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PROJECT MANAGEMENT

FUNDAMENTALS OF PROJECT MANAGEMENT

This unit is designed to equip the trainees with knowledge, skills and attitudes that will enable
him/her to manage viable projects.
General Objective:
By the end the unit the trainer should be able to:
1. Apply the Project Life Cycle to Project Management
2. Understand the process of Project Selection
3. Understand Project Organization
4. Cope with emerging issues and trends in Project Management
COURSE TOPICS:
1. Introduction to Project Management
2. Evolution of Project Management
3. Project life cycle
4. Project Identification
5. Project Selection
6. Project Proposal
7. Project planning
8. Project Implementation
9. Project Monitoring and Evaluation
10.Project Team
11.Project Organization
12.Emerging Issues and Trends
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TOPIC 1: INTRODUCTION TO PROJECT MANAGEMENT

1. Meaning of Terms related to Project Management

2. Characteristics of a Project
3. Types of Projects
4. Principles of Project Management
5. Importance of Project Management
6. Difference between a Project and a Functional Operation
7. Project Management versus Functional Management
8. Factors that determine the Success of a Project
9. Challenges that may be faced in Project Management
10. The Project Problem Tree

MEANING OF TERMS RELATED TO PROJECT MANAGEMENT

A project

✓ A project is a set of activities implemented in a logical order or sequence to achieve

a well-defined objective which usually addresses the needs of a people in a
community locally or in a specified place. A project has a definite start time and
end time and is implemented within the constrains, the resources such as time,
money, human manpower, capital, materials, etc.

✓ A Project can also be defined as a temporary endeavor to create a unique product

or service.

✓ It is usually about creating something new, but it could also be of complex process
to improve an existing product or service to maintain the status e.g., installing a
new computer system.

✓ In summary a project ca be defined as the effort of multitude of men and machine

engaged in the conversion of an idea to a reality.
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CHARACTERISTICS OF A PROJECT

➢ Unique in nature.
➢ Have definite objectives (goals) to achieve.
➢ Requires set of resources.
➢ Have a specific time frame for completion with a definite start and finish.
➢ Involves risk and uncertainty.
➢ Requires cross-functional teams and interdisciplinary approach.

PROJECT MANAGEMENT

Management- It is the art of coordinating, directing, controlling, monitoring and

measuring the performance of a project.

Project management is the application of processes, methods, skills, knowledge and

experience to achieve specific project objectives according to the project acceptance
criteria within agreed parameters. Project management has final deliverables that are
constrained to a finite timescale and budget.

Project management is therefore the planning and controlling of events that together
comprise the project.

Project management aims to ensure the effective use of resources and delivery of the
project objectives on time and within cost constrains.

Project management can also be said to be the collection of management tools tailored
to maximize the success of a project.

Project management is therefore facilitating communication between the management,

the technical staff and the client’s satisfaction.

Project management is the application of knowledge, skills, tools, and techniques to

project activities to achieve project requirements.
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CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD PROJECT MANAGER

➢ Must possess leadership skills - To lead means to influence people toward a

desired value, the norms and establishes the atmosphere of the project and the
way various project activities are approached.

➢ Has Negotiation and Conflict Resolution Skills - The project manager must
have a good negotiation skill and the ability to feel for a situation. Should be able
to ensure that conflicts within the team members is resolved immediately and
amicably.

✓ Should avoid favoritism and extending undeserved favors on a section of

employees.
✓ Should be able to negotiate the relationship between the project and its
evaluation that is able at the center of all the stake holder and respond to the
concerns of all.

➢ Exercise Interpersonal Skills - The project manager should be able to relate

with other stakeholders peacefully -Persons who put their emotions under control.

➢ Should be a Change Agent - As a changed agent the project manager should

insist on accuracy and honesty instill a sense of urgency.

➢ Excellent Communication Skills-A project manager should be able to

communicate clearly in oral and written forms.

➢ Knowledgeable and Confident - project managers should be researching

oriented people with a high appetite for searching new knowledge -A person full
of knowledge is a confident person.

➢ Innovative and Creative - Life is a game of strategies employed. A proper

analysis of the b/s environment has seen very small organization overtake giant
organizations e.g., Equity Bank of Kenya. Innovative and creativity allows the
Project Manager to employ the right strategies in re-engineering the product and
service.
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➢ Excellent Time manager - Time management in projects is essential are critical

since all activities are scheduled alongside time, money, materials, and human
resource. Lack of management of time will translate to a cost and time overrun.
This simply means extra payment must be made for extra time taken therefore
making the completion of the project unachievable. At the basic level, a project
manager should be an example of a time manager in regards of daily routines by
taking the lead.

➢ Should be relevantly dressed - Everybody forms an opinion of the character,

the personality, the temperament, occupation, of another person when they are
wearing, their posture, lifestyle and what they say.

What one wears talks volume about them and therefore project managers should be
sensitive to the (HALLOW EFFECT)

FUNCTIONS OF A PROJECT MANAGER

➢ Developing the nation - A vision is a desired goal -Visions are usually developed
to be achieved within 3 years ,5 years, or 10 years -He /she should have a sharp
focus to vision and draw others to it, ensure relevance, set objectives and remain
inspirational.

➢ Maintaining Commitments -Project Managers should communicate constantly

the project vision to rekindle the fire.

➢ Be an Integrator - Project managers should coordinate activities, provide overall

project system, define the end, complete task definition and provide the
performance criteria.

➢ Should be a change agent -The world is quite dynamic, and technology is fast
changing. The project manager should be quick or fast to adopt new ideas and
skills that will propel the organization into higher heights of performance.

➢ Should be a resource provider- project managers should provide the human

resource, finance, and infrastructure as well as define the resource requirement
and management.

➢ Should manage conflict -should be able to anticipate bottle necks and problems
and ensure conflict resolutions.
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PROJECT PERFORMANCE DIMENSIONS

Three major dimensions that define the project performance are scope, time, and
resource. These parameters are interrelated and interactive. The relationship is generally
represented as an equilateral triangle.

It is evident that any change in any one of the dimensions would affect the other. For
example, if the scope is enlarged, project would require more time for completion and
the cost would also go up. If time is reduced the scope and cost would also be required
to be reduced.

Similarly, any change in cost would be reflected in scope and time. Successful
completion of the project would require accomplishment of specified goals within
scheduled time and budget. In recent years a fourth dimension, stakeholder
satisfaction, is added to the project. However, the other school of management argues
that this dimension is an inherent part of the scope of the project that defines the
specifications to which the project is required to be implemented. Thus, the
performance of a project is measured by the degree to which these three parameters
(scope, time and cost) are achieved.

Mathematically

Performance = f (Scope, Cost, Time)

In management literature, this equilateral triangle is also referred as the “Quality

triangle” of the project.
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TYPES OF PROJECTS

Civil and Construction Projects - These are projects which are implemented for
infrastructure improvement /development e.g., roads, buildings, waterways, airways etc.

Mining, Extraction and Quarrying Projects - These projects are focused to

exploration of natural resources in each country such as minerals coal, diamond, goal,
rutile, iron ore.

Manufacturing Projects - Are projects focused on turning raw materials in new

materials e.g., steel industry, clothing industry.

Management processes projects - Projects focused on improving system and the

management processes e.g., computer technology, software, apps e.g., Internet, Mobile
phones.

Research Projects - Are projects carried out by researchers and academicians focused
at providing an existing product or a total discovery on a new product e.g., drugs –
medicine.

PRINCIPLES OF PROJECT MANAGEMENT

The completion of a project is a primary objective of a Project Management. Every project

that is started must be completed 100%. The following principals if observed will lead to
successful Project Management

Commitment Principles -An equitable commitment between principles, resources and

project delivery team must exist before a viable project is realized, defined at the
beginning of a project as a basis of project management decision making and post
management evaluation.

Principle of Management -Policies and procedures that are effective must be put into
place. Projects need to be controlled and directed so that they can be achieved through
the cost standard and the budget.

Single Point response Principle -A single channel of communication must exist

between project sponsors, project managers and the project team for all decisions
affecting the scope.
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PRINCIPLE OF CONTINUOUS EVALUATION

Management must always provide an informed supportive, continuous, monitoring and

evaluation system to ensure that the project delivery terms are adhered to.

Principle of Strategy-Life is a game of strategy. Progressive people think outside the

box, employ innovation and creativity and are always willing to learn from past mistakes.

Principle of Sustainability -Projects benefits should be realized long after the projects
closure.

IMPORTANCE OF PROJECT MANAGEMENT

➢ To ensure proper utilization of available resources. Resources are never enough.

Time is one of the resources that is depletable and non-renewable. Money once
spent also cannot be recovered. These resources are managed in project
management through scheduling and leveling time and finances.

➢ To align goals to the strategic objectives of the organization /individuals. All

projects are designed, planned and implemented with the aim of achieving a
predetermined goal. The strategies that individuals and organizations employ is
what makes a distinction in the level of success. strategies are to be adhered to
with constituency and regular review.

➢ To ensure there is optimal return from the organization investment. Every

organization enters an investment both profit and non- profit projects with the aim
of attaining returns.

➢ To ensure timely achievement of the organization’s objectives. Every project has

a definite start time and end time. Objectives set for every project should be
achieved at the closure of the project.

➢ To minimize and control risks. Risks are any occurrence that could cause the
objective of a project not be achieved as intended.

➢ To ensure the right activities are carried out.

FACTORS THAT LEAD TO A SUCCESS OF A PROJECT

➢ Formal governance and change approval guidelines.

➢ Accountability for projects results by implementers.

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➢ Training in project management skills

➢ Having measurement and feedback system

➢ Formal priorities for requests and changes

➢ Regular communications with stakeholders

➢ Having a monitoring and evaluation system

PROJECT MANAGEMENT VERSUS FUNCTIONAL MANAGEMENT

The key difference between project management and functional management is that
project management is the process of initiating, planning, executing, controlling, and
closing the work of a project to achieve a specific objective whereas functional
management is managing the routing activities in the organization relating to various
functions such as production, sales, and marketing, finance etc. to achieve the overall
objective of the organization. Managing functional tasks are done from the inception to
the end of a business organization. On the other hand, projects are carried out based on
a specific need.

What is Project Management?

Project management is the process of initiating, planning, executing, controlling, and
closing the work of a project to achieve a pre-determined objective. Project management
institute (PMI) defines project management as “the application of knowledge, skills, tools
and techniques to a broad range of activities in order to meet the requirements of a
particular project”.

What is Functional Management?

Functional management refers to managing the routing activities in the organization
relating to various functions such as production, sales, and marketing, finance etc.
Functional managers have ongoing responsibilities and are not usually directly associated
with project teams. The main task of functional managers is to ensure that the daily
business activities are conducted smoothly, which in turn will assist in realizing the overall
corporate objectives.
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DIFFERENCE BETWEEN A PROJECT AND A FUNCTIONAL

OPERATION

There are many differences between projects and Functional operations.

Some differences are as follows:

▪ Projects are unique and temporary, while operations are ongoing and permanent
with a repetitive output.

▪ Projects have a fixed budget, while operations must earn a profit to run the
business.

▪ Projects are executed to start a new business objective and terminated when it is
achieved, while operational work does not produce anything new and is ongoing.

▪ Projects create a unique product, service, or result, while operations produce the
same product, aim to earn a profit and keep the system running.

▪ There are more risks in projects as they are usually done for the first time, while
in operations there are fewer risks as they are repeated many times.

▪ Projects are performance intensive while operations are efficiency intensive.

▪ Projects are managed through project management and operations require

business process management.

FACTORS THAT DETERMINE THE SUCCESS OF A PROJECT

1. Planning
Comprehensive planning sets up a project for success from the start. All stakeholders
should be on board during the planning process and always know in which direction the
project is going to go. Planning can help the team to meet deadlines and stay organized.
Good planning not only keeps the project team focused and on track, but also keeps
stakeholders aware of project progress.

2. Open Communication
Keeping open communication within the team is essential. When working under a specific
timetable, it is important that the team remains well-informed. If a problem arises on one
part of a project, it can negatively impact other parts as well.
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Communication is the best way to prevent problems from occurring. Communication

should also be focused internally within the organization. Keeping an organizational
history of major projects will give convenient access to improved policies and business
processes. If this isn’t done, then a team may repeat mistakes that have already occurred.
Listening to stakeholders and paying attention is a very important ingredient for success.

3. Careful Risk Management

Project managers know that things rarely go off exactly as planned. During the planning
process, it is vital to produce a risk log with an action plan for the risks that the project
could face. Make sure all key stakeholders are aware of your risk log and know where
they can find it. If something happens, then the team can quickly resolve the issue with
the management plan that has already been set in place. This will give the team
confidence when facing project risks and help the clients feel comfortable with the
project’s progression. Having a central online database of project information is vital to
ensure you don’t lose crucial project momentum during the project, but also in the event
of losing key participants you can quickly get your new team members up to speed.

4. Right Team
Without the right team in place, any strategy and plan has the potential of completely
falling apart. Because of this, the core project staff, expert resources, suppliers and all
stakeholders should be part of the team dynamic. All of those involved must have
commitment to the group, share similar visions for the projects and strive for overall
success.
5. Controlling
Check on your progress and evaluate results on a regular basis. Define key performance
indicators (KPI) and use reports to be able to quickly grasp if the project is on track. If
things go sideways, you will recognize early on and be able to take countermeasures
before bigger damage is done.

6. Experienced project managers

You can learn the theory and methods of project management but in the end, success
comes with experience. The more experienced a project manager, the more confidence
and skill he will have to overcome the challenges of the daily project business.

CHALLENGES THAT MAY BE FACED IN PROJECT MANAGEMENT

1. Undefined Goals – When goals are not clearly identified, the whole project and
team can suffer. When upper management cannot agree to or support undefined
goals, the project in question typically has little chance of succeeding. The project
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manager must ask the right questions to establish and communicate clear goals
from the outset.

2. Scope Changes – Also known as scope creep, this occurs when project
management allows the project’s scope to extend beyond its original objectives.
Clients and supervisors may ask for changes to a project, and it takes a strong
project manager to evaluate each request and decide how and if to implement it,
while communicating the effects on budget and deadlines to all stakeholders.

3. Inadequate Skills for the Project – A project sometimes requires skills that the
project’s contributors do not possess. Project management training can help a
project leader determine the needed competencies, assess the available workers
and recommend training, outsourcing or hiring additional staff.

4. Lack of Accountability – A project manager’s leadership qualities can shine when

each member of the team takes responsibility for his or her role in achieving project
success. Conversely, a lack of accountability can bring a project to a complete halt.
Finger-pointing and avoiding blame are unproductive, but all-too-common features
of flawed project management. Learning to direct teams toward a common goal is
an important aspect of project management training.

5. Improper Risk Management – Learning to deal with and plan for risk is another
important piece of project management training. Risk management is typically a
desirable project manager trait because projects rarely go exactly to plan.
Gathering input, developing trust and knowing which parts of a project are most
likely to veer off course are aspects of the project manager’s job.

6. Ambiguous Contingency Plans – It’s important for project managers to know

what direction to take in pre-defined “what-if” scenarios. If contingencies are not
identified, the entire project can become mired in an unexpected set of problems.
Asking others to identify potential problem areas can lead to a smooth and
successful project.

7. Poor Communication – Project managers provide direction at every step of the

project, so each team leader knows what’s expected. Effective communication to
everyone involved in the project is crucial to its successful completion. Good project
managers keep communication and feedback flowing between upper management
and team leaders.
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8. Impossible Deadlines – A successful project manager knows that repeatedly

asking a team for the impossible can quickly result in declining morale and
productivity. The odds of successfully completing a project under unreasonable
deadlines are generally not feasible expectations.

9. Resource Deprivation – In order for a project to be run efficiently and effectively,

management must provide sufficient resources. Project management training
shows how to define needs and obtain approval up front and helps project
managers assign and prioritize resources throughout the duration of a project.

10. Lack of Stakeholder Engagement – A disinterested team member, client, CEO

or vendor can destroy a project. A skilled project manager communicates openly
and encourages feedback at every step to create greater engagement among
participants.

THE PROJECT PROBLEM TREE

EFFECTS

PROBLEMS

CAUSES

A problem tree provides an overview of all the known causes and effect to an identified
problem. This is important in planning a community engagement or behavior change
project as it establishes the context in which a project is to occur. Understanding the
context helps reveal the complexity of life and this is essential in planning a successful
change project.

A problem tree involves writing causes in a negative form (eg. lack of knowledge, not
enough money etc.). Reversing the problem tree, by replacing negative statements with
positive ones, creates a solution tree. A solution tree identifies means-end relationships
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as opposed to cause-effects. This provides an overview of the range of projects or

interventions that need to occur to solve the core problem.

A problem tree analysis:

▪ Helps the planning of a project.

▪ Provides a guide as to the complexity of a problem by identifying the multiple

causes.

▪ Identifies lines of intervention and other factors that may need to be tackled with
complementary projects.

▪ Provides an outline of the project plan, including the activities that need to be
undertaken, the goal and the outcomes of the project.

▪ A problem tree provides a means to help you select what behaviors you may want
to target in your project.

▪ Conducting a problem tree/solution tree analysis provides a means to review the

existing understanding of the causes to a specific problem and how it can be
overcome.

▪ A problem tree will likely reveal multiple branches (cause & effect relationships)
leading to the core problem. This is very valuable as it identifies factors that may
not be addressed by the planned intervention. For example, existing regulations
may be a factor in the problem, but this may not be impacted upon by planned
intervention. This may result in the failure to achieve project objectives. It could
be that impacting upon regulation is not achievable and thus out of scope for the
project. If this is the case, then the evaluators need to account for this when the
intervention is evaluated.

▪ Like any other tree, the problem tree has three parts: a trunk, roots, and branches.
The trunk is the main problem. The roots represent the causes of the core problem
while the branches represent its effects.
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HOW TO DEVELOP THE PROBLEM TREE

Step 1. Settle on the core problem

The first step in developing the problem tree is to identify the problem that the project
seeks to overcome. It may be worth debating what the core problem is with stakeholder
representatives. Ideally projects should have a specific problem (eg. saving water inside
the home) that they seek to overcome if change is to occur. Things to help define the
core problem include lessons from previous projects, the stakeholder analysis, and other
research. If there seems to be more than one core problem, it may be best to develop a
problem tree for each one.

Step 2. Identify the causes and effects

Once the core problem has been identified, participants should consider what the direct
causes and effects of the problem are. Each cause statement needs to be written in
negative terms. There are a couple of ways to undertake this. Participants can either
collectively brainstorm all the negative statements about the problem at hand, and a
facilitator writes each negative statement down on a piece of paper. The statements
would then be placed on a wall, for the participants to analyses and reorder. Alternatively,
participants could work through the cause and effect on a sequential basis, starting from
the core problem. The immediate causes to the problem are placed in a line below that
of the core problem. The immediate effect is placed above the problem. Any further or
subsequent effects are placed above the line of immediate effects.

Developing the linear cause-effect relationship for a problem tree

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Participants need to continue to repeat the process on further horizontal lines until they
are no longer able to identify any further underlying causes.

It is important to review the sequence of cause and effects to make sure that they are
clear and make logical sense (eg. does this lead to that, or is there a missing step, and
is this the effect of that happening). It is important to ensure that there is agreement
among the participants. If there is more than one cause to an effect, you can place these
side by side.

Once the order or placement of all the cause-and-effect relationships is agreed, they can
be linked with vertical lines. Horizontal lines can be used to join related causes or effects.
The result is a problem tree which outlines the cause-and-effect relationship between the
different levels.

Step 3. Develop a solution tree

A solution (also called objectives) tree is developed by reversing the negative statements
that form the problem tree into positive ones. For example, a cause (problem tree) such
as “lack of knowledge” would become a means such as “increased knowledge”. The
objectives tree demonstrates the means-end relationship between objectives.

It is advisable to go through the solution tree and check to see if all the statements are
clear, and if there are any missing steps between a means and an end. If so, you may
need to revise both the problem and solution trees by adding more statements.

Step 4. Select the preferred intervention

The final step is to select a preferred strategy for the intervention. This step is designed
to allow the project design team to select and focus an intervention on a preferred
strategy. The solution tree may present several separate or linked interventions to solve
a problem. Depending on project funding, time, and relevance, a planned intervention
may not be able to tackle all the causes. However, it if all the causes cannot be overcome
by a project, or complementary projects, it is important to identify if any of the branches
are more influential than others in solving a problem.
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TOPIC 2: PROJECT LIFE CYCLE

1. Meaning of Project Life Cycle
2. Stages of Project Life Cycle

MEANING OF PROJECT LIFE CYCLE

A project life cycle is the sequence of phases that a project goes through from its initiation
to its closure. In an adaptive life cycle, the product is developed over multiple iterations,
and detailed scope is defined for iteration only as the iteration begins.

STAGES OF PROJECT LIFE CYCLE

PHASE 1: PROJECT INITIATION

This is the start of the project, and the goal of this phase is to define the project at a
broad level. This phase usually begins with a business case. This is when you will research
whether the project is feasible and if it should be undertaken. If feasibility testing needs
to be done, this is the stage of the project in which that will be completed. Important
stakeholders will do their due diligence to help decide if the project is a “go.” If it is given
the green light, you will need to create a Project Charter or a project Initiation
Document (PID) that outlines the purpose and requirements of the project. It should
include business needs, stakeholders, and the business case. The activities in
initiation are:
Project conception
✓ At this stage an idea regarding a required intervention in a specific area to address
and identify problems is formed or developed through discussion with specialized
leaders, peers and is catalyzed into a proposal.

✓ The projects can therefore be conceived based on market demands, resource

availability, technology, natural calamities.

Project Identification
✓ This stage refers to the process where all potential projects arising from ideas
crystalize in the first stage are determined.

✓ An individual or an organization capable of identifying the most viable projects can be

engaged to support, to realize the expectation of the idea holder.

✓ The idea holder can submit the information in form of a proposal.

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✓ This proposal is usually general and descriptive.

✓ A feasibility test is conducted.

Project preparation
✓ This stage involves a more thorough exercise of collecting data and information of the
proposed project.

✓ At this stage of the cycle the objective of the project is defined, and alternative
solutions described.

✓ The project preparation contains the design of operational proposal, which is

technically, financially, and economically visible.

✓ The decision is made on the scope of the project as well as the location and size.

Project Appraisal
✓ It involves a further analysis of the proposed project.

✓ At this stage a critical review of the project is undertaken.

✓ This systematic and comprehensive review is usually undertaken by an independent

team of experts in consultation with the stakeholders of the project.

✓ This provides an opportunity to re-examine every aspect of the project plan to assess
whether the proposal is justified before realizing money.

✓ The approach may change the project plan to a new one.

Project Selection
✓ After appraisal a viable or suitable proposal is chosen for implementation.

✓ Various project selection models both numeric and non-numeric are employed in
project selection.

✓ The criteria for selection is pre-determined

Project Negotiation and Financing

✓ Once the project to be implemented is agreed on, resources are mobilized.
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✓ For donor funded projects discussions are held on funding and associated aspects of
funding such as conditionality for grants, repayment periods and interest rates if
loans are borrowed.
✓ They must also discuss the flow of funds, contributions from stake holders and
beneficiaries and if there is any co-financing.
✓ This results in an agreement document of the project that binds all parties involved
during the implementation of a project.
✓ (PAD-Project Appraisal Document, POM- Project Operational Manual)

PHASE 2: PROJECT PLANNING

This phase is key to successful project management and focuses on developing a
roadmap that everyone will follow. This phase typically begins with setting goals. Two of
S.M.A.R.T. Goals – This method helps ensure that the goals have been thoroughly
vetted. It also provides a way to clearly understand the implications of the goal-setting
process.

S.M.A.R.T. Goals
Specific – To set specific goals, answer the following questions: who, what, where, when,
which, and why.

Measurable – Create criteria that you can use to measure the success of a goal.

Attainable – Identify the most important goals and what it will take to achieve them.

Realistic – You should be willing and able to work toward a particular goal. Timely –
Create a timeframe to achieve the goal.

C.L.E.A.R. Goals – A newer method for setting goals that takes into consideration the
environment of today’s fast-paced businesses.

Collaborative – The goal should encourage employees to work together.

Limited – They should be limited in scope and time to keep it manageable.

Emotional – Goals should tap into the passion of employees and be something they can
form an emotional connection to. This can optimize the quality of work.
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Appreciable – Break larger goals into smaller tasks that can be quickly achieved.

Refinable – As new situations arise, be flexible and refine goals as needed.

During this phase, the Scope of the Project is defined, and a Project Management
Plan is developed. It involves identifying the cost, quality, available resources, and a
realistic timetable. The project plans also include establishing baselines or performance
measures. These are generated using the scope, schedule and cost of a project. A
Baseline is essential to determine if a project is on track.

At this time, roles and responsibilities are clearly defined, so everyone involved knows
what they are accountable for. Here are some of the documents a PM will create during
this phase to ensure the project will stay on track:

• Scope Statement – A document that clearly defines the business need, benefits
of the project, objectives, deliverables, and key milestones. A scope statement
may change during the project, but it shouldn’t be done without the approval of
the project manager and the sponsor.

• Work Breakdown Schedule (WBS) –This is a visual representation that breaks

down the scope of the project into manageable sections for the team.

• Milestones – Identify high-level goals that need to be met throughout the project
and include them in the Gantt chart.

• Gantt Chart – A visual timeline that you can use to plan out tasks and visualize
your project timeline.

• Communication Plan – This is of particular importance if your project involves

outside stakeholders. Develop the proper messaging around the project and create
a schedule of when to communicate with team members based on deliverables
and milestones.

• Risk Management Plan – Identify all foreseeable risks. Common risks include
unrealistic time and cost estimates, customer review cycle, budget cuts, changing
requirements, and lack of committed resources.
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PHASE 3: PROJECT EXECUTION

This is the phase where deliverables are developed and completed. This often feels like
the meat of the project since a lot is happening during this time, like status reports and
meetings, development updates, and performance reports. A “kick-off” meeting usually
marks the start of the Project Execution phase where the teams involved are informed of
their responsibilities.

Tasks completed during the Execution Phase include:

a. Develop team
b. Assign resources
c. Execute project management plans
d. Procurement management if needed
e. PM directs and manages project execution
f. Set up tracking systems
g. Task assignments are executed
h. Status meetings
i. Update project schedule
j. Modify project plans as needed

PHASE 4: PROJECT PERFORMANCE/MONITORING

This is all about measuring project progression and performance and ensuring that
everything happening aligns with the project management plan. Project managers will
use key performance indicators (KPIs) to determine if the project is on track. A PM will
typically pick two to five of these KPIs to measure project performance:

• Project Objectives: Measuring if a project is on schedule and budget is an

indication if the project will meet stakeholder objectives.

• Quality Deliverables: This determines if specific task deliverables are being met.
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• Effort and Cost Tracking: PMs will account for the effort and cost of resources
to see if the budget is on track. This type of tracking informs if a project will meet
its completion date based on current performance.
• Project Performance: This monitors changes in the project. It takes into
consideration the amount and types of issues that arise and how quickly they are
addressed. These can occur from unforeseen hurdles and scope changes. During
this time, PMs may need to adjust schedules and resources to ensure the project
is on track.

PHASE 5: PROJECT CLOSURE

Projects are terminated currently. Valuable team members are recognized. Some PMs
even organize small work events for people who participated in the project to thank them
for their efforts. Once a project is complete, a PM will often hold a meeting – sometimes
referred to as a “postmortem” – to evaluate what went well in a project and identify
project failures. This is especially helpful to understand lessons learned so that
improvements can be made for future projects.
Once the project is complete, PMs still have a few tasks to complete. They will need to
create a project punch list of things that didn’t get accomplished during the project and
work with team members to complete them. Perform a final project budget and prepare
a final project report. Finally, they will need to collect all project documents and
deliverables and store them in a single place.
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TOPIC 3: PROJECT IDENTIFICATION

1. Meaning of Project Identification

2. Sources of Project Ideas
3. Methods used in Project Identification
4. Steps in Project Identification
5. Establishing Terms of Reference
6. Importance of Feasibility Studies
7. Challenges in Project Identification

MEANING OF PROJECT IDENTIFICATION

Project Identification is a repeatable process for documenting, validating, ranking and
approving candidate projects within an organization.

Purpose of Project Identification

Due to the changing financial conditions within the total organization, it is necessary to
establish a stable process for approving projects for initiation. This process will…

▪ Validate the business reason for each candidate project.

▪ Provide the base information for more informed financial commitments to

projects.

▪ Establish a more objective ranking of candidate projects.

▪ Allow a more effective matching of skilled resources to the right project.

▪ Avoid over-allocating limited skilled resources.

▪ Anticipate future human resource quantities and skills.

▪ Provide a valid basis for staff training.

▪ Make Project Initiation faster and more efficient.

Because priorities, finances and resources may change at any time, it is critical that this
process be well-defined and easy to follow. It is also important that its value understood
and supported by corporate leaders and the business organization.
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Problem Identification
• Problem identification is a very crucial process in the early stages of project development,
and this is what forms the process of project justification rationale, that is, core of the
project existence and definition.

• Problem identification refers to the process of assessing the problems encountered by a

people locally, nationally, regionally and globally.
• Projects grow out of problems and therefore the identification of problems is about
function finding the issues that affect people/uniting them too maximally. All these issues,
when summed up become the problem statement of the project.
• The problem statement specifies the problem at hand that needs to be solved, the ideas
to solve the problem and all aspects to be considered in solving the problem. Therefore,
the problem to be the solved becomes the objective of the project.

SOURCES OF PROJECT IDEAS

• Reviewing of suggestions and recommendations by development agencies, investors
and their partners.
• Assessing the status of local resource utilization with the objective of establishing the
gap to be filled.
• Analyzing the performance of existing industries in terms of capacity and profitability.
• Study of government plans, outlaws and guidelines. This has indicators of demand
and short forms where one can take advantage.
• Study of emerging trends e.g., increasing population, decrease in land or sites,
decrease in soil fertility.
• Analyzing of social and economic trend e.g., high cost of living has led to all parents
engaging in full time and long hours of working.
• Exploring the availability of restored investments i.e. revival of stored supermarkets
such as Choithram, stored processing. Identification of unfulfilled psychological needs.

• Ideas from attending trade fairs.

• Examining new technology or research finding for new exploitation e.g M-pesa.
Natural calamities.

• Development plan priorities in national and regional development plans.

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• Changing trends in the current status e.g. unemployed youth.

• Local market demand in oversees market.

METHODS USED IN PROJECT IDENTIFICATION

Main approaches to project identification are:

(i)The top-down approach

(ii)The bottom-up approach

(iii)The need problem and trend pattern approach (NPT)

Top-Down Approach
• The top-down approach focuses on the negative characteristics of a community and
demoralizes the product beneficiaries.
• It is commonly adopted by donors and senior managers because they think the target
beneficiaries do not understand their problems /the donor and senior managers have
their interests to serve.
• Projects are identified based on demand beyond the community. Such sources may be
directives including, but not limited to:

(i)International conventions such as Kyoto Protocol/Climate Change

(ii)International institutions/NGOs that have determined priorities.

(iii)Global regional and national policy makers e.g., sustainable development goals

Advantages of the top-down approach

(i)It is a source of employment, through partnerships with local suppliers.

(ii)It is appropriate for rapid response to disasters e.g., war, floods, outbreaks.

(iii)It is effective in providing common service to education, health, water and transport.

(iv)It is appropriate in contributing to wider nationals/international objectives and goals and

therefore has a widespread benefit.

(v)It is appropriate for sharing trans boundary resources.

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Disadvantages of the top-down approach

(i)It does not help in modifying strongly established ideas and beliefs of the target
beneficiaries.

(ii)It assumes external individuals know better than beneficiaries which is not true.
Communities know their problem even though they do not have a solution.

(iii)Communities have little to say in planning process rendering the process devoid of human
resource development.

(iv)It forms a strong basis for community dependency syndrome on outside assistance not
exploiting their own potential.

(v)It leads to low community morale and causes.

(vi)It can lead to migration to where the jobs are leading to a high population, therefore
causing high unemployment, social vice, crime, early pregnancy, violence etc.

Tools and techniques in top-down approach

(i)The household (social economic survey)
• Here in Kenya, the household survey is conducted majorly by Kenya National Bureau of
Statistics (KNBS). It is also conducted by the Kenya Institute for Public Policy Research
and Analysis (KIPPRA).
• This involves studies of the social economic statistics of an economic area e.g. climate,
economic activities, education system ,culture ,physical infrastructure .It involves use of
questionnaires ,interviews ,documentation and direct observation.

(ii)Rapid Appraisal
• Rapid rural appraisal is carried out in rural areas whereas rapid urban appraisal is carried
out in rapid urban areas.
• This involves collection and assessment of data quickly, so as to acquire information in
the shortest time possible and at a low cost.
• It is called rapid because the investigation and assessment of projects are done at the
same time.
• The data techniques are analysis of secondary data, interviews and direct observation.
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(iii)Needs Assessment Survey

This is also called SITAN, which is Situational Analysis. It involves fact finding about
problems/needs in each area/community finding out what is given out in a given area.
This is done to identify the solution.

Bottom-Up Approval
▪ In this approach, communities/beneficiaries are encouraged to identify and plan the
project themselves with/without outsiders. This focuses on the strengths and
resources within the community.
▪ It gives the community an opportunity to strategically design, progressive and
transformative development programs that respond to the needs, situation and
perception of the people.
▪ Every individual/ community, regardless of their location have opportunities, strengths,
weaknesses and threats.
▪ Unfortunately, leaders and individuals in developing countries have led their people
and themselves towards the scarcity mentality. This has made many people not to see
the great opportunities and strengths granted to them by God the creator.

Every community has capital that can contribute to the community’s progressive and
transformative development. Example:
(i)Natural capital (natural ecosystem/resources) trees, water etc.

(ii)Physical capital such as property, equipment and plans.

(iii)Economic capital i.e. market value of assets and liabilities

(iv)Human capital i.e. competence, knowledge, skills, physical health, talent

(v)Social capital (relationships, cooperation, network of influence and support)

(vi)Cultural capital (education, religion, heritage)

Advantages of bottom-up approach

(i)It is appropriate for accomplishing interventions with limited resources.

(ii)It allows for better management of resources since people will tend to safeguard what
belongs to them/what they have provided.
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(iii)It is an appropriate approach for building the capacity of the people to identify their
problems and needs and seek possible solutions.

(iv)It allows peoples participation in solution formulation therefore, providing opportunities

to educating people.

(v)It helps people to work as a team making the project progressive and sustainable.

Short comings/Disadvantages of bottom-up approach

(i)It is not effective for projects that require urgency to implement.

(ii)It is based on the principle of democracy therefore time consuming.

(iii)It provides basis for holding people accountable therefore causes people to dislike the
approach because they don’t want to take responsibility for action.

(iv)The agency using the approach is never in control and cannot guarantee the results it
wants since it is not in full control.

(v)The priorities of the community may not fit with that of the national and international
priorities that seek to have a broader effect.

Tools used for bottom-up approach

(i)Animation
It’s the process of stimulating people to become more aware of conscience they suffer from.
This method gives people confidence in their ability to deal with problems and make them
better prepared to overcome its problems and be aware to take full responsibility.

The animation is carried out by animators. They can be internal/external.

(ii)Facilitation/Community action
This is an attempt to assist people to get over problems by equipping them with skills,
providing information e.g. market information, linking them up with relevant agencies
and organizations to improve access to needed resources.
(iii)Participatory appraisal (PRA / PUA)
Participatory appraisal is an approach of many methods carried out with local communities
identifying and selecting project participatory.
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STEPS IN PROJECT IDENTIFICATION

CERTIFY BUSINESS CASE
Document Business Case: Evaluate all Candidate Project Information that has been
provided by the requesting organization or that has been gathered by a technical analyst.
If additional information is needed, issue an Information Request to the requester. Format
this information into a Business Case. Assign the Candidate Project a new Project Code.

Review Business Case: The Business Case will be examined by an screening body
with the corporate authority to accept or reject a Candidate Project. When a Business
Case is accepted, the Candidate Project is captured in a repository for ranking and
selection. If additional information is required on a Business Case, note it as “pending”
and issue an Information Request to the requester. If a Business Case is rejected, send
the information to the requester with an explanation for the rejection. Remain this
information in a repository.

Update Business Case: When additional information is received on a Candidate.

Project, obtain the pending Business Case from the repository and revise the data. This
Business Case should now be reconsidered by process.

Rank Candidate Projects:

When requested, all Candidate Projects that are in the repository should be objectively
ranked in order of significance. The ranking criteria should include…

▪ Target due dates

▪ Impact on the total business

▪ Impact on the technology architecture

▪ Impact on other applications

▪ Project size, cost and duration Project risk

It will be helpful to rank projects against each of these criteria separately and then
compile a single ranking that weights each of these criteria against each other. This
ranking process is typically used to feed quarterly budget decisions but may be
requested at any time.
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Evaluate Resources: An updated Skills Inventory should be maintained for all corporate
(Business Unit and Information Technology Department) resources that are available for
project assignment. Additionally, an inventory of available contract resources should also
be captured. The purpose of this Skills Inventory is to understand the true capabilities
and capacities of these resources.

Determine Resource Needs: By evaluating the Skills Inventory and the Candidate
Project repository, this process will identify anticipated requirements for quantities and
capabilities of future resources. This information will provide…

▪ The identification of critical training needs

▪ A basis for employment opportunities

▪ Criteria for contract personal

This process should be reviewed on a regular basis by Resource Managers within the
organization and can be used for staff career counselling.

Approve Project

ESTABLISHING TERMS OF REFERENCE

Terms of Reference is a document that explains the objectives, scope of work, activities,
tasks to be performed, respective responsibilities of the Employer and the Consultant,
and expected results and deliverables of the Assignment/job.

The constituents of TOR

I. Background -describes the project in the context. States the general note
stakeholders in doing project. Background provides an overview of history behind
the project.
II. Objectives -these are the desired accomplishments that can be reasonably
desired upon the project completion with consumption of available resources and
within an expected timeframe.
III. Scope\ issues - project involves several issues and problematic areas that need
to be addressed in order for the project to be implemented smoothly.
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General issue evaluation criteria for projects

a. Efficiency - how well the given activity transforms available resources t

desired outputs.
b. Reference - analyze if a given activity is being performed to desired benefits.
c. Impact - extent to which the projects benefits received by the target audience.
d. Sustainability - criterion identifies whether the project positive outcomes will
continue after funding ends.
e. Methodology - how to carry out the project I a cost effective way
f. Expertise - the expertise needed for doing a project defines a set of
professional requirements for the individual and terms involved in project
implementation.

g. Reporting - reporting provides valid information about a project performance

over a certain period.
h. Work plan - is a kind of strategy that aims to help solve problems through a
project and boost employee drive and focus.

IMPORTANCE OF FEASIBILITY STUDIES

A feasibility study is an analysis that takes all of a project's relevant factors into account—
including economic, technical, legal, and scheduling considerations—to ascertain the
likelihood of completing the project successfully.

Areas of Feasibility Study

A feasibility analysis evaluates the project’s potential for success; therefore, perceived
objectivity is an essential factor in the credibility of the study for potential investors and
lending institutions. There are five areas of feasibility study—separate areas that a
feasibility study examines, described below.

1. Technical Feasibility
This assessment focuses on the technical resources available to the organization. It
helps organizations determine whether the technical resources meet capacity and
whether the technical team can convert the ideas into working systems. Technical
feasibility also involves the evaluation of the hardware, software, and other technical
requirements of the proposed system. As an exaggerated example, an organization
wouldn’t want to try to put Star Trek’s transporters in their building—currently, this
project is not technically feasible.
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2. Economic Feasibility
This assessment typically involves a cost/ benefits analysis of the project, helping
organizations determine the viability, cost, and benefits associated with a project before
financial resources are allocated. It also serves as an independent project assessment
and enhances project credibility—helping decision-makers determine the positive
economic benefits to the organization that the proposed project will provide.

3. Legal Feasibility
This assessment investigates whether any aspect of the proposed project conflicts with
legal requirements like zoning laws, data protection acts or social media laws. Let’s say
an organization wants to construct a new office building in a specific location. A feasibility
study might reveal the organization’s ideal location isn’t zoned for that type of business.
That organization has just saved considerable time and effort by learning that their
project was not feasible right from the beginning.

4. Operational Feasibility
This assessment involves undertaking a study to analyze and determine whether—and
how well—the organization’s needs can be met by completing the project. Operational
feasibility studies also examine how a project plan satisfies the requirements identified in
the requirements analysis phase of system development.

5. Scheduling Feasibility
This assessment is the most important for project success; after all, a project will fail if
not completed on time. In scheduling feasibility, an organization estimates how much
time the project will take to complete.
When these areas have all been examined, the feasibility analysis helps identify any
constraints the proposed project may face, including:

▪ Internal Project Constraints: Technical, Technology, Budget, Resource, etc.

▪ Internal Corporate Constraints: Financial, Marketing, Export, etc.
▪ External Constraints: Logistics, Environment, Laws, and Regulations, etc.
The importance of a feasibility study
This based on organizational desire to “get it right” before committing resources, time,
or budget. A feasibility study might uncover new ideas that could completely change a
project’s scope. It’s best to make these determinations in advance, rather than to jump
in and to learn that the project won’t work. Conducting a feasibility study is always
beneficial to the project as it gives you and other stakeholders a clear picture of the
proposed project.
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Key benefits of conducting a Feasibility Study:

▪ Improves project teams’ focus

▪ Identifies new opportunities

▪ Provides valuable information for a “go/no-go” decision
▪ Narrows the business alternatives
▪ Identifies a valid reason to undertake the project
▪ Enhances the success rate by evaluating multiple parameters
▪ Aids decision-making on the project
▪ Identifies reasons not to proceed

CHALLENGES IN PROJECT IDENTIFICATION

Inadequate Technology Infrastructure. Technology is essential in project

identification as it could be useful in mining of data.

Inadequate data. Data involves decision surveys carried out on social economic
indicators depict the strategic issues of society and the world at large. The information
processed from the data is necessary for identifying gaps. Unfortunately, many
organizations don’t manage data and it’s barely available.

Corruption. Many people given an opportunity would serve their own interests than the
interests of others or community at large therefore, this makes project identification
subjective and ends up not serving the needs of the people.

Lack of innovation. Innovation is the capacity to think outside the box and provide
solutions to problems. Apparently, many people are problem identifiers but not solution
providers. Education systems have failed in their role of creating an innovative learning
environment but only otherwise feeds theory into the mind.

Lack of technical capacity. Capacity is required in screening ideas to come up with

viable one. Such capacity is for example research and development.

Competition. The ever-changing environment has necessitated competition in the

market place as everybody is trying to pace up technology.
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TOPIC 4: PROJECT SELECTION

Sub-Topics
Criteria of Project Selection
Factors to Consider when Selection Projects Tools and Techniques
of Project Selection

CRITERIA OF PROJECT SELECTION

Project selection is the process of accessing each project idea and enumerating the
project with highest priority. It’s a careful study of proposed project, focusing on each
project in detail and choosing one of them for further considerations.

CRITERIA FOR SELECTING A NEW PROJECT

Needs prioritization - This seeks to answer the question, " Which needs have received
the highest potential for impact."

External Impact Consideration - This seeks to answer the question “Who else is
working in that area of intervention, what are their programme strength and activities,
which complement the efforts of your projects. It also seeks to identify the compatibility
of the project with other long-term projects of the organization as well as national and
international development agenda. "

Appropriateness - This seeks to answer the question “Is the project acceptable to the
target population and key stakeholders’ groups. (i.e.) would a reproductive health
programme be consistent and appropriate with religious and cultural norms.

Institutional Capacity - This seeks to answer whether the organization has the
strength and capacity of implementing a project.

Resource Availability - This seeks to answer the following question, " is there potential
for growth, What opportunities exist to leverage resources.

Financial Feasibility - It is the rate of return for investment acceptable.

Technical Feasibility and Sustainability - Can the project be realistically

accomplished sustained and maintained.
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Internal Programme Consideration - This seeks to answer the question," What are
the strategic priorities of the organization in the country /globally, and what priority does
the organizations have regarding to the organization beneficiaries.

CRITERIA FOR SELECTING APPROPRIATE PROJECT SELECTION MODELS

Realism - It dictates that an effective model must reflect organizational objectives. It

must be reasonable in the light of constants such as finance and human resources as
well as considering commercial and technical risks.

Capability - This means the model should be flexible to accommodate changes under
which the projects is being carried out.

Flexibility - The model should be easily modifiable, that is allow adjustments (i.e) in
exchange rates, building cords, etc.

Ease of Use - The models should be simple enough to be used by people of all areas of
the organization. It should be timely, and people should be able to assimilate information
without training /special skills.

Cost - It should be cost effective that is the cost of obtaining selection information and
generating results should be low enough.

Comparability - The models should be broad enough for multiple projects. Should be
easy to store and gather information in the computer database and manipulate the data
in the model through available computer packages.

FACTORS TO CONSIDER WHEN SELECTION PROJECTS

1. Compatibility of the project with other long-term plans - The projects should fit in
the mandate of the organization and the other development plans.

2. Influence of government regulations and control - Projects should meet

government regulations so as not to contravene the law.

3. Sustainability and social welfare

4. Possibility of licensing and knowhow

5. Competitive advantage in case of profit-making projects.

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6. Compatibility of traditional and custom of any kind of religion

TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES OF PROJECT SELECTION

1. Non-Numeric Project Selection Models
These are relatively subjective models that do not involve numbers.
They do not use number as input.
They don’t involve either the use of past or future data.
These models include:

Sacred cow
• In this model, project ideas are guaranteed by powerful individuals in the community
regardless of other people opinion.
• Such powerful sources could be the president, politician, the merchant.

• Projects selected this way enjoy maximum support and stand a high chance of a
successful completion. However, they may not be viable and sustainable in the long
run due to lack of support from the community.

Operating necessity
These are projects that simply keep the system going e.g., online search system, disaster
response system and introduction of new production project for example BVR.

Competitive necessity
They are projects selected where it is deemed it will have competitive edge over the
others offering similar services and goods such as Replacing, old show machines which
are inefficient ones (i.e.) E- banking services, E- registrations etc.

Product line Extension

These projects are meant to fill in a gap that currently exist. They fit in the organization
product line, strengthens a weak link and fills the gap e.g., a mobile phone with a
camera, radio and tracking device.

Comparative Benefit Model

These happens when there are many possible projects which are not easily comparable
in terms of benefit. Selection is based on benefit even though there may not be define
the measure of benefit.
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Democracy /Participatory Method

These are projects that are selected based on the majority view. Such methods
include PRA, PUA. Voting may only be involved.

Urgency criteria
The urgency depends on the power of the proposer since the project is given priority
solution given /depending on the level of urgency.

2. Numeric Project selection Method

These are models which rely on numbers therefore undertake computations. They are:
▪ Payback period
▪ Average rate of return
▪ Net Present Value
▪ Probability Index
▪ Internal Rate of return

Payback period
Payback period in capital budgeting refers to the time required to recoup the funds
expended in an investment, or to reach the break-even point. For example, a $1000
investment made at the start of year 1 which returned $500 at the end of year 1 and
year 2 respectively would have a two-year payback period.

Average rate of return

The Average Rate of Return or ARR, measures the profitability of the investments based
on the information taken from the financial statements rather than the cash flows. It is
also called as Accounting Rate of Return

Net Present Value

Net Present Value (NPV) is the value of all future cash flows (positive and negative) over
the entire life of an investment discounted to the present. NPV analysis is a form of
intrinsic valuation and is used extensively across finance and accounting for determining
the value of a business, investment security, capital project, new venture, cost reduction
program, and anything that involves cash flow.
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Probability Index
Profitability Index is a capital budgeting tool used to rank projects based on their
profitability. It is calculated by dividing the present value of all cash inflows by the initial
investment. Projects with higher profitability index are better.

Internal Rate of Return

The internal rate of return is a metric used in financial analysis to estimate the
profitability of potential investments. The internal rate of return is a discount rate that
makes the net present value (NPV) of all cash flows equal to zero in a discounted cash
flow analysis. IRR calculations rely on the same formula as NPV does.
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TOPIC 5: PROJECT PLANNING

Sub-Topics
Meaning of Project Planning
Importance of Project Planning Tools used in
Project Planning

MEANING OF PROJECT PLANNING

The project planning phase is where you’ll lay out every detail of the plan from beginning
to end. The plan you create here will lead your team through the execution, performance,
and closure phases of the project management process.

The Project Planning involves:

Scope Management Project

Scope Management refers to the set of processes that ensure a project’s scope is
accurately defined and mapped. Scope Management techniques enable project managers
and supervisors to allocate the right amount of work necessary to successfully complete
a project—concerned primarily with controlling what is and what is not part of the
project’s scope.

Quality Management
According to the project quality management definition, it is a process which ensure that
all the activities related to project are efficient and effective with respect to the project
objectives and project performance. Quality Management in project management
includes creating and following policies and procedures in order to ensure that a project
meets the defined needs it was intended to meet from the customer’s perspective.

Procurement Management
Procurement management is the project process that includes the processes necessary
to get things and services needed for the project to run smoothly and achieve its
objectives.

Cost Management
Schedule Management
▪ Stakeholder Management

▪ Communications Management
▪ Resource Management
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▪ Risk Management
IMPORTANCE OF PROJECT PLANNING

Planning identifies and reduces potential risks

Risk is always lurking in the background, whether at a micro or macro level. What may
seem like a minor risk to a task could pose a larger threat later during project execution.
Proper planning allows teams to ensure that risks can be mitigated against and that
smaller tasks roll-up into milestones that meet with the larger goals of the project,
reducing potential risks.

Reducing project failure rates

Planning is the second phase of project management. This is where you cross the T's and
dot the I's. It's where the scope of the project is laid out, where the timeline, costs,
deliverables and the details are ironed out. This is where expectations are set and
assumptions are identified. Without this vital step, it is almost certain things will fall
through the cracks and a project team is bound to miss crucial details, deadlines and
eventually deliverables.

Project planning plays an essential role in helping guide stakeholders,

sponsors, teams, and the project manager

Project planning plays an essential role in helping guide stakeholders, sponsors, teams,
and the project manager through other project phases. It provides a shared vision for
what the project will accomplish – this common understanding can bind the team together
in completing actions that satisfy the project’s goals.

It helps in delegating responsibilities.

It gives clarity on the responsibilities of team members and other organizations in
contributing to the goals of the project.

It organizes the work of the project and can be used to prevent extraneous work from
crowding out legitimate project activities.

It can be a very powerful communication mechanism, supplementing verbal interactions.

This is an important written reference for the team and can also be used with other
stakeholders.
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Planning is needed to identify desired goals

TOOLS USED IN PROJECT PLANNING

A Gantt chart, Logic Network, PERT chart, Product Breakdown Structure and Work
Breakdown Structure are standard tools used in project planning. What follows is a short
definition for each:

Gantt Chart

A Gantt chart is a popular project management bar chart that tracks tasks across time.
When first developed in 1917, the Gantt chart did not show the relationships between
the tasks. Since then, it has become common to track both time and interdependencies
between tasks, which is now its everyday use.

Since their first introduction, Gantt charts have become an industry standard. They are
an important project management tool used for showing the phases, tasks, milestones
and resources needed as part of a project.

Time Week1 Week 2 Week3 Week 4 Week 5

/Activities
Student
registration
Orientations
Departmental
meeting
Teaching
/learning
CATs

Logic Network
A Logic Network indicates the sequence of activities in a project over time. It shows which
activity logically precedes or follows another activity. It can be used to identify the
milestones and critical path of a project. It will help you understand the dependencies in
your project, timescale, and its workflow. Valuable information that you may otherwise
overlook can be revealed using this technique.
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PERT Chart
PERT is a method for analyzing the tasks involved in completing a given project, especially
the time needed to complete each task and identifying the minimum time required to
complete the total project.

Product Breakdown Structure (PBS)

In project management, a Product Breakdown Structure (PBS) is an exhaustive,
hierarchical tree structure of components that make up a project deliverable, arranged in
whole-part relationship.

A PBS can help clarify what is to be delivered by the project and can contribute to building
a work breakdown structure.

A Work Breakdown Structure is a hierarchical decomposition of the deliverables

needed to complete a project. It breaks the deliverables down into manageable work
packages that can be scheduled, costed and have people assigned to them. A Work
Breakdown Structure is a standard project management tool and the basis for much
project planning.