = 3.5 m (Ans)
2. A centrifugal pump has been installed to a depth of 35 m. The pump is discharging 2.5 cusec
(ft3/s) water. Determine the capacity of the motor to operate the pump.
Assume motor efficiency of 82%.
Solution
Given,
Q = 2.5 ft3/s = 0.0708 m3/s [1 m3 = 35.3 ft3]
Hd = 35 m
Em = 82% = 0.82
Taking discharge velocity of water = 2.0 m/s, velocity head= V2/2g
= (2.0)2/(2 × 9.81)
= 0.2038 m
Assuming friction loss = 5% of discharge head= 5 × 35/100 = 1.75m
Total head, H = discharge head + friction head + velocity head
= 25 + 1.75 + 0.204
= 36.95m
We get, power of the motor, Pm = Q×9.81×H/Em = 0.0708×9.81×36.95
= 31.31kW (Ans.)
3. A submersible pump lifts 70,500 l of water/h against a total head of 25 m. Determine the
power requirement to lift the water in (i) kilowatt, and (ii) horse power.
Solution
Given,
Q = 70,500 l/h = 0.0195833
m3/s H = 25 m
(i) We know, power, P = Q × 9.81 × H = 0.0195833 × 9.81 × 25

= 4.833 kW (Ans.)
(ii) We know, 1 kW = 1.341 hp
Thus, P = 4.803 × 1.341 hp = 6.441 hp (Ans.)
4. In a wheat growing area, the cultivable land is 80 ha and wheat will be cultivated to all of
the lands. The permissible interval between two irrigations at peak period is
15 days and the depth of irrigation required for that particular soil & agro-climatic region at peak
period is 6.0 cm. If the total head for pumping is 25 m, pump efficiency is 85%, motor efficiency
is 80%, and the maximum allowable operating period of the pump is 16 h/day, determine:
(a) The pump capacity required for that command area,
(b) Capacity of the motor
Solution
Given,
A = 80 ha = 800,000 m2
Irri. Interval = 15 days
Depth of irri., d = 6cm= 0.06 m
Daily pump operating period = 16 h
Total head, H = 25 m
Pump efficiency, Ep = 85% = 0.85
Motor efficiency,Em = 80%
We get, total volume of water required for irrigation in 15
days, V = (800, 000 m2 × 0.06 m)
= 48,000 m3
Total pumping period in 15 days, t = 15 × 16 × 3, 600 = 864, 000 s
(a) Pump capacity,Q = V/t = 48,000/864,000 = 0.05556 m3/s (Ans.)
(b) Considering pump efficiency, capacity of the motor (output rated capacity),
Pm = (Q × 9.81 × H)/Ep = (0.05556 × 9.81 × 25)/0.85
= 16.03kW
(c) Rated capacity of the motor = Pm/Em = 16.03/0.8 = 20.04 kW (Ans.)
5. Maize crop of 20 ha is to be irrigated from a submergible pump. The maximum

permissible interval between two irrigations at peak period is 12 days and the depth of
each irrigation is 60 mm. If the maximum allowable operating period of the pump is 10
h/day, determine the pump capacity to meet the water demand of the farm.
Solution
Area of the field,A = 20 ha = 200,000 m2
Depth of irri. req., d = 60mm = 0.06m
Max. interval period = 12 days
Daily max. pumping period = 10 h

We get, total volume of water to be discharged in 12 days, V = A × d
= 200, 000 × 0.06 m3
= 12,000 m3
Total pumping period in 12 days, t = (12 × 10) × 60 × 60 = 332, 000 s
Pumping rate or pump capacity required, Q = V/t = 12, 000/432, 000
= 0.027778m3/s (Ans.) Or, 0.98154 ft3/s (or cfs or cusec) [Since 1 ft3/s = 0.0283 m3/s
6. In a residential area having population of 2,000 and expected population growth rate of
5%, the average daily water demand per capita is 100 l/day. Projecting for a time period
of 30 years, determine the required capacity of the pump to satisfy the water demand of
that area. Assume that the pump can be operated 8 h/day at its maximum. If the pump is
installed at 25 m below the ground surface, the velocity head of the flowing water is 1.5
m/s, friction loss in the discharge pipe and within pump casing is 10% of the discharge
head, determine the optimum size of the motor to operate the pump.
Solution
Given,
Present population, P = 2,000 nos
Growth rate,r = 5% = 0.05
Projection time period in yr,t = 30
Daily per capita water = 100 l
We get, population after 30 yrs = P(1 + r)t = 2,000 (1 + 0.05)30 = 8,
643.9 Assuming no change in per capita demand, daily total demand (V)
will be = 8, 643.9 × 100 = 864, 390 l = 864.39 m3
Daily pump operating period, t = 8 h = 8 × 3600 = 28,800
s Pump discharge rate req., Q = V/t = 0.030 m3/s (Ans.)
Given, delivery head, Hd = 25 m
Velocity of flowing water, v = 1.5m/s
Thus, velocity head, Hv = v2 = (0.5)2/(2 × 9.81) = 0.115 m
Friction loss (or friction head), Hf = 25 × 10/100 = 2.5 m
Thus, total head, H = Hd + Hv + Hf = 25 + 0.115 + 2.5 =
27.625m Power required to deliver the water, P = Q × 9.81 × H
= 0.030 × 9.81 × 27.625 = 8.13kW
Considering efficiency of the pump = 80%
Capacity of the motor, Pm = P/Ep = 8.13/0.80 = 10.16 kW (Ans.)
7. Four pumps are connected in series, each one pumping 30 GPM at 25 PSI. What is
the total output in flow volume and pressure?
Solution
Total flow = 30 GPM,
Total pressure = 25 + 25 + 25 + 25 = 100 PSI

8. Four pumps are connected in parallel, each one pumping 30 GPM at 25 PSI. What is the
total output in flow volume and pressure?
Total pressure = 25 PSI,
Total flow= 25 + 25 + 25 + 25 = 100 GPM
CHAP-3: SPRINKLER IRRIGATION SYSTEM

3.1 INTRODUCTION
In the sprinkler method of irrigation, water is sprayed into the air and allowed to fall on the
ground surface somewhat resembling rainfall. The spray is developed by the flow of water under
pressure through small orifices or nozzles. The pressure is usually obtained by pumping. With
careful selection of nozzle sizes, operating pressure and sprinkler spacing the amount of
irrigation water required to refill the crop root zone can be applied nearly uniform at the rate to
suit the infiltration rate of soil.
3.2 ADVANTAGES OF SPRINKLER IRRIGATION

  Elimination of the channels for conveyance, therefore no conveyance loss 
 
 Suitable to all types of soil except heavy clay

Suitable for irrigating crops where the plant population  per unit area is very high. It is most
suitable for oil seeds and other cereal and vegetable crops
 
 Water saving


Closer control of water application convenient for giving light and frequent irrigation and higher
water application efficiency
  Increase in yield 
  Mobility of system

  May also be used for undulating area


  Saves land as no bunds etc. are required


  Influences greater conducive micro-climate


  Areas located at a higher elevation than the source can be irrigated


  Possibility of using soluble fertilizers and chemicals


 
Less problem of clogging of sprinkler nozzles due to sediment laden water

3.3 GENERAL CLASSIFICATION OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF SPRINKLER

SYSTEMS
Sprinkler systems are classified into the following two major types on the basis of the
arrangement for spraying irrigation water.
1. Rotating head or revolving sprinkler system.
2. Perforated pipe system.

1) Rotating head:
Small size nozzles are placed on riser pipes fixed at uniform intervals along the length of
the lateral pipe and the lateral pipes are usually laid on the ground surface. They may also
be mounted on posts above the crop height and rotated through 90 0, to irrigate a
rectangular strip. In rotating type sprinklers, the most common device to rotate the
sprinkler heads is with a small hammer activated by the thrust of water striking against a
vane connected to it.
Figure-11: Example of a few rotating type sprinkler irrigation system

2) Perforated pipe system:
This method consists of drilled holes or nozzles along their length through which water is
sprayed under pressure. This system is usually designed for relatively low pressure (1 kg/cm2).
The application rate ranges from 1.25 to 5 cm per hour for various pressure and spacing. Based
on the portability, sprinkler systems are classified into the following types:
(i) Portable system: A portable system has portable main lines, laterals and pumping plant.
Figure-12: Fully portable sprinkler irrigation system

(ii) Semi portable system: A semi portable system is similar to a portable system except that the
location of water source and pumping plant is fixed.
(iii) Semi permanent system: A semi permanent system has portable lateral lines, permanent
main lines and sub mains and a stationery water source and pumping plant.
(iv)Solid set system: A solid set system has enough laterals to eliminate their movement. The
laterals are positions in the field early in the crop season and remain for the season.
(v) Permanent system: A fully permanent system consists of permanently laid mains, sub mains
and laterals and a stationery water source and pumping plant.
3.4 COMPONENTS OF SPRINKLER IRRIGATION SYSTEM

The components of portable sprinkler system are shown through fig .3. A sprinkler system
usually consists of the following components
(i) A pump unit
(ii) Tubings- main/submains and laterals
(iii) Couplers
(iv)Sprinker head
(v) Other accessories such as valves, bends, plugs and risers.
Figure-13: Component of a portable sprinkler irrigation system

(i) Pumping Unit: Sprinkler irrigation systems distribute water by spraying it over the
fields. The water is pumped under pressure to the fields. The pressure forces the water
through sprinklers or through perforations or nozzles in pipelines and then forms a
spray. A high speed centrifugal or turbine pump can be used for operating sprinkler
irrigation for individual fields. Centrifugal pump is used when the distance from the
pump inlet to the water surface is less than eight meters. For pumping water from
deep wells or more than eight meters, a turbine pump is suggested. The driving unit
may be either an electric motor or an internal combustion engine.
(ii) (ii) Tubings: Mains/submains and laterals: The tubings consist of mainline,
submanins and laterals. Main line conveys water from the source and distributes it to
the submains. The submains convey water to the laterals which in turn supply water
to the sprinklers. Aluminum or PVC pipes are generally used for portable systems,
while steel pipes are usually used for center-pivot laterals. Asbestos, cement, PVC
and wrapped steel are usually used for buried laterals and main lines.
(iii) (iii) Couplers: Couplers are used for connecting two pipes and uncoupling quickly
and easily. Essentially a coupler should provide
(a) A reuse and flexible connection
(b) Not leak at the joint
(c) Be simple and easy to couple and uncouple
(d) Be light, non-corrosive, durable.
(iv) Sprinkler Head: Sprinkler head distribute water uniformly over the field without
runoff or excessive loss due to deep percolation. Different types of sprinklers are
available. They are either rotating or fixed type. The rotating type can be adapted for
a wide range of application rates and spacing. They are effective with pressure of
about 10 to 70 m head at the sprinkler. Pressures ranging from 16 to 40 m head are
considered the most practical for most farme
Figure-14 Sprinkler head

Fixed head sprinklers are commonly used to irrigate small lawns and gardens. Perforated lateral
lines are sometimes used as sprinklers. They require less pressure than rotating sprinklers. They
release more water per unit area than rotating sprinklers. Hence fixed head sprinklers are
adaptable for soils with high intake rate.
(v) Fittings and accessories: The following are some of the important fittings and accessories
used in sprinkler system.
(a) Water meters: It is used to measure the volume of water delivered. This is necessary to
operate the system to give the required quantity of water.
(b) Flange, couplings and nipple used for proper connection to the pump, suction and delivery.
(c) Pressure gauge: It is necessary to know whether the sprinkler system is working with desired
pressure to ensure application uniformity.
(d) Bend, tees, reducers, elbows, hydrants, butterfly valve and plugs.
(e) Fertilizer applicator: Soluble chemical fertilizers can be injected into the sprinkler system and
applied to the crop. The equipment for fertilizer application is relatively cheap and simple and
can be fabricated locally. The fertilizer applicator consists of a sealed fertilizer tank with
necessary tubings and connections. A venturi injector can be arranged in the main line, which
creates the differential pressure suction and allows the fertilizer solution to flow in the main
water line.
3.5 GENERAL RULES FOR SPRINKLER SYSTEM DESIGN
  Main should be laid up and down hill 

 
 Lateral should be laid across the slope or nearly on the contour

For multiple lateral operation, lateral pipe sizes should not be more than two diameter Water
supply source should be nearest to the center of the area
 
 Layout should facilitate and minimize lateral movement during the season

  should be considered where small portion of field would require high pressure at
Booster pump
the pump

Layout should be modified  to apply different rates and amounts of water where soils are greatly
different in the design area.

Figure-15: layout of sprinkler irrigation system
3.6 SYSTEM SELECTION

While selecting a sprinkler system, the most important physical parameters to be considered are:
1. The crop or crops to be cultivated.
2. The shape and size (acres) of the field.
3. The topography of the field.
4. The amount of time and labor required to operate the system.
3.6.1 Selecting sprinkler system capacity

A sprinkler system must be designed to apply water uniformly without runoff or erosion. The
application rate of the sprinkler system must be matched to the infiltration rate of the most
restrictive soil in the field. If the application rate exceeds the soil intake rate, the water will
runoff the field or relocate within the field resulting in over and under watered areas.
The sprinkler system capacity is the flow rate needed to adequately irrigate an area and is
expressed in liters per minute per acre. The system capacity depends upon on the: Peak crop
water requirements during the growing season; effective crop rooting depth; texture and
infiltration rate of the soil; the available water holding capacity of the soil; pumping capacity of
the well or wells (if wells are the water source).

3.7 CONSTRAINTS IN APPLICATION OF SPRINKLER IRRIGATION
(i) Uneven water distribution due to high winds
(ii) Evaporation loss when operating under high temperatures
(iii) Highly impermeable soils are not suitable
(iv) Initial cost is high
(v) Proper design
(vi) Lack of Package of practices
(vii) Lack of awareness
(viii) Lack of social concern to save natural resources
(ix) High water pressure required in sprinkler (>2.5kg/cm2)
(x) Difficulty in irrigation during wind in sprinkler
3.8 DESIGN OF SRPINKLER IRRIGATION SYSTEM
3.8.1 INTRODUCTION
A sprinkler irrigation system generally includes sprinklers, laterals, submains, main pipelines,
pumping plants and boosters, operational control equipment and other accessories required for
efficient water application. In some cases, sprinkler systems may be pressurized by gravity and
therefore pumping plants may not be required.
The planning and design of irrigation systems should aim at maximizing the returns and
minimizing both the initial capital outlay and the costs per unit volume of water used, thus
contributing both directly and indirectly to the overall reduction of the production costs and the
increase of returns. In other words, planning and design is a process of optimizing resources.
The procedure for designing sprinkler systems can be divided into two phases:
1. Preliminary design steps
2. Adjustment or final design steps
Preliminary design steps comprise the procedure for synthesizing farm data in order to determine
preliminary design parameters, which will be needed in the final design adjustment process. The
final design steps reconcile the preliminary design parameters obtained with the irrigation
equipment performance characteristics, as well as human, physical and financial factors. In fact,
the final adjustment of the design is the process of selecting the appropriate irrigation system
components for the specific circumstances.
3.8.2 Principles of preliminary design

The first step in the preliminary design phase is the collection of basic farm data. The data
include:


topographic map showing: The proposed irrigated area, with contour lines, farm and
field boundaries and water source or sources, Power points such as electricity lines, in
  and area to be irrigated, roads and other relevant general features
relation to water source
such as obstacles


Data on water resources, quantity and quality over time, on water rights and on cost of water
where applicable
 
 The climate of the area and its influence on the water requirements of the selected crops
 
 The soil characteristics and their compatibility with the crops and irrigation system proposed

The types of crops intended to be grown and their compatibility with both the climate in
 water availability and the soils; current agricultural practices should be
the area, the
identified
The next step is to analyze the farm data in order to determine the following preliminary design
parameters:
 
 Peak and total irrigation water requirements
  Infiltration rate of soils to be irrigated maximum net depth of water application per irrigation 
  Irrigation frequency and cycle

  
Gross depth of water application
 
 Preliminary system capacity
3.8.2 Principles of design adjustment
Once the preliminary design parameters are determined, the next phase is to reconcile them with
the performance of the irrigation equipment and arrive at the final design.
The final design steps involve:

  Identification of irrigation system options with farmer participation 
  
Preparation of system layout for the field shape and topography
  
The hydraulic design and iterative adjustments
 
 Irrigation equipment selection taking into consideration economic and financial aspects

 system selection as well as options, taking into consideration farmers'
Final irrigation
preferences,

3.8.3 Preliminary sprinkler irrigation design steps
The preliminary design factors that need to be established are: depth of water application per
irrigation, irrigation frequency, duration of irrigation per set and required system capacity (flow
rate). All these design parameters are derived from the data on climate, water, soil and plant.
Figure-16.Hand-moved sprinkler system using two laterals- (Laterals 1 and 2 in position 2)
3.8.4 Determination of design parameters
3.8.4.1 Net depth of water application

The depth of water application is the quantity of water, which should be applied during irrigation
in order to replenish the water used by the crop during evapotranspiration. The computation of
the net depth of water application requires the following inputs:
  The available soil moisture (FC-PWP) 
  The allowable soil moisture depletion (P)

 
The effective root zone depth of the crop (RZD)

The maximum net depth to be applied per irrigation can be calculated, using the following
equation:
dnet = (FC-PWP) x RZD x P
Where:
dnet = readily available moisture or net depth of water application per irrigation for the selected
crop (mm)
FC = soil moisture at field capacity (mm/m)
PWP = soil moisture at the permanent wilting point (mm/m)
RZD = the depth of soil that the roots exploit effectively (m)
P = the allowable portion of available moisture permitted for depletion by the crop before the
next irrigation
3.8.4.2 Computation of volume of water application

In order to express the depth of water in terms of the volume, the area proposed for irrigation
must be multiplied by the depth
Volume of water to be applied (m3) V = 10 x A x d
Where:
A = area proposed for irrigation (ha)
d = depth of water application (mm)
Example 1
The following soil and crop data are provided:
Area to be irrigated = 18 ha
  Soil: medium texture, loam 
 Crop: Wheat with peak daily water use = 5.8 mm/day 
  Available moisture (FC-PWP) = 140 mm/m 
  P = 50% or 0.5 
  RZD = 0.7 m 
  Soil infiltration rate = 5-6 mm/hr 
 Average wind velocity in September = 10 km/hr 

 Average wind velocity in October = 11 km/hr
What
 is the maximum net depth of water application? 
Solution 

Using Equation 1, dnet can be computed as
follows: dnet = 140 x 0.7 x 0.5 = 49 mm 

For an area of 18 ha, using Equation 2, a net application of 8 820 m3 (10 x 18 x 49) of water will
be required per irrigation to bring the root zone depth of the soil from the 50% allowable
depletion level to the field capacity. 

3.8.4.3 Irrigation frequency at peak demand and irrigation cycle
The peak daily water use is the peak daily water requirement of the crop determined by
subtracting the rainfall (if any) from the peak daily crop water requirements.
Irrigation frequency is the time it takes the crop to deplete the soil moisture at a given soil
moisture depletion level.
After establishing the net depth of water application, the irrigation frequency at peak water
demand should be determined using the following equation:
Irrigation frequency (IF) =dnet

/wu Where:
IF = irrigation frequency (days)
dnet = net depth of water application
(mm) wu = peak daily water use (mm/day)
Different crops require different amounts of water at the different stages of growth.
Example 2
The peak demand for wheat was estimated to be 5.8 mm/day. Therefore, using Equation 3 and
the same data of Example 1:
Irrigation Frequency (IF) =49 m= 8.4 days
5.8 mm/day
The system should be designed to provide 49 mm every 8.4 days. For practical purposes,
fractions of days are not used for irrigation frequency purposes.
Hence the irrigation frequency in our example should be 8 days, with a corresponding dnet of
46.4 mm (5.8x 8) and a moisture depletion of 0.47 (46.4/(140 x0.7)).
3.8.4.4 Gross depth of water application
The gross depth of water application (dgross) equals the net depth of irrigation divided by the
farm irrigation efficiency.
It should be noted that farm irrigation efficiency includes possible losses of water from pipe
leaks.
dgross =dnet/E
Where:
E = the farm (or unit) irrigation efficiency.
Example 3
Assuming a moderate climate for the area under consideration and applying Equation 4, the
gross depth of irrigation should be: dgross =46.4/0.75= 61.87 mm

3.8.4.5 System capacity
The next step is to estimate the system capacity. The system capacity (Q), can be calculated
using Equation 5:
Q =10 x A x dgross
I x Ns x T
Where:
Q = system capacity (m3/hr)
A = design area (ha)
d = gross depth of water application
(mm) I = irrigation cycle (days)
Ns = number of shifts per day
T = irrigation time per shift (hr)
Example 4
In our example, the area to be irrigated is 18 ha. In order to achieve the maximum degree of
equipment utilization, it is desirable, but not always necessary, that the irrigation system should
operate for 11 hours per shift at 2 shifts per day during peak demand and take an irrigation cycle
of 7 days to complete irrigating the 18 ha.
Substituting the values in Equation 5 gives a system capacity
of: Q =10 x 18 x 61.87= 72.3 m3/hr
7 x 2 x 11
Table-1: performance of sprinklers

.
3.8.4.6 Precipitation Rate

Precipitation rate (Pr) is the rate at which water is delivered from the nozzle, averaged as
millimeters per hour, over the area covered by one nozzle (Hill, 2008). It can be calculated by the
following formula:
Pr (mm/h) = (nozzle flow rate, l/h)/ (area covered, m2)
3.8.4.7 Application Rate

Application rate (Ar) is the average rate at which water is stored in the soil.
Ar = Precipitation rate × Application efficiency
Application rate should be related to infiltration rate of the soil, should not be greater than the
infiltration rate in order to prevent surface runoff and/or ponding.
The application rate of an existing system can be calculated as follows:
I = 3, 600 × qs
Sm × Sl
Where
I = application rate (mm/h)
qs = discharge per sprinkler (l/s)
Sm = lateral spacing along mainline
(m) Sl = sprinkler spacing along lateral
(m) 3,600 = unit conversion factor
3.8.4.8 Duration of Irrigation
The duration of irrigation (Dir) needed to store the crop irrigation requirement in the root zone is
as follows:
Irrigation duration (h)
= Crop irrigation requirements (mm)/Application rate (mm/h)

3.8.4.9 Average Application Depth
The average application depth is the average amount applied throughout the field. It can be
computed as
dav = V/A
Where dav is the average application depth (m), V is the volume pumped (m3), and
A is the application area (m2).
Considerations in Sprinkler Design

•Main line capacity should be based on the water demand of the target crop considering peak use
rate, minimum irrigation interval, and minimum operating hours per day.
•Application rate should not exceed soil intake rate.
•The minimum design application rate should meet the maximum total daily wet soil evaporation
rate (for deficit irrigation plan, it will be different).
•When determining capacity requirements, allowance should be made for reasonable water
losses during application (i.e., should consider application efficiency).
•Maximum spacing of sprinklers should not be greater than 75%, and no closer than 50% of wetted diameter
listed in manufacturer‟s perf
•Riser pipes used in lateral lines should be high enough to minimize interference with the
distribution pattern.
•The velocity and direction of prevailing winds and the timing of occurrence should be
considered when planning a sprinkler system.
•Coefficient of uniformity (CU) data or distribution uniformity (DU) should be used in selecting
sprinkler spacing, nozzle size, and operating pressure.
3.8.4.10 Design Principles

•Estimate application rate based on planned crop(s)/cropping patterns, atmospheric water
demand, and soil intake rate.
•Draw a layout.
•Optimize sprinkler spacing (between sprinklers and laterals), nozzle size, and operating pressure
that provide the design application rate and distribution pattern.
•Design sub-mains, main lines, and supply lines such that required water quantities can be
conveyed to all operating lateral lines at required pressures.
•Design pump and power units such that they are adequate to efficiently operate the sprinkler
system at design capacity and total dynamic head.

3.8.4.11 Design Steps and Procedures
(1) Determine the daily maximum supply requirement for an area (A) for the target crop as
VA = A × ETmax/Ea
Where
VA = Required volume of water for the area A (m3)
A = Specific area that is to be irrigated (m2)
ETmax = Daily maximum evapotranspiration (m)
Ea = Design application efficiency of the sprinkler
ETmax can be calculated as

ETmax=Kc×ET0
Where
Kc = crop-coefficient at peak water demand period
ET0 = reference evapotranspiration at peak water demand period
Note: For specific application, when some soil moisture deficit is allowed, ET can be calculated
as follows:
ETmax=Kc × Ks × ET0
Where Ks is the soil moisture stress coefficient.
(2) Determine discharge rate (Q) for the area A based on the minimum operating hour.
QA(m3/h) = VA/t(h)(m3)
(3) Optimize sprinkler and lateral spacing for the individual sprinkler discharge rate and
application rate (which is constrained by the soil infiltration rate) from the following
relationship:
q = Sm × Sl × I
Where
Sl = sprinkler spacing along laterals (m)
Sm = lateral spacing along mainline
(m) I = average application rate (m/h)
q = discharge rate for the individual sprinkler (m3/h) [for the area
2
(Sm×Sl)m
I = QA
A
If not limited by soil intake rate.
Sl = Dml[1 –F]

2
Where Dml is the manufacturer‟s ratedFisthe overlappingwetting di factor
Sm = Dmm[1 −F ]
2
Where Dmm is the manufacture‟s rated wettingFisthe di overlapping factor
Overlapping factor is normally taken as 0.5–0.75. For windy condition, overlapping factor may
be as high as 1.0.
(4) Number of sprinklers, n = A/ Sl × Sm

(5) Determine system capacity as
Where: where i is the number of sub-area A ”like “
(6) Determine the power requirement to pump the water for a sprinkler system as
P = QST × 9.81 × HT
Where
P = power, KW
QST = total discharge rate for the system, m3/s
HT = total pumping head, m
Total head consists of the following: HT = Hm + Hf + Hr + Hs + Hsf
Where
Hm = pressure head required to operate the sprinklers at minimum required pressure (m)
Hf = total frictional head in the lines (m)
Hr = maximum riser height from the pump level (m)
Hs = suction head (vertical difference between pump level and source water level after
drawdown) (m) (if needed)
Hsf = friction head loss in suction line (if suction line exists)
General Guideline for Minimum Pressure of Sprinkler Irrigation System

The following pressure estimates can be used as a general guide or thumb rule for sprinkler
pressure:
Spray type sprinkler head = 40 PSI (93 ft head)

Rotor type sprinkler head = 45 PSI (104 ft head)
3.8.5 Theoretical Aspects in Sprinkler System
3.8.5.1Design Aspects
Design aspects of sprinkler irrigation system are as follows:
  System layout 
  Operating pressure, nozzle diameter, sprinklers discharge, and wetted diameter

  Spacing between sprinklers and laterals


  Design of main line and sublines


  Sprinkler line azimuth


  Pivot or ranger length


  System capacity for water supply


 
Pump design
The most common design criteria for sprinkler laterals is that sprinkler discharge should not vary
by more than 10% between the points of highest and lowest pressure in the system
3.8.5.2 Water Distribution Pattern

In sprinkler system, the precipitation rate of water decreases from the center of the irrigated
circle to its edges. To overcome the problem, sprinklers are spaced in such a way that their
application rates overlap each other and cover the nonuniformities.
Figure-17: Schematic of application pattern of a sprinkler (after Zazueta and Miller, 2000)

3.8.5.3 Factors to Be Considered in Sprinkler Design
For proper design of sprinkler, factors to be considered (in addition to spacing, nozzle size) are
as follows: crop root zone depth, water use rate, wind, air temperature, and humidity. Wind
affects the distribution pattern of water by both wind speed and direction.
Equipment and design factors affecting uniformity and efficiency include nozzle type and size,
operating pressure, and spacing. The length of the irrigation time can also affect uniformity
(Solomon, 1990).
Definition of Some Relevant Terminologies
Sample Workout Problems
1. In a sprinkler irrigation system, the lateral spacing along the mainline is 20 m and
sprinkler spacing along laterals is 15 m. The application rate for fulfilling the peak
demand of the proposed crop should be 8 mm/d. Find the discharge rate per sprinkler.
Solution
Another Mode of Operation
If we consider that the daily demand should be provided within a certain practical irrigation
period, say in 4 h, to avoid excessive evaporation loss, then the application rate would be I = 8
mm/4 h = 2 mm/h
Thus, qs= 0.1667 l/s or 600 l/h (Ans.)

2. In a sprinkler irrigation system, the required total capacity of the system is 0.5 m3/s.
Determine the pump capacity. Assume that head loss in pipe and bends and velocity head
required = 3 m of water.
Solution
Pump capacity, P = (Q × 9.81 × H) [KW]
Here Q = 0.5 m3/s
Total head = 3 m
Putting the values, P = 0.5 ×9.81 × 3 = 14.7 KW (Ans.)
3. A farm of 25 ha is planned to be brought under sprinkler irrigation. The textural class of

the soil is loam-to-silt loam, having moisture content at field capacity (FC) and
permanent wilting point (WP) of about 42% (by volume) and 26% (by volume),
respectively. An infiltration test data showed that constant (basic) infiltration rate is 2
mm/h. A hardpan (relatively impervious layer) exists at a depth of 2.0 m below the soil
surface. Long-term average reference evapotranspiration (ET0) rate in that area is 4.5
mm/d. Vegetable crops are planned to grow in the farm, and the crop coefficient (Kc) at
maximum vegetative period is 1.1. The climate is moderately windy in a part of the
season. Design the sprinkler irrigation system (various components) for the farm. Assume
standard value of any missing data.
Solution
Given,
Area, A= 25 ha = 250,000 m2
FC = 42% (by vol.)
WP= 26%
Ic = 2 mm/h
ET0 = 4.5 mm/d
Kc= 1.1
Dimp = 2 m below soil surface
Wind status: moderately windy
Now, the solution steps:
(1) ETmax = ET0 × Kc = 4.5 × 1.1 = 4.95 mm/d

(Assuming depletion of soil-moisture up to readily available level, so that ET occurs at its
maximum rate, i.e., soil moisture stress factor, Ks =1)
(2) Daily water requirement for the area, A (i.e., for whole farm here) is
VA = A × ETmax/Ea

Assuming application efficiency, Ea= 80%, i.e., 0.8
Then, VA = 250, 000 × (4.95/1000)/0.8 = 1,546.875 m3
(3) Discharge rate, Qt = VA/t

Here, t= irrigation period = 4 h (assuming for the prevailing windy
condition) Thus, Qt= 1,546.875/ (4×3,600) = 0.1074 m3/s
(4) Discharge rate of individual sprinkler, q = Sm ×Sl×

I Sm= Dmm (1 –F/2)
Sl= Dml(1 –F/2)
Assuming overlapping factor, F = 0.7 (higher for windy condition)
Taking a manufacturer rated wetting diameter for mainline and lateral sprinkler as 12 m and 10
m, respectively, we get
Sm= 12 (1 –0.7/2) = 7.8
Sl= 10 (1 –0.7/2) = 6.5
Application rate, I = QA/A = (0.1074×3600)/250,000 = 4.296×10–7 m/h = 1.5468 mm/h, which
is less than the soil infiltration rate.
Here, assuming I = 2 mm/h (to minimizing evaporation loss in windy climate)
Putting the values, q = [7.8 × 6.5 × (2/1,000)] × (1,000/60) = 1.69 l/min
(5) Number of sprinklers, n = A/Sm × Sl= 250, 000/ (7.8 × 6.5) =4,930.9 ≈4,931 nos
Note: The above calculation is for fixed lateral. If moving lateral is used, no. of laterals should be
based on the maximum working /pump operating period.
Note that each setting requires 4 h for the above calculation, so 16/4 = 4 settings can be operated
if 16 h is the working period.
Besides, number of laterals should be based on the dimension of the land, lateral size available in
the market, etc.
(6) Power required (motor capacity required), P (KW)= Q (m3/s) ×9.81 × HT

(m) Here, Q = 0.1074 m3/s
HT = Hm + Hf + Hr + Hs + Hsf
Hm = pressure head required to operate the sprinklers at minimum required pressure (m) = 28.37
m (= 40 psi) (assuming)
Hf = total frictional head in the lines (m) ≈5% of Hm = 1.71 m (assuming/estimating)
Hr = maximum riser height from the pump level (m) = 1.5 m (assuming)
Hs = suction head (vertical difference between pump level and source water level after
drawdown) (m) (if needed) = 0 (assuming that water is pumped from the supply canal)
Hsf = friction head loss in suction line (if suction line exists) = 0
Thus, HT = 31.26 m
Thus, P = 0.1074 ×9.81 × 31.26 = 32.94 KW

(7) Summary design parameters are as
follows: Taking for fixed laterals:
Pump capacity: Qt= 0.1074 m3/s
Irrigation period = 4 h
Motor capacity: P = 32.94 KW
Lateral spacing along mainline: Sm = 7.8 m
Sprinkler spacing along lateral: Sl= 6.5 m
Number of total sprinklers: n = 4,931 nos (Ans.)
Tutorial - SPRINKLER DESIGN

Data supplied
Quick coupling system
ή = 70%
Eo = 8 mm/day
f = 0,9
ERD = 1200mm
ESD = 1500mm
Infiltration = 8mm/h
ά = 50%
WHC = 180mm/m
Rainfall = O mm
Wind Speed = 2km/h
Sprinkler Pressure= 300
kPa Pump ή = 72%
Determine
1. Delivery rate of source Q in m3/h
2. Applicable sprinkler spacing in metre X metre
3. Sprinkler delivery rate in m3/h
4. Lateral size in mm
5. Pressure and delivery of pump in kPa and m3/h
6. kW needed by pump
7. Number of sprinklers
8. Show lay-out on ma

CHAP-4 DRIP IRRIGATION SYSTEM
4.1 INTRODUCTION
Drip irrigation refers to application of water in small quantity at the rate of mostly less than 12
lph as drops to the zone of the plants through a network of plastic pipes fitted with emitters. Drip
irrigation in its present form has become compatible with plastics that are durable and easily
moulded into a variety and complexity of shapes required for pipe and emitters.
4.2 MERITS
1. Increased water use efficiency
2. Better crop yield
3. Uniform and better quality of the produce
4. Efficient and economic use or fertiliser through fertigation
5. Less weed growth
6. Minimum damage to the soil structure
7. Avoidance of leaf burn due to saline soil
8. Usage in undulating areas and slow permeable soil
9. Low energy requirement (i.e.) labour saving
10. High uniformity suitable for automization
4.3 DEMERITS
1. Clogging of drippers
2. Chemical precipitation
3. Salt accumulation at wetting front
4.4 ADAPTABILITY OF DRIP IRRIGATION SYSTEM
Drip irrigation is sometimes called trickle irrigation and involves dripping water onto the soil at
very low rates (2-20 litres/hour) from a system of small diameter plastic pipes fitted with outlets
called emitters or drippers. Water is applied close to plants so that only part of the soil in which
the roots grow is wetted, unlike surface and sprinkler irrigation, which involves wetting the
whole soil profile. With drip irrigation water, applications are more frequent (usually every 1-3
days) than with other methods and this provides a very favourable high moisture level in the soil
in which plants can flourish.

Suitable crops
Drip irrigation is most suitable for row crops (vegetables, soft fruit), tree and vine crops where
one or more emitters can be provided for each plant. Generally only high value crops are
considered because of the high capital costs of installing a drip system.

Suitable slopes

Drip irrigation is adaptable to any farmable slope. Normally the crop would be planted along
contour lines and the water supply pipes (laterals) would be laid along the contour also. This is
done to minimize changes in emitter discharge as a result of land elevation changes.

Suitable soils
Drip irrigation is suitable for most soils. On clay soils water must be applied slowly to avoid
surface water ponding and runoff. On sandy soils higher emitter discharge rates will be needed to
ensure adequate lateral wetting of the soil.

Suitable irrigation water
One of the main problems with drip irrigation is blockage of the emitters. All emitters have very
small waterways ranging from 0.2-2.0 mm in diameter and these can become blocked if the
water is not clean. Thus it is essential for irrigation water to be free of sediments. If this is not so
then filtration of the irrigation water will be needed.
Blockage may also occur if the water contains algae, fertilizer deposits and dissolved chemicals
which precipitate such as calcium and iron. Filtration may remove some of the materials but the
problem may be complex to solve and requires an experienced engineer or consultation with the
equipment dealer.
4.5 DRIP IRRIGATION SYSTEM LAYOUT

A typical drip irrigation system consists of the following components:
· Pump unit
· Control head
· Main and submain lines
· Laterals
· Emitters or drippers.


The pump unit takes water from the source and provides the right pressure for delivery into the
pipe system.

The control head consists of valves to control the discharge and pressure In the entire
system. It may also have filters to clear the water. Common types of filter include screen
filters and graded sand filters which remove fine material suspended in the water. Some
control head units contain a fertilizer or nutrient tank. These slowly add a measured dose
  irrigation. This is one of the major advantages of drip
of fertilizer into the water during
irrigation over other methods.

Mainlines, submains and laterals supply water from the control head into the fields.
They are usually made from PVC or polyethylene hose and should be buried below
 when exposed to direct solar radiation. Lateral pipes
ground because they easily degrade
are usually 13-32 mm diameter.

Figure-18: Drip irrigation system layout
4.6 COMPONENTS AND ITS SELECTION FOR A TYPICAL DRIP IRRIGATION

LAYOUT
4.6.1 HEAD EQUIPMENTS

a. Water source - Subsurface tank
b. Pump - Suction, monoblock pump, delivery non return valve, gate valve
c. Filter station - Sand filter, screen filter, manifold and pressure gauge
d. Fertiliser application - Fertiliser tank and ventury assembly
4.6.2 DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
e. Conveyance line - Main line, sub main, gromet take off assembly, laterals, minor tubes and
end caps.
f. Drippers - Pressure corresponding drippers (moulded/threaded type)
g, Valves - Non-return valve (NRV), Ball valves, Air release valve (ARV), flush valves
h. Water meter - If necessary
i. Water source


Water source subsurface tank :To minimise the energy requirement and also to get a
uniform or constant level of water owing to the accumulation of bore wells in one pat1
of the irrigation regime; keeping in the effective hydraulic DIS design, it is necessary to

construct a subsurface tank in an elevation point at the center. The capacity of the tank 
is calculated from the water requirement of the crop, dripper capacity, type of soil etc.

Pump/Overhead Tank: It is required to provide sufficient pressure in the system.
Centrifugal pumps are generally used for low pressure trickle systems. Overhead tanks
can be used  for small areas or orchard crops with comparatively lesser water
 requirements.
4.6.3 Filtration system and types of filters

The hazard of blocking or clogging necessitates the use of filters for efficient and trouble free
operation of the microirrigation system. The different types of filters used in microirrigation
system are described below.
Figure-19: Components of Microirrigation System

Gravel or Media Filter: Media filters consist of fine gravel or coarse quartz sand, of
selected sizes (usually 1.5 –4 mm in diameter) free of calcium carbonate placed in a
cylindrical tank. These filters are effective in removing light suspended materials, such
as algae and other organic materials, fine sand and silt particles. This type of filtration is
essential for primary filtration of irrigation water from open water reservoirs, canals or
reservoirs in which algae may develop. Water is introduced at the top, while a layer of
coarse gravel is put near the outlet bottom. Reversing the direction of flow and opening
the water drainage valve cleans the filter. Pressure gauges are placed at the inlet and at
the outlet ends of the filter to measure the head loss across the filter. If the head loss
exceeds more than 30 kPa, filter needs back washing. Fig. 1.2 shows different types of
media filters.

Figure-20: Different types of Media filters

Screen Filters: Screen filters are always installed for final filtration as an additional
safeguard against clogging. While majority of impurities are filtered by sand filter,
minute sand particles and other small impurities pass through it.The screen filter,
containing screen strainer, which filters physical impurities and allows only clean water
to enter into the micro irrigation system (Fig. 1.3). The screens are usually cylindrical
and made of non-corrosive metal or plastic material. These are available in a wide
variety of types and flow rate capacities with screen sizes ranging from 20 mesh to 200
mesh. The aperture size of the screen opening should be between one seventh and one
tenth of the orifice size of emission devices used.
Figure-21: Screen filter showing steel wire mesh strainers


Centrifugal Filters: Centrifugal filters are effective in filtering sand, fine gravel and
other high density materials from well or river water. Water is introduced tangentially at
the top of a cone and creates a circular motion resulting in a centrifugal force, which
throws the heavy suspended particles against the walls. The separated particles are
collected in the narrow collecting vessel at the bottom. Fig.1.4 shows different types
hydro cyclone/centrifugal filters.
Figure-22: Hydro cyclone filter

Disk Filters: Disk filter (Fig. 1.5) contains stacks of grooved, ring shaped disks that
capture debris and are very effective in the filtration of organic material and algae.
During the filtration mode, the disks are pressed together. There is an angle in the
alignment of two adjacent disks, resulting in cavities of varying size and partly turbulent
flow. The sizes of the groove determine the filtration grade. Disk filters are available in a
wide size range (25-400 microns). Back flushing can clean  disk filters. However they
require back flushing pressure as high as 2 to 3 kg/cm2.
Figure-23: Disk filter showing stacks of discs
4. Pressure relief valves, regulators or bye pass arrangement: These valves may be installed
at any point where possibility exists for excessively high pressures, either static or surge

pressures to occur. A bye pass arrangement is simplest and cost effective means to avoid
problems of high pressures instead of using costly pressure relief valves.
5. Check valves or non-return valves: These valves are used to prevent unwanted flow
reversal. They are used to prevent damaging back flow from the system to avoid return flow of
chemicals and fertilizers from the system into the water source itself to avoid contamination of
water source.
Distribution Network: It mainly constitutes main line, submains line and laterals with drippers
and other accessories.
1. Mainline
The mainline transports water within the field and distribute to submains. Mainline is made of
rigid PVC and High Density Polyethylene (HDPE). Pipelines of 65 mm diameter and above with
a pressure rating 4 to 6 kg/cm2 are used for main pipes.
2. Submains
Submains distribute water evenly to a number of lateral lines. For sub main pipes, rigid PVC,
HDPE or LDPE (Low Density Polyethylene) of diameter ranging from 32 mm to 75 mm having
pressure rating of 2.5 kg/cm2 are used.
3. Laterals
Laterals distribute the water uniformly along their length by means of drippers or
emitters. These are normally manufactured from LDPE and LLDPE. Generally pipes
having 10, 12 and 16 mm internal diameter with wall thickness varying from 1 to 3 mm
are used as laterals.
Figure-24: Lateral pipeline
4. Emitters / Drippers
They function as energy dissipaters, reducing the inlet pressure head (0.5 to 1.5
atmospheres) to zero atmospheres at the outlet. The commonly used drippers are online
pressure compensating or online non-pressure compensating, in-line dripper, adjustable
discharge type drippers, vortex type drippers and micro tubing of 1 to 4 mm diameter.
These are manufactured from Poly- propylene or LLDPE.
Types of drippers


Online Pressure Compensating drippers:
A pressure compensating type dripper supplies water uniformly on long rows and on
uneven slopes. These are manufactured with high quality flexible rubber diaphragm or
disc inside the emitter that it changes shape according to operating pressure and delivers
uniform discharge. These are most suitable on slopes and difficult topographic terrains.

Online Non-Pressure Compensating drippers:
In such type of drippers discharge tends to vary with operating pressure. They have
simple thread type, labyrinth type, zigzag path, vortex type flow path or have float type
arrangement to dissipate energy. However they are cheap and available in affordable
price.

In-Line Drippers or Inline tubes: These are fixed along with the line, i.e., the pipe is
cut and dripper is fixed in between the cut ends, such that it makes a continuous row
after fixing the dripper. They have generally a simple thread type or labyrinth type flow
path. Such types of drippers are suitable for row crops.
Inline tubes are available which include inline tube with cylindrical dripper, inline tubes
with patch drippers, or porous tapes or biwall tubes. They are provided with independent
pressure compensating water discharge mechanism and extremely wide water passage to
prevent clogging.
Other accessories are take-out/starter, rubber grommet, end plug, joints, tees, manifolds
etc.

4.7 INSTALLATION, OPERATION OF DRIP IRRIGATION SYSTEM
The installation of the drip system can be divided into 3 stages.

1. Fitting of head equipments
2. Connecting mains and sub mains
3. Laying of lateral with drippers.
4.7.1Installation of head equipment
The following points should be considered for fixing the position of filter station.
1. Minimum use of fitting such as elbows and bends to be made
2. Whether the pump delivery can be connected to the sand / screen filter
3. Sand / screen filter can easily be connected to mainline
4. Arrangement of back-wash to be made as per the farmer's suitability
5. Arrangement of by-pass water to be made
6. Sufficient space to be provided for the easy operation of filter valves
7. Hard surface or cement concrete foundation to be made for sand filter so that it will not
collapse due to vibration and load. For screen filter, provide strong support by using GI fittings
to avoid its vibrations due to load
8. Use hold-tight over the threads of GI fittings and apply proper mixture of M-seal over the
joints uniformly to avoid leakage
9. Fix the pressure gauges in inlet and outlet of the filter
10. Avoid direct linking of oil pump delivery and filter. Instead connect the filter to the pump
delivery using flanges or even the hose pipe can be used for this
4.7.2 Connecting mains and sub mains
1. It should be laid at a depth of more than 30 - 45 cm so as to avoid damages during

intercultivation
2. Remove mud, if any, in the pipes before fitting. These pipes can be fitted using solvent cement
with the help of brush
3. A gunmetal gate valve / PP Ball valve is provided at the start of sub main with PVC MTA
fittings for connecting the valve in the PVC sub main
4. Provide flush valve at the end of main and sub main such that it faces towards slope
5. Apply uniform pressure vertically over the drill while drilling in the sub main so that the hole
will be smooth and round.

6. Fix the rubber grommets in the holes made in the sub main in such a way that the groove in it
goes inside the pipe
7. Fix the take-off position such that its arrow or the chamber faces towards the gate valve of the
sub main for the easy flow of water. See that the take-off is fixed tightly in the grommet. The
loose fitting of take-off indicates the breakage of grommet
8. Get the sub main flushed so that the PVC piece / mud fallen in the sub main while making
drill will get flushed. Otherwise this scrap will block the drippers through polytube
4.7.3 Laying of laterals and drippers

1. Pass water through the poly tube and get it flushed so that it gets bulged and makes easy for
punching
2. Punch the lateral sideway from the yellow strip
3. The dripper position should be fixed according to design, soil and water report and water level
in peak summer
4. If two drippers are to be provided such that all the drippers come in a straight line
5. Do not fix drippers unless a complete lateral line is punched. Otherwise the placement of
drippers will be changed if moved
6. Punching should be done from the sub main
7. While fixing the dripper, push it inside the lateral and pull it slightly
8. Close the end of lateral by fitting end cap
4.7.4 Standard procedure for assessing disperformance

1. Check installation according to approved design layout
2. Start the pump
3. Flush the filters
4. Allow the drip system to be loaded with water for 10 min.
5. Note the pressure from the pressure gauge at the inlet and outlet of sand and screen filters
6. Record the dripper discharge as per the format
7. The discharge and pressure readings have to be taken in the below mentioned locations
a. First, Middle and Last Dripper of a lateral
b. For laterals at beginning, ¼, ½, ¾ and end of sub main
8. Laterals on anyone side of the sub main can be selected in case of plain land or alternative
laterals on either side in case of slight slope in the direction along the lateral
9. Measure the volume of water collected for 36 seconds
10. Measure the pressure at start and end of laterals
11. If the Emission Uniformity is less than 85 % then the issue has to be taken up with the Drip
Irrigation System Designer

12. Modifications have to be taken accordingly
4.7.5 Operating drip system

A drip system is usually permanent. When remaining in place during more than one season, a
system is considered permanent. Thus it can easily be automated. This is very useful when
labour is scarce or expensive to hire. However, automation requires specialist skills and so this
approach is unsuitable if such skills are not available.
Water can be applied frequently (every day if required) with drip irrigation and this provides
very favourable conditions for crop growth. However, if crops are used to being watered each
day they may only develop shallow roots and if the system breaks down, the crop may begin to
suffer very quickly.
4.7.6 Wetting patterns

Unlike surface and sprinkler irrigation, drip irrigation only wets part of the soil root zone. This
may be as, low as 30% of the volume of soil wetted by the other methods. The wetting patterns
which develop from dripping water onto the soil depend on discharge and soil type. Figure below
shows the effect of changes in discharge on two different soil types, namely sand and clay.
Figure-25: Wetting patterns for sand and clay soils with high and low discharge rates

4.8 DRIP IRRIGATION SYSTEM DESIGN
4.8.1 Introduction
The design of drip system is similar to that of the sprinkler system except that the spacing of
emitters is much less than that of sprinklers and that water must be filtered and treated to prevent
blockage of emitters. Another major difference is that not all areas are irrigated.
4.8.2 Determination of design parameters
4.8.2.1 Water Use for Trickle Irrigation System
• In design, the water use rate or the area i area. Karmeli and Keller (1975) suggested the following water use
rate for trickle irrigation
design
ETt = ET x P/85
Where:
ET: is average evapotranspiration rate for crops under trickle irrigation;
P: is the percentage of the total area shaded by crops;
ET: is the conventional evapotranspiration rate for the crop. E.g. If a mature orchard shades 70%
of the area and the conventional ET is 7 mm/day, the trickle irrigation design rate is: 7/1 x 70/85
= 5.8 mm/day OR use potential transpiration,
Tp = 0.7 Epan where Epan is the evaporation from the United States Class A pan.
4.8.2.2. Emitters discharge

• Consist of fixed type and variable size typ to compensate for the friction induced pressure drop along the
lateral while the variable size
types have it.
Emitter discharge may be described by:
Q=K Where
Q: Is the emitter discharge- l/h
K: is constant for each emitter (Emitter discharge coefficient)
h: is pressure head at which the emitter operates (Pressure (HEAD) at the emitter's inlet –m)

x: is the exponent characterized by the flow regime (Emitter discharge exponent).
The exponent, x can be determined by measuring the slope of the log-log plot of head Vs
discharge.
With x known, K can be determined using the above equation.
Emitter discharge variability is greater than that of sprinkler nozzles because of smaller openings
(lower flow) and lower design pressures.
Eu = 1 - (0.8 Cv/ n 0.5 )

Where
Eu is emitter uniformity;
Cv is manufacturer's coefficient of variation(s/x );
n is the number of emitters per plant.
Application efficiency for trickle irrigation is defined as:
Eea = Eu x Ea x 100. Where

Eea is the trickle irrigation efficiency; Ea is the application efficiency as defined earlier
4.8.2.3 Gross irrigation depth and application efficiency

The gross depth of irrigation is equal to the net irrigation depth, divided by the application
efficiency Ea.
= /Ea
Where
is gross depth of irrigation (mm),
is irrigation depth (mm) and
is application efficiency (%).
The main factors that affect application efficiency are the uniformity of application and the
amount of water lost in the least-watered areas. Application efficiency under trickle irrigation
varies in the range of 75-90 %.
4.8.2.4 Spacing of emitters and percentage of wetted area

Spacing and flow rates for trickle systems are primarily related to the soil conditions and also the
type of crop are considered because some crops may have big aerial part other not or many roots
other not.

But spacing should not be close than necessary, in order to keep costs to minimum. In addition,
when salinity is problem spacing may have to be reduced to prevent salt accumulation in the root
zone.
4.8.2.5 Irrigation interval

The irrigation interval, Ii can be determined by dividing the net applied irrigation depth (Id) by
the transpiration rate of the crop under trickle .
Ii = /
Where Ii is irrigation interval (days), ETc is crops evapotranspiration (mm/day) and Idn is the
gross irrigation depth of each irrigation expressed in (mm).
4.8.2.6 Emitter discharge and duration of application

If necessary, the net time of applying irrigation can be equal to the irrigation interval since trickle
irrigation does not interfere with agronomic activities. Continuous system operation during peak
transpiration periods is recommended in order to reduce pipe sizes. The total time of operational
unit during each irrigation cycle It is given by:
It= ×Se × /q
Where is the gross irrigation depth of each irrigation applications (m), Se is emitter spacing on
line (m). Is the average spacing between lines (m) and q is the average emitter discharge
3
(m /hr).
The diameter of the lateral should be selected so that the difference in discharge between
emitters operating simultaneously will not exceed 10 %. This allowable variation is same as for
sprinkler irrigation laterals already discussed. To stay within this 10 % variation in flow, the
head difference between emitters should not exceed 10 to 15 % of the average operating head for
long-path or 20 % for turbulent flow emitters.
The maximum difference in pressure is the head loss between the control point at the inlet and
the pressure at the emitter farthest from the inlet. The inlet is usually at the manifold where the
pressure is regulated. The manifold is a line to which the trickle laterals are connected.
In drip irrigation, water is applied to each plant separately in small, frequent, precise quantities
through dripper emitters. It is the most advanced irrigation method with the highest application
efficiency. The water is delivered continuously in drops at the same point and moves into the soil
and wets the root zone vertically by gravity and laterally by capillary action. The planted area is
only partially wetted. In medium-heavy soils of good structure, the lateral movement of the water
beneath the surface is greater than in sandy soils.

Moreover, when the discharge rate of the dripper exceeds the soil intake rate and hydraulic
conductivity; the water ponds on the surface. This results in the moisture being distributed more
laterally rather than vertically.
The following water lateral spread values are indicative:

Type of soil Average radius of water spread
Light texture 0.30 m
Medium texture 0.65 m
Fine texture 1.20 m
EXAMPLE DESIGN - Drip irrigation in watermelons

Area and crop:
The plot dimensions are 120 x 83 m (about 1 ha), planted in the open with watermelons in rows
2.20 m apart and spaced along the rows at 0.5 m. The plot is divided into two parts, each with 54
rows 40.5 m long. There are 81 plants per row. Thus, there are 4 374 plants in each part, i.e. 8
748 plants in the whole plot and 108 plant rows.

Soil, water and climate:
Heavy texture soil with low permeability (approximately 6 mm/h) and a high water holding
capacity. The source of water is a nearby open water reservoir; it is of good quality but with a
high impurity content of organic origin (algae). The crop growing season is from early April to
early July; the evaporation pan average maximum readings are 3.3 mm/d in April, 4.64 mm/d in
May and 6.13 mm/d in June.

Crop water requirements and irrigation schedule:
The maximum irrigation requirements of the watermelons are during the mid-season stage and
the yield formation in late May-early June, when the kc value is 1.0. The average reading for the
two months is 5.38 mm/d, which multiplied by a correction factor of 0.66 gives an ETo of 3.55
mm/d.
As kc = 1.0, ETc = 3.55 mm/d.
The system‟s application efficiency is 90 per

Therefore, the daily gross requirements at peak
are: 3.55 x 0.90 ÷ 100 = 3.94 mm/d
3.94 x 10 x 1 ha = 39.4 m3/d
The irrigation scheduling in late May is not arranged at a fixed depletion of the available soil
moisture, but at a fixed interval of one day.

Therefore, irrigation takes place every day and the dose is 39.5 m3. At the early stages of the
growing season, the irrigation interval ranges from 4 to 2 days.

System layout:
The system consists of a head control equipped with a gravel filter and a strainer, a fertilizer
injector and a regulating valve. The 63-mm HDPE main line is laid on surface along the middle
of the field. On this main line (which also serves as a manifold), there are 54 hydrants at a
spacing of 2.20 m.
The laterals, connected to the hydrants, are 16-mm LDPE pipes laid perpendicular to the main
line on both sides, one per row of plants. Separate point source drippers are inserted in the
laterals at a spacing of 0.5 m, one per plant.
  DRIPPER CHARACTERISTICS: 
• -Online: 4 litres/h at 1.0 bar;
• Filtration requirements: 160 mesh.
 
LATERAL CHARACTERISTICS:
  Pipe: 16-mm LDPE, 4.0 bars PN, length 41 m; 
  Number of drippers: 81; 
  Water discharge: 324 litres/h; 
  Total number of laterals: 108; 
 Total number of drippers 8 748. 

SYSTEM FLOW AND OPERATION
Total discharge = 4l/h * 8748 = 34992L/h = 35 m3/h
For the simultaneous operation of all the laterals, the required flow is 35 m3/h. If one irrigation is
to be completed in three shifts, the flow of the system is 12 m3/h, a reasonable size of flow for an
area of 1ha
The duration of application per shift at peak demand for an irrigation dosage of 39.5 m3 is 1 h 5
min. The time required to complete one irrigation is 3 h 15 min.

OPERATING PRESSURE
The required pressure for the normal operation of the system is:
Pressure for the drippers bars 1.00
Friction losses in the dripper laterals 0.10
Friction losses in the main line 0.43
Friction losses in the head control 0.90
Minor local losses 0.22
Total dynamic head (pressure) of the system 2.65

LAYOUT OF THE SYSTEM
DESIGN OF PRESSURIZED IRRIGATION SYSTEMS BY TOLOSSA N 80

CHAP-5: CENTER PIVOT IRRIGATION SYSTEM
5.1 INTRODUCTION AND DEFINITION

A center pivot irrigation system can be defined as a method of crop irrigation in which
equipment rotates around a pivot. A circular area centered on the pivot is irrigated, often creating
a circular pattern in crops when viewed from above.
The Center-Pivot had been introduced in the early fifties in Colorado by
Frank Zybach that later sold the patent to Valley (Valmont company).
Figure-26: Aerial View of Center-Pivot Irrigated Area

In Center-Pivot the lateral rotates in a circle around a fixed point (pivot) like a clock hand. The
pivot is connected to the water supply. Because of the circular movement, each emitter along the
lateral covers a different area.
Square plots are best suitable to Center-Pivots. The wetted area will be roughly 80% of the
square. Wetting up to 95% of the square area is possible by the use of corner attachments.
Figure-27. Center-Pivot Operation Scheme Fig.28 Net Irrigated Area
5.2 SYSTEM WORKING PRINCIPLE
Central pivot irrigation is a form of overhead (sprinkler) irrigation consisting of several segments
of pipe (usually galvanized steel or aluminium) joined together and supported by trusses,
mounted on wheeled towers with sprinklers positioned along its length. The machine moves in a
circular pattern and is fed with water from the pivot point at the center of the circle. The outside
set of wheels sets the master pace for the rotation (typically once every three days). The inner
sets of wheels are mounted at hubs between two segments and use angle sensors to detect when
the bend at the joint exceeds a certain threshold, and thus, the wheels should be rotated to keep
the segments aligned.Center pivots are typically less than 500m in length (circle radius) ,To
achieve uniform application, center pivots require a continuously variable emitter flow rate
across the radius of the machine. Nozzle sizes are smallest at the inner spans to achieve low flow
rates and increase
5.3 HYDRAULICS ASPECT

Water is supplied to the Center-Pivot from a buried mainline or directly from a well located near
the pivot point. Water flows through a swivel joint to the rotating lateral and emitters. When
irrigating, the lateral rotates continuously around the pivot, wetting a circular area. One

revolution can take from 20 to 100 hours depending on lateral length, the amount of water to be
applied and the capacity of the water source.
The slower the lateral rotates the more water is applied to the wetted area. Typical applied water
depths vary from 5 to 30 mm. A Center-Pivot lateral can effectively apply light, frequent
irrigations.
The lateral consists of a series of spans with steel trusses, each is 25 - 75 m long and is carried
about 2.5 - 5 m above the ground by drive units (“towers”). -A driv frame” supported-drivenwheels
(commonly,motor1hpelectric motor).
The taller machines are used for orchard irrigation. Rubber tires, metal wheels, tracks or skids
are mounted under each "A" frame to enable the machine travel. Most machines use rubber tires.
High flotation tires used when needed.
The outermost drive-unit moves continuously or intermittently to set the rotation speed, and all
other drive-units move intermittently to maintain the lateral pipe in an approximately straight
alignment. Speed of rotation of the machine is controlled from the main control panel in the
pivot point.
The most common Center-Pivot lateral is made of 6" pipe, approximately 400 m long.
It irrigates a circular area of 50 hectares plus 1 –3 hectares irrigated by the end sprinkler. Laterals
80 –800 m. long are available for irrrigation of fields of different dimensions. In laterals longer
than 400 m., one or more initial pipe spans have to be of 8" or 10" diameter. The guidance
system is composed of appliances installed at each drive unit that keep the lateral aligned
between the pivot and the end-drive unit.
Figure-29: Center-Pivot Main Tower

Corner attachments; allow the corners of square fields and odd-shaped areas of irregularly
shaped fields to be irrigated.

Figure-30: Corner Arm
The corner attachment is an additional tower that is operated only as needed. It swings out from
the end of the lateral line to irrigate the corners or other odd shaped areas. Operation of the
corner attachment is controlled by a signal sent through a buried electric cable. The corner arms
have angle detectors for turning individually or in groups on and off the emitters as the arm
swings out and back again.
Some Center-Pivots have an end-gun that turns the water on in the corners. The machine can
stop in the corner, the emitters along the lateral are closed by solenoid actuated valves. The end-
gun irrigate for the pre-determining duration, than it is closed and the system continues its
regular operation. In some cases the lateral just slowdown in the corner and the end-gun is
opened while the other sprinklers continue running at lower flow-rates.
The moving lateral pipeline is fitted with emitters to distribute the water evenly over the circular
field. Because the lateral moves in a circle, uniform watering is achieved by linearly increasing
the application-rate toward the outer end of the lateral. This is performed by varying either the
nozzle size or the spacing of sprinklers.
The area to be irrigated by each nozzle along the lateral becomes progressively larger toward the
moving end, and the lateral speed becomes progressively faster. To provide uniform application,
the sprinklers must be designed to have progressively greater discharges, closer spacing, or both,
toward the moving end. The first option uses equally spaced sprinklers with small nozzles close
to the pivot that gradually increase in size toward the outer end.
The distance traveled by each emitter along a Center-Pivot lateral is equal to 2πr,where r is the
distance of the sprinkler or spray nozzle along the lateral from the pivot point.
The application-rate must increase with increasing r to obtain a uniform application depth. Since
the lateral is traveling faster toward the end, also the “opportun reduced. The reduction is proportional to the
speed of the lateral, which is proportional to the
distance r from the pivot. If the same depth of water is requested all along the lateral, and
because application depth equals the application-rate multiplied by opportunity time (i.e.
mm/minute multiplied by minutes = mm), then as the travel speed increases toward the outer

spans of the lateral, in even spaced emitters, the flow-rate has to gradually increase towards the
lateral end.
The second option employs emitters of the same flow-rate but they are placed closer together
toward the outer end. This configuration simplifies maintenance since all the emitters are the
same and require the same spare parts.
In many cases, the application-rate near the moving end is 65 mm/h and higher. This may exceed
the intake rate of many soil types except during the first few minutes at the beginning of each
wetting event. To minimize runoff, the laterals are usually timed to rotate once every 12 to 96
hours depending on the soil's infiltration characteristics, the system's capacity, and the maximum
allowed soil moisture deficit.
5.4 SYSTEM SUITABILITY

Center-Pivot systems are suitable for almost all field crops but require areas free from any
obstructions above ground such as telephone lines, electric power poles, buildings, and trees.
They are best adapted for use on soils having high intake rates, and on uniform topography.
When used on soils with low intake rate and irregular topography, runoff can cause erosion and
puddles that may interfere with the uniform movement of the lateral and traction of wheels
Most pivot systems are permanently installed in a given field. However, in supplemental
irrigation or for dual cropping, it may be practical to move a standard 400 m. Center-Pivot lateral
back and forth between two 50-hectare fields.
5.5 POWER REQUIREMENTS

Five types of power units are commonly used to drive the wheels of Center-Pivots:
  Electric motors, 
  Hydraulic oil motors,

  Water pistons,

  Water spinners / turbines, and


 
Air pistons.
The first pivots were powered by water pistons only. Today, electric motors are most common
because of their speed, reliability, and capability to run forwards and backwards. Electric and
hydraulic oil motors allow the system to be operated also while not irrigating ("dry operation").
5.6 ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATION
5.6.1 Advantages
  Water delivery is simplified through the use of a stationary pivot point. 
  Guidance and alignment are controlled relative to the fixed pivot point.

  Speed is set by the exterior tower of the base circle.


  High water application uniformities are easily achieved with the moving emitters.

  After completing one irrigation, the system is at the starting point for the next irrigation.

 
Irrigation management is improved by accurate and timely application of water

  Capability of accurate and timely applications of fertilizers in the irrigation water. 

These attributes diminish mechanical and operational problems associated with other types of
 self-propelled irrigation machines.
5.6.2 Limitations
Center-Pivots have two drawbacks

Since the concentric band irrigated increases with each increment of radius, most of the
water must  be carried toward the end of the lateral, which results in high friction losses in
 the lateral.

When elevation differences between uphill and downhill lateral positions are significant,
pressure regulation and or flow control nozzles have to be used to eliminate large
variations in emitters discharge.
Figure-31: Center pivot irrigation system

5.7 COMPONENTS OF CENTER PIVOT IRRIGATION SYSTEM
The center pivots irrigation system is composed of the following main components
  Control panel 
  
Tower
  Alignment guidance

  Span

  
Gooseneck
  
Sprinkler
  Pressure regulator

  Dropper

  
Boomback
  Electric drive motor

 
Gear box
Figure-32: Components of Center-Pivot / Linear-Move Lateral System Source: Smith, A. In

Industry & Investment NSW and CRC for Irrigation Futures

5.8 CENTER-PIVOT IRRIGATION SYSTEM DESIGN
5.8.1 Introduction
Designing a Center-Pivot for a particular field is determined by the dimensions of the field.
Initial map can be illustrated from an aerial photograph. Then a ground survey is conducted to
decide on the exact pivot point location and to identify obstacles that have to be removed. Next,
the water source capacity is determined. With this information, plus soil infiltration capacity, and
peak daily evapotranspiration (ET) data, the system manufacturer uses a computer program to
determine the lateral line size, emitter flow-rate and spacing, pump capacity and the required
horsepower.
The fixed costs for a Center-Pivot system depend on the area the system covers. The operating
costs are about the same or lower than in other mechanized systems. The biggest savings are in
man-power. Energy costs depend on the system attributes and the type of energy used.
Maintenance and repair costs are higher than in other techniques since there are more mechanical
parts than in the other systems. Total operating costs are competitive with the other types of
movable sprinklers.
5.8.2 Calculations of design parameters
5.8.2.1 Area irrigated by center-pivot (Assumes end-gun on all the time.)
A = area (ha)
Lp = pivot length (m)
Rg= end-gun radius (m)
Example: the area irrigated by a 400 m long Center-Pivot with an end-gun radius
of 40m. By replacing in the above formula 60.8 ha will be irrigated
5.8.2.2 hours per pivot revolution @ 100% TIMER.
Where
Tr = hours per revolution (hr.)
Lt = distance to last tower (m)
Vt = last tower speed (m/min.)

Example: The time needed for the center-Pivot above to complete a revolution at the maximum
tower speed of 3m/min. (100% timer). The machine includes a 15m overhang.
Tr = 13.5 hours per revolution
5.8.2.3 Depth of water applied by a center-pivot.
Where:
D = depth of water applied (mm)
Qp= pivot flow-rate (m3/hr)
Tr = hours per revolution
(hrs.) Lp = pivot length (m)
Rg= end-gun radius (m)
Example: Depth of water applied by the above pivot. Flow-rate is 240 m3/hr. Last tower speed is
0.75 m/min (25% timer).
D = 21.3 mm
5.8.2.4 Required flow for a given center-pivot sprinkler
Where:
Qe= sprinkler flow-rate (lpm)
Ls = distance to sprinkler (m)
Qp= Center-Pivot flow-rate (m3/hr)
Le = sprinkler spacing (m)

Lp = length of lateral (m)
Rg = end-gun wetting radius (m)
Example: The flow-rate required by a sprinkler located 250m from the pivot point, if the
Sprinkler spacing is 5m. Center-Pivot flow-rate is 240 m3/h.
Qe = 51.8 lpm = 3.1 m3/h
5.8.2.5 Average application-rate
Where:
Ia = average application-rate (mm/hr.)
Ls = distance to sprinkler (m)
Qp= Center-Pivot flow-rate
(m3/hr) Lp = length of lateral (m)
Rg = end-gun wetting radius (m)
Ld = sprinkler throw diameter (m)
Example: The average application-rate at the distance of 250 m from the pivot point.
System flow-rate is 240 m3/hr and sprinkler coverage diameter is 18 m.
Ia = 34.4 mm/h
5.8.2.5 Required system flow
Where:
Qs = system flow-rate (m3/hr/ha)
ETp = peak evapo-transpiration (mm/day)
Tp = pumping hours per day
Ea = water application efficiency (decimal)
Example: The required system flow-rate when the peak crop water requirement is 8 mm/day,
water application efficiency is 90% and the system can be operated 18 hours per day.
Qs = 4.9 m3/hr/ha is required.

5.8.2.6 Power required (kw)
Where:
P = power (kW)
Qp = system flow-rate (m3/hr)
H = head that the pump has to generate
(m) Ep = pump efficiency (decimal)
Example: The power required to pump 240 m3/hr against a head of 60
m. Pump efficiency is 75%
P = 52.3 kW
5.8.2.7 Nozzle or non-regulated system flow-rate with changing pressure
Q1 = flow to determine (lpm)

Q2 = known flow (lpm)
P1 = pressure (bar) for Q1
P2 = pressure (bar) for Q2
Example: Determination of the flow-rate of a #30 3TN nozzle at 1 bar, knowing the flow-rate at
0.7 bar is 18.7 lpm.
Q1 = 22.35 lpm
DESIGN EXAMPLE
1. In a square area (640000 m2), irrigation efficiency of a center pivot system is 70 percent,
maximum daily evapotranspiration is 7.6 millimeters, effective radius of end sprinkler is
14 meters, readily available water is 40 millimeters, and maximum irrigation depth is 18
millimeters. Determine discharge of center pivot system, maximum time of irrigation,
acceptable rotational velocity as hour, and rotational velocity of end sprinkler as meter
per minute.

2. In a center pivot system, length of span is 200 meters, considered area for irrigation is
14.5 hectares, wetted diameter of end emitter is 30 meters, net desired depth is 6
centimeters, design daily irrigation requirement is 10 millimeters, application efficiency
is 85 percent, effective radius is 50 percent of wetted diameter of end emitter, and amount
of water for irrigation without runoff is 70 percent of total amount of water for irrigation.
Determine required discharge of system and irrigation time.

CHAP-6: MISCELLANEOUS (FERTIGATION AND FERTILIZER INJECTORS,
AUTOMATIC PRESSURIZED IRRIGATION SYSTEM)
6.1 FERTIGATION AND FERTILIZER INJECTORS
6.1.1 Fertigation
6.1.1.1 Introduction and definition

Fertigation is the technology of applying nutrition elements via the irrigation water by injection
of fertilizer solutions into the irrigation system. Contemporary fertigation technology emerged at
the sixties of the 20th century, following the introduction of commercial drip irrigation. Prior to
that era, direct application of nutrition elements to the water had been implemented only in
hydroponics growing systems. Later it was realized that crops benefit of fertigation in all the
pressurized irrigation technologies and in some circumstances, although rarely, in surface
irrigation too.
The combined application of water and fertilizers through the irrigation system increases the
efficiency of fertilizer utilization, raises yields, improves produce quality and minimizes
environmental pollution caused by excess fertilization.
6.1.1.2 Advantages of Fertigation

a. Improved efficiency
1. Uniform distribution with irrigation water
2. Better synchronization with crop demands
i. Adjustment of amounts and ratio between nutrients along the growing season
3. Deeper penetration of the nutrients into the soil
4. Avoiding nutrient losses from soil surface
b. Avoiding soil compaction by fertilizer spreaders
c. Avoiding damage to canopy and yield
d. Reduction of fertilizer losses
e. Additional functionality
1. Application of herbicides and pesticides via the irrigation water
6.1.1.3 Limitations and Risks in Fertigation

a. Hazard of backflow of nutrient solution into the drinking water supply network
b. Only fully soluble fertilizers are applicable
c. Hazard of corrosion, precipitate-formation and clogging in the irrigation system
d. Use of dangerous acids and inflammable materials
e. Costly investment in accessories and storage installations
f. Incorrect application may cause damage to crop, nutrient losses by leaching beneath the root-
zone and contamination of underground water resources

g. Hazard of foliage and fruit scorching in overhead irrigation
h. Large storage volumes are needed for nutrient solutions
6.1.1.3 Technologies of Fertigation

A variety of technologies have been developed for injecting fertilizers into the irrigation system.
6.1.1.3.1 Patterns of Injection

  Fertilizer Concentration 
a. Decreasing along time (Fertilizer tank)
b. Uniform –pulsating (piston and diaphragm pumps)
c. Uniform –constant (venturi, internal mixing pumps, mixers)
 
Energy Sources
a. Inherent pressure of the irrigation system
b. External energy sources
1. Electricity
2. Internal combustion engines
6.1.1.3.2 Injector Types

a. Pressure differential
b. Venturi (suction)
c. Fertilization pumps

Fertilizer-tank
Throttling the water flow in the control head creates pressure differential that diverts a fraction of
the irrigation water through a tank containing the fertilizer solution. A gradient of at least 1 –2 m.
(0.1 –0.2 bars) is required to redirect an adequate stream of water through a connecting tube of 9
–12 mm diameter. The tank, made of corrosion-resistant enamelcoated or galvanized cast iron,
stainless steel or fiberglass, has to withstand the irrigation network working pressure. The
diverted water is mixed with solid soluble or liquid fertilizers.
When solid fertilizers are used, the nutrient concentration remains more or less constant, as long
as a portion of the solid fertilizer remains in the tank. Once the solid fertilizer had been fully
dissolved, continuous dilution by water gradually decreases the concentration of the injected
solution.

Figure-33: Fertilizer-tank From "Odis" brochure
  Fertilization-tank Advantages 
a. Simple construction and operation
b. Low cost (of small units)
c. Extensive field experience
d. No need of external energy source
e. Good mobility
f. Wide dilution ratio
  Fertilization-tank Limitations 
a. Head losses by throttling
b. High cost of large units
c. Non-uniform nutrient concentration along the period of application
d. Fertilizer replenishment is needed prior to each application
e. Integration with automation is problematic
f. The tank and the accessories have to withstand the mainline operating pressure

Venturi Injector
Suction of the fertilizer solution is created by water flow through a constricted passageway.
The high flow velocity of water in the constriction reduces water pressure below the atmospheric
pressure so that fertilizer solution is sucked from an open tank into the constriction through a
small diameter tube.

Venturi devices are made of corrosion-resistant substances such as copper, brass, stainless steel
and plastic materials. The injection rate depends upon the pressure loss, which ranges from 10%
to 75% of the irrigation system's pressure and is determined by the injector type and operating
conditions. Venturi devices require extra pressure to allow for the necessary pressure-loss.
Maintaining a constant pressure in the irrigation system guarantees uniform nutrient
concentration in the irrigation water along the application period.
The customary head-losses are above 33% of the inlet pressure. Double-stage Venturi injectors
have lower pressure-losses downward to 10%. The suction-rate depends on the inlet pressure,
pressure-loss and the diameter of the suction tube. It can be adjusted by valves and regulators.
Suction rates vary from 0.1 l/h to 2000 l/h. Venturi injectors are installed in-line or on a bypass.
In greenhouses, the water flow in the bypass may be boosted by an auxiliary pump.
Figure-34: Venturi Injector Courtesy "Netafim" Fig-35: By-pass Venturi Installation

Courtesy "Netafim"
  Venturi Suction Injector Advantages 

a. Simple to operate, easy to install, no moving parts
b. Wide-range of flow-rates (in different models)
c. Low cost of small devices, The solution is sucked from an open tank

d. Good mobility
e. Constant suction-rate (in constant pressure regime)
f. Easy integration in automation
g. Cheap, open to the atmosphere tanks may be used
h. Corrosion resistance
  Venturi Suction Injector Limitations 
a. High head-losses
b. Sensitivity to pressure fluctuations
c. Narrow discharge-range of each model

Fertilization pumps
Fertilizer pumps are driven by electricity, internal combustion engines, tractor PTO or
hydraulically by the inherent water pressure in the irrigation system.
  Pump Injectors Advantages 
a. Uniform nutrient concentration along the fertigation process
b. Easy control of amount and concentration of the nutrient solution
c. Convenient integration with automation
d. No pressure losses
 Pump Injectors Limitations 
a. High initial cost
b. Complicated operation
c. Wear of moving components
d. Suitable only with fertilizer solutions
e. Some models need external power source
f. Some models emit surplus driving-water outside
 Hydraulic Pumps
Versatile devices, reliable and feature low operation and maintenance costs. A diaphragm or
piston movement injects the fertilizer solution into the irrigation system.
Water-driven diaphragm and piston pumps combine precision, reliability and low maintenance
costs.
  Hydraulic Pump Types 
a. Piston pumps
b. Diaphragm pumps
c. Internal-mixer pumps
 Centrifugal Pumps 
Centrifugal pumps are used when high capacity is needed or the fertilizer solution is turbid.
 Roller Pumps
Roller pumps are used for precise injection of small amounts of a nutrient solution. Their
life-span is relatively short due to bearings' corrosion by the injected chemicals.
 Electric Pumps

  Electric Pumps Advantages 
a. Precise and reliable
b. Suitable for extremely low dosage
c. Conveniently integrated with automation
d. Wide range of flow-rates

 
Electric Pumps Limitations a.
Need of external energy source


b. Fails in blackout occasions
Electric pumps are inexpensive and reliable. Operation costs are low and they are readily
integrated into automatic systems. A wide selection of pumps is available, from small low-

capacity to massive high-capacity pumps. The working pressure is 10 - 100 m. (1 –10 bars).

Electric piston pumps are exceptionally precise
 and suitable for accurate mixing inconstant

proportions of a number of stock solutions.
Variable 
speed motors and variable stroke length allow for a wide range of dosing from 0.5 to
300 L/h.
Figure-36: Piston (left) and Diaphragm (right) Hydraulic Pumps

From "Amiad" Brochure Fig-37 No-drain
Internal-mixer
Hydraulic Pump From
"Dosatron" brochure

Figure-38: Piston Pump Installation on Control-head
6.1.1.3.3 Injection Control
Hydraulic pumps used in fertigation can be automated. A pulse transmitter is mounted on the
pump. The movement of the piston or the diaphragm's spoke sends electrical signals to the
controller that measures the delivered volume.
Measurement can also be performed by small fertilizer-meters installed on the injection tube.
Fertilizer-meter is a modified water-meter, corrosion resistant and precise in measurement of
small solution quantities. The controller allocates fertilizer solution according to a preset
program. In glasshouses, simultaneous application of a multi-nutrient solution is routine. When
the distinct chemical compounds in the fertilizers are incompatible and cannot be combined in a
concentrated solution due to the risk of decomposition or precipitation,
Two or three injectors are installed inline one after another, in the control head.
The application ratio between the injectors is coordinated by the irrigation controller.
In high-income crops grown in glasshouses on detached media, the irrigation water is mixed with
fertilizer in a mixing chamber (mixer).
Figure-39:Fertilizer Solution Meter with Pulse Fig-40: Mixer Array From "Odis" brochure
Transmitter From "Arad"

6.1.1.3.4 Injection Site
Options:
 
Injection at the Main Control-head - the most convenient and cost effective alternative.
Injection at Sub-main Heads - a common practice in field crops.

Injection at the Control-head of Each Block –more expensive than the above-mentioned
alternatives.
6.1.1.3.5 Control and Automation

Dosing patterns:

Quantitative Dosing: a preset amount of fertilizer is injected into the irrigation system
during eachwater application. Injection may be initiated and controlled automatically or
 manually.

Proportional Dosing: maintains a constant predetermined ratio between the irrigation
water and the fertilizer solution. Pumps inject the fertilizer solution in a pulsating
 injectors apply the fertilizers continuously and in constant
pattern. Venturi
concentration.
Avoiding Corrosion Damage:
Most fertilizer solutions are corrosive. Accessories exposed to the injected solution should be
corrosion-resistant. The injection device and irrigation system must be thoroughly flushed after
fertilizer injection.

Back-flow Prevention
Whenever the irrigation system is connected to a potable water supply network, strict precautions
should be taken to avoid backflow of fertilizer-containing irrigation water.

Back-siphonage occurs when low pressure in the supply line is created by an excessive
hydraulic gradientin undersized pipes in the supply line, a break in the supply line, pump
 or power failures.

Back-pressure occurs when the pressure in the irrigation system is higher than in the
water supply network. This happens when booster pumps are used for pressure increase 
in the irrigating area or when the irrigated area is topographically higher than the local
water supply tank.
An atmospheric vacuum breaker can be installed beyond the last valve to allow air entry
downstream when pressure falls. A pressure vacuum breaker has an atmospheric vent valve that
is internally loaded by a spring. This valve is unsuitable for fertigation systems operated by an
external source of energy. Vacuum breakers are effective only against back-siphonage and do not
prevent back-pressure.
A dual check valve assembly has two check valves in tandem, loaded by a spring or weight. The
device is installed upstream from the injection system and is effective against backflow caused
by both back-pressure and back-siphonage.

A reduced pressure backflow preventer is also consisted of two internally loaded check valves
separated by a reduced pressure zone. When pressure downstream is higher than the pressure
upstream, water is released to the atmosphere and does not flow backwards.
Figure-41: Tandem Back-flow Preventer
6.1.1.3.6 Chemical Aspects of Fertigation

a. Interaction between fertilizers and irrigation water
b. Interactions between fertilizers
1. Precipitation
2. Decomposition
3. Antagonism
4. Synergism
Diverse interrelations prevail between chemical agents immersed simultaneously in water.
When fertilizer solution is injected into the irrigation water, the cations and anions that compose
the fertilizer react with the cations and anions inherent in the water. Some reactions may create
insoluble compounds that precipitate and may clog filters and emitters. That mostly happens with
phosphoric fertilizers injected into calcium and magnesium rich water (hard water) of high pH
level. Chelates of iron and manganese may decompose when mixed with acid fertilizers.
Other patterns of interrelations are antagonism and synergism between ions.
Generally, ions of the same type of electrical charge (+ or -) are antagonistic to each other and
compete in absorption and bio-reactions in the plant. For example: high level of potassium
induces magnesium deficiency and vis versa.
Between ions with different sign may exist synergism –positive impact on each other. For
example, simultaneous presence of potassium and nitrate in solution increases absorption of both
ions. The chemical aspects have to be considered when nutrient application with
fertigation is scheduled.
6.1.1.3.7 Safety
Many fertilizers are corrosive. Some of them may be toxic, carcinogenic or inflammable.
Dealing with fertilizers commits caution measures.
a. When dealing with fertilizers, one has to wear protective clothes and to use goggles, gloves
and boots.
DESIGN OF PRESSURIZED IRRIGATION SYSTEMS BY TOLOSSA N Page101

b. When diluting acids, the acid has to be poured slowly into a great amount of water, to avoid
heating and boiling of the solution. Water will be never poured into the acid.
c. Some of the fertilizers are inflammable. No weeds and garbage are allowed in the injection site
and storage vicinity.
6.2 AUTOMATIC PRESSURIZED IRRIGATION SYSTEM
6.2.1 Overview
In modern irrigation systems, automation is an essential constituent of the operating system. It
saves manpower and facilitates precise and on-time application of water and nutrients.
Automation relies on four basic components:
  Sensing and measuring devices 
  Control and regulation appliances

 
 Input and output tools; and

Communication between  the different components. Time and quantity controllers are the two
 basic tools of automation.
6.2.2 Classification
Automation systems can be classified according to the extent of control:
a. Point automation means an automatic device mounted directly on the valve, exclusively
controlling this valve with no relevance to other valves or systems.
b. Local automation: Several valves in the plot that are controlled and coordinated by one unit.
c. Central automation: A number of local automation units that are connected to and controlled
by a main central unit.
6.2.3 Functions
Automation can be activated at diverse levels of sophistication:
a. Shut-off of water flow. Water opening is done manually.
b. Time-based automatic opening and shut-off of the water.
c. Time determined irrigation start according to time, shut-off after a preset water amount had
been delivered.

d. As above plus feedback and recording of the delivered water amount.
e. Control of irrigation combined with fertilizer application (fertigation), with or without
recording of water and fertilizer amounts.
f. Sequential operation of valves, one after another, in the plot.
g. Irrigation control that relies on information obtained from monitors and sensors. E.g.:
Temperature, wind, rain, soil moisture, water head etc.
h. Control of water sources in correspondence with irrigation demands.
i. Integrated control of water sources and irrigation.
j. Integrated design and operation and control of irrigation systems.
6.2.4 Flow-meters
a.WaltmanFlow-meter b .Flow-meter cross-section c. Flow-meter with electric output

Figure-42: Flow-meters
The flow-meter is the basic appliance for the monitoring and control of water application in
pressurized irrigation systems. It is the only means that facilitate irrigation control in quantitative
terms. The common flow-meter consists of a casing containing a horizontal or vertical impeller.
The impeller is rotated by the flowing water and transmits its rotational motion to a measuring
scale mounted on top of the casing. The scale is calibrated and counts the actual water quantity
that passed through the casing. The flow-meter displays the readings of the delivered water
amount visually or, by means of an electric output device, sends the information to irrigation
controllers, computers or data-loggers.

6.2.5 Metering-valves (Hydrometers)
The metering-valve is a combination of a water meter with a hydraulic valve.
The desired volume of water to be applied is dialed in.
The valve is closed automatically after the assigned volume of water has been delivered. The
actuator in the metering valve can be of diaphragm or piston type. A diaphragm is less sensitive
to dirt in the water, but can be torn in pressure surges and may wear due to chemical degradation.
The hydrometer can be operated manually or controlled by a remote computer or controller by
means of hydraulic, electric or wireless communication.
Figure-43: Hydrometer –Manual and

Remote-controlled Dial From Bermad Brochure
6.2.6 Control Patterns

Two basic types of control patterns that are applied in irrigation systems:
 
 Open control loop systems that implement only a preset action.

Closed control loop systems that  collect feedback from sensors, make decisions and apply the
decisions to the irrigation system.
6.2.6.1 Open-control Loop Systems

In open control loop systems, decisions are taken by the operator who presets the controller
according to the desired performance. The devices that require external manual intervention are
referred to as open loop systems.

In time-based open loop control systems, the irrigation duration is preset. The basic control
parameters are
  Irrigation timing, 
  
Irrigation intervals and
 
Watering time-span.
A combination of time and amount-control employs the clock to start the irrigation and
terminates the irrigation after the preset volume of water has been applied. Open loop control
systems are inexpensive, readily available and flexible but require frequent manual resetting to
attain efficient water application.
6.2.6.2 Closed-control Loop Systems

In a closed-control loop, the operator presets the general layout. The control system makes the
decisions when and how much water to apply. Feedback is sent in real-time to the controller
from one or more sensor units. Closed loop controllers acquire environmental parameters, such
as soil-moisture, temperature, radiation, wind-velocity and relative humidity. The data are
compared to the preset program and the decision is made whether irrigation should be applied or
not. The decision can be based on the measurement of soil-moisture and calculation of the water
consumption of the plants.
6.2.7 Irrigation Timers

An irrigation timer is based on a clock unit that activates one or more units of the irrigation
system at preset times. Irrigation timers may provide several of the following functions:
a. A clock/ timer measures the time for the irrigation schedule.
b. A calendar selector allows presetting the days in which the system has to be operated.
c. Stat ion time setting allows the presetting of start time, day and hour and duration of
application for each station.
d. Manual start allows the operator to start the automatic cycle, overriding the preset schedule.
e. Manual operation of each station allows the operator to manually start the irrigation cycle
without changing the preset schedule.
f. Master switch controls the activation of the whole irrigation system.
g. Station skip is used to exclude specified stations from the next irrigation cycle.
h. Master valve controls back-flow prevention equipment and automatically terminates
irrigation in case of a failure in the system.
i. Pump start lead connects the pump start solenoid to the actuator of each station. Thus the
pumping control is synchronized with the irrigation control.
The timers can be electromechanical or electronic.

6.2.8 Controllers
Controllers used in automatic irrigation system can be classified as
6.2.8.1 Electromechanical Controllers

Electromechanical controllers are based on an electrically powered clock and mechanical
switching to activate the irrigation valves. They are reliable and are not affected by spikes in the
power supply. In case of power outage, the programmed schedule will not be erased. However,
the scheduling options are limited, compared with electronic controllers.
6.2.8.2 Electronic Controllers

Electronic controllers rely on solid state and integrated circuits to actuate the clock/timer,
memory and control functions. Some of these systems are sensitive to the trustworthiness of the
power supply and to spikes, surges and brownouts.
These controllers are modular and contain many options at a relatively low cost.
Time-based devices are widely used in home-gardens, nurseries and propagation houses.
Irrigation lasts for relatively short periods, and lack of precision in water amount, due to pressure
fluctuations, is not crucial. Improved accuracy can be maintained by keeping constant pressure
with the combination of a buster pump and pressure regulators.
6.2.9 Sensors
A sensor is closing an electrical circuit response to change in a specific measured parameter.
There are two basic types of sensors:
  Continuous 
 
Discrete.

Continuous sensors transmit a continuous electricalsignal, such as voltage, conductivity,
capacitance, or any other measurable electrical current.
Continuous sensors are used where values taken by a state variable are required and an on/off
state is not sufficient, for example, to measure pressure fluctuations in the system.

Discrete sensors are basically mechanical or electronic switches that indicate on/off

states. Discrete sensors are useful for indicating thresholds, such as the opening and shut-
off of devices. They can indicate when a threshold of a state variable has been reached.
Examples of discrete sensors are a float switch in a storage tank and a switching
tensiometer that detects if soil moisture is above a defined threshold.
The variables measured in computer-based control systems are: Flow rate, pressure, soil
moisture, air temperature, wind velocity, solar radiation, relative humidity, electrical
conductivity and the pH level of the irrigation water.
6.2.10 Computer-based Irrigation Control Systems

A computer-based control system consists of a combination of hardware and software that
manages both irrigation and fertigation by a closed control loop.
The system monitors the measured variables, compares them with the target status, makes
decisions about the actions to be taken and carries them out.

6.2.10.1 A/D Inter face
Since computer systems work internally with digits, the electrical signals sent from the sensors
have to be converted from analog to digital data. The conversion is accomplished by Analog-to-
Digital (A/D) interfaces. Discrete signals resulting from switch closures and threshold
measurements are registered in memory. Continuous electrical (analog) signals are converted to
binary numbers of the sensed variable. Conversion accuracy is affected by the resolution of the
conversion equipment.
6.2.10.2 Computer Types

The A/D conversion hardware is directly connected to the computer system. The computer
system may be a PC or a dedicated programmed controller.
6.2.10.3 Functions of the Central Computer

The fast development and price drop of microcomputers enables high sophistication in automatic
control of irrigation. The new irrigation computers and controllers use industry standard
microprocessors as well as standard memory boards and terminals. This configuration enhances
the integration of irrigation scheduling, operation and control at the same unit. Conditional
operation, relating to the feedback information that is transmitted from the local units and from
sensing units in the field, is now a common routine, as well as the integrated management of the
whole irrigation system, from water source to the last end-valve in the field.
6.2.11 Communication
Apart from point automation, in which the automation control unit is mounted directly on the end
valve, in all other automation systems, a communication link connects sensors with the control
unit to the end valve. In some circumstances, a multi-stage communication linking is necessary.
Signals between the control unit and the end units can be sent as hydraulic or electric pulses. The
electric pulses can be transmitted by wire or wireless.
In some circumstances, for short distance, hydraulic communication is advantageous compared
with electric communication. There is no need for an external energy source and in hydraulically
operated wide-diameter valves; there is no need for conversion of electric signals to hydraulic
signals by means of solenoid. The control water tube of 4 - 8mm. diameter pipe is cheaper than
electric cable.
The drawbacks of hydraulic communication are topography interference, vulnerability to
mechanical damage and air penetration. In the past the length of communication lines was
restricted to a few hundred meters. Latelr-on, accessories have been developed that facilitate
longer lines and overcome the topographic differences.
Another drawback of hydraulic communication is the one-way communication pattern that does
not enable transmission of feedback information back to the main unit.
Electric pulses can be transmitted by cables or by wireless devices. Cable communications are
prone to mechanical damage.
Due to cost reduction, improved credibility and elimination of broadcasting interference, the
wireless communications are favored on cable communications.

Direct operation of the end-valves by electric pulses takes place only in homegardens and
nurseries, where valves are usually of small diameter. In wide diameter valves the operation of
the valve is hydraulic. The electric signal is converted by means of a small solenoid that controls
operating water supply to the hydraulic valve.
6.2.12 Configuration
Local automatic systems control the irrigation timetable and the fertigation device.
In sequential automatic systems, a main controlling unit is optional. In sequential irrigation, the
shut-off of one hydraulic valve sends a hydraulic signal which opens the subsequent hydraulic
valve. In more sophisticated systems, the sequence is controlled by a central controller.
There are two basic models of wired central automation:
a. Star
b. Ring

Star Configuration
Each local unit is connected directly to the central unit. The cable is of the twinwire type that
enables the central unit to send signals as well as to supply energy to the field units. If feedback
information is required, a triple-wire cable has to be installed.

Ring Networks
All the field units are chain connected in a ring by one cable to the central unit.
The cable is of the multi-wire type in which each local unit is connected by two or three wires to
the central unit. Another setup is based on twin-wire cable. Both the two cables are connected to
each one of the local units. The computer of the central unit is scanning continuously the local
units with high frequency pulses, identifying each unit, feeding it with the relevant information
and picking up feedback information. In this configuration, the field equipment is cheaper but a
high level computer is required. In the last decade, most of the wired communication systems are
replaced by wireless ones.
Figure-44: Local Irrigation Controller
6.2.13 Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition (SCADA)

In the last decade, Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition (SCADA) software applications in
Water & Irrigation systems are increasingly used. The SCADA system is a remote control and
status indicator of the water distribution equipment that provides early warning of system
malfunction. When failure occurs there is immediate detection of water leakages and pressure
fluctuations. This enables immediate response to changes in demand, maintenance of adequate
pressure, flow-rates, pump-functionality and overall system performance.
Figure-45: SCADA Control System Adapted Adapted from "Motorola" Brochure
6.2.13.1 Sophisticated SCADA systems support various communication infrastructures

Radio Communication Channels: conventional VHF (136-174 MHz), conventional UHF
 (403-470 MHz), 800/900 MHz, Microwave, Digital Radio, Cellular Networks, Satellite
Systems, Wi-Fi (WLAN) systems, Spread Spectrum
 
 Wire Line: point-to-point, multi-drop, auto-answer/dial-up operation over PSTN lines.
 
 Ethernet (TCP/IP): Direct connection to a 10baseT Intranet that will be provided by the user.

Serial Communication: RS-232 and RS-485 Communication to an externalDTE/DCE device.
The use of advanced communication protocols, sophisticated RTUs (Remote
Terminal Units), contemporary control center software packages and utilization of the internet,
improves the overall performance of the Water Distribution system by providing:

 control and monitoring of pump & valve stations (as well as other stations and output
Enhanced
types)
 
Prompt access to data for managers and operators, wherever they are located (at a station,
the control room or any otheralarmsand reportplace) from

Graphical User Interface (GUI), which provides a user-friendly and intuitive interface with the
control constituents.

  Full monitoring and control of field elements (valves, pumps and other I/O status/failures etc) 
  Equipment‟s operation

1. Water supply conditions
2. Other conditions and controlled elements
3. Reports and historical data
  Water supply (daily, weekly, monthly, yearly, etc.)

1. Water pressure, low, level, quality etc.
2. Pump operation, valve operation, etc.
3. Power consumption (overall/per pump)
  
Alarms
1. Pump failures (overload, temperature, etc.)
2. Power supply failures
3. Sudden pressure changes, water quality variations, etc.
Due to the miniaturization of the electronic components, the wireless broadcasters, transmitters
and receivers, the recently developed field units are compact and reliable.
6.2.14 Field units

The field units are the end points of the automation system. They include RTUs that directly
control the valves, fertigation device, etc; or connected to sensors of soil moisture, chemicals in
soil solution and climate. Field Units (FU) that can connect several RTUs enable higher level of
control. When many RTUs and/or FUs are connected to one control center, Field Interface Unit
(FIU) can be used as the communication interface unit between the control center and the RTUs
or FUs. It will be located at the control room and connected to the computer/server via a serial
line. The FIU communicates with the RTUs and the FUS over the avail communication links (radio, line etc).
Many types of I/O (Input/Output) modules are available (Digital Input, Digital Output, Analog
Input, Analog Output, Mixed Digital and Analog Inputs and Outputs etc.) enabling simple
connection to diverse measuring and control devices such as hydraulically or electrically
operated valves, water meters, flow and level meters, rain gauges, EC/pH sensors, flushing filters
etc., as well as other devices (relays, general alarm contacts, analog sensors etc.)

Figure-46: RTUs Connected to Field-unit (FU) by Cable,Adapted from Motorola Brochure
6.2.15 Internet Mediated Communication

In the last decade, the internet provided new capabilities for SCADA communication.
Using wireless internet communication enables central and local control, monitoring and data
acquisition from any point on the globe, without distance limits.
Figure-47: Internet Mediated SCADA Network Adapted from Motorola Brochure

REFERENCES:

ASAE.1999. Field evaluation of mirco-irrigation systems. ASAE EP458 December 1999.

ASAE. 792-797. 

Christiansen, J.E. 1942. The uniformity of application of water by sprinkler systems.

Agric. Eng. 22, 89-92. 

Keller Jack, Blisner Ron, 2000. Sprinkler and Trickle Irrigation, ISBN: 1-930665-19-9,
 the Blackburn Press, Caldwell, New Jersey 07006 

Adhikari Deepak, 2000. Simplified and Low Cost Drip Irrigation Manual, International
 Development Enterprises, Kathmandu, Nepal. 

Suryawanshi Sudarshan, 2000. Affordable Micro Irrigation Technology, International
 Development Enterprises, Delhi India. 

Mosh, S. 2006. Guidelines for planning and design of micro irrigation in arid and semi
 arid regions. Int. Comm. Irrig.& Drain. (ICID). 

Mandal R.C.( 2003). Water resource utilsation and micro irrigation (sprinkler and drip


irrigation), Karyani printing, New Delhi 
 FAO, 1984. Localized irrigation. Roma.

Arora K.R., 2004. Irrigation water and water resources engineering, Lomus offset Press,
 Delhi. 

Israelson, O. W. Irrigation Principles and Practices: 168-245.John Wiley and Sons, New
 York. 1950. 

Ebony Enterprises, Ltd, 2008. Study for irrigation Master plan in Rwanda 

Lecturer Notes of Design of Pressurized

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

You might also like

Lecturer Notes of Design of Pressurized

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Lecturer Notes of Design of Pressurized

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

DEPARTMENT OF WATER RESOURCES AND IRRIGATION ENGINEERING

ACADEMIC YEAR 2023

MODULE: DESIGN OF PRESSURISED IRRIGATION SYSTEMS

LECTURER NOTES OF DESIGN OF PRESSURIZED IRRIGATION SYSTEM

DESIGN OF PRESSURIZED IRRIGATION SYSTEMS BY TOLOSSA N Page 1

Name of institution: Mattu University

Department:Water Resource and Irrigation Engineering

At the end of the course, students will be able to:

Unit I: Introduction Unit

Unit III: Sprinkler irrigation system (bubblers,mini-sprinklers, Microsprinklers, etc)

Unit IV: Drip irrigation system

Unit VI: Miscellaneous (Fertigation,Fertilizer injectors,automatic pressurized irrigation

Assignment, Quiz&reports: /60 marks

Final exam: /40 marks

DESIGN OF PRESSURIZED IRRIGATION SYSTEMS BY TOLOSSA N Page 2

DESIGN OF PRESSURIZED IRRIGATION SYSTEMS BY TOLOSSA N Page 3

DESIGN OF PRESSURIZED IRRIGATION SYSTEMS BY TOLOSSA N Page 4

DESIGN OF PRESSURIZED IRRIGATION SYSTEMS BYTOLOSSA N Page 5

DESIGN OF PRESSURIZED IRRIGATION SYSTEMS BY TOLOSSA N Page 6

1.1 PRESSURIZED IRRIGATION CONCEPT

1.2 SYSTEM COMPONENTS

DESIGN OF PRESSURIZED IRRIGATION SYSTEMS BY TOLOSSA N Page 7

DESIGN OF PRESSURIZED IRRIGATION SYSTEMS BY TOLOSSA N Page 8

1.4 SYSTEM CLASSIFICATION

DESIGN OF PRESSURIZED IRRIGATION SYSTEMS BY TOLOSSA N Page 9

1.5 PRESSURIZED IRRIGATION EQUIPMENTS

  Flow control devices

DESIGN OF PRESSURIZED IRRIGATION SYSTEMS BY TOLOSSA N Page 10

DESIGN OF PRESSURIZED IRRIGATION SYSTEMS BY TOLOSSA N Page 11

In general, the maximum recommended average velocity in an enclosed pipeline is 5 ft/sec.

Figure-1: Total dynamic head description

1.6.2 Hydraulic losses

DESIGN OF PRESSURIZED IRRIGATION SYSTEMS BY TOLOSSA N Page 12

1.6.3 Computing Friction Loss

DESIGN OF PRESSURIZED IRRIGATION SYSTEMS BY TOLOSSA N Page 13

DESIGN OF PRESSURIZED IRRIGATION SYSTEMS BY TOLOSSA N Page 14

2.1 INTRODUCTION TO PUMPING STATIONS

DESIGN OF PRESSURIZED IRRIGATION SYSTEMS BY TOLOSSA N Page 15

2.3 MAJOR COMPONENTS OF PUMPING STATION

2.4.1 Definition, Purpose, and Classification of

2.4.1.2 Pumping Purpose

2.4.1.3 Principles in Water Pumping

DESIGN OF PRESSURIZED IRRIGATION SYSTEMS BY TOLOSSA N Page 16

Classification Based on Mode of Intake of Fluid to Pumps

Classification Based on the Position of Prime Mover

Classification Based on the Type of Water Use (or Field of Use)

DESIGN OF PRESSURIZED IRRIGATION SYSTEMS BY TOLOSSA N Page 17

Turbine pump can be classified into

Deep-well turbine pump can be further divided into

DESIGN OF PRESSURIZED IRRIGATION SYSTEMS BY TOLOSSA N Page 18

Classification Based on the Means by Which the Energy Is Added

DESIGN OF PRESSURIZED IRRIGATION SYSTEMS BYTOLOSSA N Page 19

2.4.2 Factors Affecting the Practical Suction Lift of Suction-Mode Pump

Figure-2: Pump categories

DESIGN OF PRESSURIZED IRRIGATION SYSTEMS BY TOLOSSA N Page 20

2.4.3 Centrifugal Pumps

2.4.3.1 Features and Principles of Centrifugal Pumps