International Journal of Osteoarchaeology

Int. J. Osteoarchaeol. 25: 711–721 (2015)

Published online 19 August 2013 in Wiley Online Library
(wileyonlinelibrary.com) DOI: 10.1002/oa.2338

Bioarchaeological Analysis of a Royal

Burial from the Oldest Maya Tomb in
Palenque, Mexico
L. R. COUOHa*
Faculty of Philosophy and Literature/Institute of Anthropological Research, Postgraduate Division, The
National Autonomous University of Mexico, Mexico.

ABSTRACT In 1957, a new discovery inside Temple XVIII-A was made in Palenque, the Mayan archaeological site in
Chiapas Mexico, a royal tomb of an original design which proved to be the oldest at the site. Two skeletons
were found, the principal (PAL-44) was at the centre showing red pigmentation on the surface of some bones,
personal adornments and offerings, which indicate that he was an early ruler of Palenque. The second
(PAL-45), deposited at the entrance, not in a special mortuary position, without offerings, suggests it was of
a lower social status. This research presents a new bioarchaeological analysis with the following results: (i)
The result of a direct radiocarbon dating of PAL-44 by accelerator mass spectrometry is 250–420 cal AD
(LTL12759A:1696 ± 30 BP). This means that the personage was buried long before the first designated
ruler of Palenque, who, according to the epigraphic record was enthroned in AD 431. (ii) With X-Ray Fluores-
cence, the red pigment was identified as cinnabar (HgS). (iii) PAL-44 is a young adult male with a severe id-
iopathic scoliosis with a double curvature that affected the ribcage and lower limbs. Such a three-dimensional
deformity resulted in changes to his body mechanics and induced motion asymmetry. Consequently, his
health and mobility must have been significantly affected by such a severe condition. (iv) PAL-45 is an adult
female with signs of nutritional problems in childhood and entheseal changes probably related to her activity.
Three ante-mortem traumas are registered: rib fracture, frontal depressed circular fracture and a nasal septal
deviation. This traumatic event took place two weeks, approximately, prior to PAL-45’s death. Copyright ©
2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Key words: bone fracture; Early Classic Palenque; idiopathic scoliosis; nasal septal deviation; Palenque tomb

Introduction Ceramics found as offerings were identified as

Thus far, Temple XVIII-A contains the oldest Royal
tomb at the Mayan archaeological site of Palenque,
Chiapas, Mexico. In 1956, during the excavation of
this temple, Heinrich Berlin discovered, under the
sanctuary floor, a circular opening with a tubular con-
duit connected to a subterranean chamber. In 1957,
the tomb was explored and designated as Tomb 3 by
Victor Segovia, who was in charge of its exploration
(Ruz, 1957). Into this tomb, two skeletons were depos-
ited directly on the floor. The principal (PAL-44), was
a very important member of the ruling elite, and the
second (PAL-45) of a lower social status. At the time,
Santiago Genovés analysed these skeletons and
concluded that PAL-44 was a male of 19 years of age
and PAL-45, a female of 25 (Ruz, 1957).
* Correspondence to: Lourdes R. Couoh, Faculty of Philosophy and Literature/
Institute of Anthropological Research, Postgraduate Division, The National
Autonomous University of Mexico, Mexico.
e-mail: loucouoh@gmail.com
Motiepa type (AD 200–600—the latest assigned period
by Góngora (2013) on the basis of the typological clas-
sification of Rands (1974) and not on absolute dating)
that corresponds to the Early Classic Period. There-
fore, the likelihood of PAL-44 being one of the first
rulers of Palenque has provoked, over at least three
decades, several interpretations around the burial
practice, the identification of the skeletons and the an-
tiquity of the tomb (Schele, 1986; Weiss-Krejci, 2004;
Mathews, 2005; Fitzsimmons, 2009). Despite Genovés’
analysis, the prevalent suggestion has been that PAL-
44 was Ahkal Mo’ Nahb’I (before known as Chacaal
I) (Schele, 1986; Mathews, 2005), who, according to
the epigraphic record, was one of the early rulers of
Palenque enthroned in AD 501, and who died at the
age of 59 years (Grube, 2004).
With this background, the purpose of this research is
to present new sources of information that will help to
better understand the burial of Tomb 3. These are the
following: the radiocarbon dating of PAL-44; the

Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Received 5 March 2013
Revised 17 July 2013
Accepted 23 July 2013
712
identification of the red pigment over PAL-44 by
X-Ray Fluorescence (XRF) and the osteobiography of
PAL-44 and PAL-45.
Archaeological context
Temple XVIII-A is located at the south of the Cross
Group, which is considered part of the civic-ceremonial
centre known as the Southern Acropolis (Figure 1). It is
also believed that this area during the Early Classic was
used as a Royal necropolis because another Royal tomb
was found in Temple XX (Robertson, 2003).
Temple XVIII-A has a portico with three entrances
facing west and a sanctuary with one room on either
side. Two tombs with a few bones and miscellaneous
objects and an interment directly underneath the floor
were found at the portico (Ruz, 1957) [Figure 2(a)].
Under the sanctuary floor of the temple was
concealed a circular opening with a tubular conduit
that connected to Tomb 3 [Figure 2(b)]. This conduit
is better known as a ‘psychoduct’, and the interpreta-
tion of its use was based on the idea that the psyche
or soul could move up and down the duct to communi-
cate with the living in the temple above (Schele &
Mathews, 1999). Conduits like this have been found
also in Temple XX and in the Temple of the Inscrip-
tions (Garza et al., 2012).
Figure 1. Location of Temple XVIII-A in the archaeological site of Palenque, Chiapas, Mexico. (After Barnhart, 2001). This figure is available in colour
online at wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/oa.
Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
L. R. Couoh
The dimensions of Tomb 3 were 2.50 m length, 1.25
m width, walls of 1.45 m height and the vault closed at
2.10 m. As a result of landslides, the ground
plan changed its form from a rectangular shape to
near-trapezoid, and the slabs on the floor were uplifted,
broken and fractured (Figure 3). The floor was mainly
of six large slabs plastered with stucco, and the walls
were painted with reddish motifs over a white back-
ground. Outside the tomb were found some poorly
preserved bones, which according to Genovés’ analysis,
were from two adults and an infant (Ruz, 1957).
The Royal Burial
At the centre of the funerary chamber floor, in dorsal
decubitus position (north–south axis), PAL-44 was
placed (Figure 3). The aforementioned landslides
caused a change in the positioning of some bones from
their original positions, notably the skull (which
disintegrated in situ during the excavation) and the right
tibia. The left hand lay on the pelvic area, and the right
hand remained at his side holding a jade bead. In
respect of the associated objects, the offering of PAL-
44 was sumptuous: a belt jade mask, jewellery of jade
and shell nacre, stone earrings and pottery (Figure 4).
Also, some areas of the skeleton still retained a slight
coat of a red pigment, thought to be cinnabar
(Ruz, 1957).
Int. J. Osteoarchaeol. 25: 711–721 (2015)
Bioarchaeology of Royal Mayan Burial in Oldest Tomb in Palenque
Figure 2. (a) Temple XVIII-A, Plan. (b) Profile drawings of Tomb 3.
(After Ruz, 1957). This figure is available in colour online at
wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/oa.
The collapse of the floor was more pronounced at
the south of the tomb, specifically in the southeast
corner, near to the entrance, where PAL-45 was found
seated with legs extended, leaning on the east wall of
the tomb (Figure 3). The breakup of the floor and the
sinking of the ground moved the bones, some of which
rolled downward. This skeleton did not have any
offerings placed nearby.
Samples and methods
Accelerator mass spectrometry dating
A tibia bone sample of PAL-44 was submitted for anal-
ysis to CEDAD (Centro di Datazione e Diagnostica,
University of Lecce, Italy). The standard procedures
of sample preparation and analysis according to the
laboratory were followed.
Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
713
X-Ray fluorescence
The elemental analysis of the red pigment over a bone
fragment was carried out with the portable XRF-
SANDRA (System for Non Destructive Analysis using
X-rays) (Physics Institute of the UNAM, Mexico)
(Ruvalcaba et al., 2010). The device used 75 W Mo
X-ray tube and a Si-PIN detector from Amptek (Amtek
Inc. Bedford MA, USA). X-ray tube conditions were
45 kV and 200 mA using a 1.5 mm beam spot. Analysis
of X-ray spectra by iterative least squares (AXIL) pro-
gram (International Atomic Energy Agency, Austria)
was used for X-ray peak area calculations.
Bioanthropological analysis
The morphological characteristics of sexual dimor-
phism in the cranium and the pelvis were used to deter-
mine the sex. To estimate age-at-death, various
methods were employed. These were the morphologi-
cal changes on the pubic bone (Brooks & Suchey,
1990), auricular surface (Lovejoy et al., 1985; Buckberry
& Chamberlain, 2002) and epiphysial fusion of
medial clavicle (Schultz et al., 2005), as well as the
histological method of tooth cementum annulation
(Wittwer-Backofen, 2012), which could only be
realised successfully on a first mandibular premolar
of PAL-44. The general dental and pathological
analyses were carried out using macroscopic obser-
vation. The marks of linear enamel hypoplasia were
seen in x40 magnification by a stereomicroscope
Olympus Szx16™ (Tokyo, Japan).
Idiopathic scoliosis (IS) on PAL-44 is clearly
observed, and its analysis was possible because most
of the thoracic and lumbar vertebrae were in a condi-
tion that enabled sufficient articulation for this study.
Nevertheless, because of the incompleteness of some
vertebrae, it was thought apposite to reconstruct them
with modelling clay [Figure 5(a and b)]. The presence
of the superior and inferior articular processes, as well
as the spinous and transverse processes of the incom-
plete vertebrae established the direction and angle of
the spine’s curvature [Figure 5(c)]. In this way, the
reconstruction of the incomplete vertebrae’s bodies was
consistent with their respective articular processes. In
the case of T12, which was absent, the upper and lower
vertebrae indicated the direction of the curve. The cervi-
cal vertebrae were not included because of the lack of
sufficient material for their reconstruction.
Despite the current debate in medicine to evaluate
the body morphology of IS (Patias et al., 2010), the
method of Cobb angle (Cobb, 1948) is to date, a
well-accepted standard for scoliosis evaluation. With
Int. J. Osteoarchaeol. 25: 711–721 (2015)
714
Figure 3. The burial of Tomb 3. The excavation photograph was taken after offerings were removed. (After Ruz, 1957). This figure is available in
colour online at wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/oa.
this method, it is possible to measure the angle be-
tween lines drawn along the upper end plate of the
most tilted vertebrae above the curve’s apex and the
lower end plate of the most tilted vertebrae below the
apex. As a general rule, a Cobb angle of 10 is regarded
as a minimum angulation to define scoliosis (Trobisch
et al., 2010).
The most common way to evaluate IS curves is on an
antero-posterior radiographic projection of the spine. In-
stead, in this study, an antero-posterior photograph
processed as a drawing with Corel® (Corel Corporation,
Ottawa, Ontario, Canada) PaintShop Pro® Photo X2
was used for a better measurement [Figure 5(c)].
Results and discussion
Accelerator mass spectrometry dating
The accelerator mass spectrometry 14C dating on PAL-
44 is 250–420 cal. AD (LTL12759A: 1696 ± 30 BP)
(Table S1). Therefore, the assignation of Tomb 3 at
Temple XVIII-A to the Early Classic is corroborated.
Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
L. R. Couoh
This dating is crucial because it advances the knowl-
edge of the Early Classic period in Palenque and
provides greater accuracy to its chronology than the
previous methods of dating used to give credence,
which were less than accurately measurable.
This result also proves that it is highly unlikely that
PAL-44 could have been Ahkal Mo’ Nahb’ I as Schele
suggested (1986). Ahkal Mo’ Nahb’ I was born in AD
465, enthroned in AD 501 and died at the age of
59 years in AD 524 (Garza et al., 2012). Likewise, the
radiocarbon data (250–420 cal. AD) places PAL-44
before K’uk’ B’alam I who started the ruling dynasty
of Palenque at AD 431, with his enthronement at the
age of 34 years (Grube, 2004; Garza et al., 2012)
according to the epigraphic record. Therefore, the
identity of PAL-44 remains unknown.
The dating of PAL-44 supports the statement of
Nieto & Schiavon (1990) that the Early Classic started
before established thinking, which is before AD 250.
These authors radiocarbon dated the construction
sequence of the building known as ‘Palace’. Four stages
were found, the first at AD 162 and the last at AD 635.
This is at variance with the dating by ceramics and
Int. J. Osteoarchaeol. 25: 711–721 (2015)
Bioarchaeology of Royal Mayan Burial in Oldest Tomb in Palenque 715

Figure 4. Offerings of PAL-44 (a) Jade mosaic mask with three limestone celts (b) from a royal belt. (c) A pair of ear flares. (d) Jade beads, small shell
disks and shell ornaments. (e) Three of the five plain vessels. (Photo of the mask by O. López, the others depictions after Ruz, 1957). This figure is
available in colour online at wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/oa.

epigraphy, where the first epoch was placed in the late
Motiepa phase (ca. 583 AD.) and the last at AD 850
when Palenque was abandoned (Robertson, 1985).
X-Ray Fluorescence
The analysis of the red pigment indicates that the main
compound is mercury (Hg) and a minor is sulphide (S).
Therefore, the suggestion by Ruz (1957) of it as cinna-
bar (HgS) is confirmed by this experiment.
The custom of the Mayan ruling elite to use cinnabar
as part of the burial rites is well known (Schele &
Mathews, 1999). In widely dispersed Mayan archaeo-
logical sites such as Palenque, Tikal, Toniná and
Copán, cases of painted or sprinkled bodies before,
during or after the interment have been reported
(Schele & Mathews, 1999; Fitzsimmons, 2009). The
pigmentation on PAL-44 is light and not uniform and
is concentrated primarily on the thoracic and pelvic
zone. The fact that some articular bone surfaces show

Figure 5. (a) Thoracic and lumbar reconstruction of the vertebral column, anterior and (b) posterior view. Close-up of T8-T11 and L5 with asymmetry
and deformity. (c) Cobb angles of the two structural curvatures of PAL-44. This figure is available in colour online at wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/oa.

Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Int. J. Osteoarchaeol. 25: 711–721 (2015)
716
red colouration can be due to the filtering process from
the flesh to the bone over time.
In questioning its significance, several hypotheses
have been proposed. Some of them suggest that the
use of cinnabar is in some way connected with rebirth
because it resembled symbolic blood (mixed with
water) (Fitzsimmons, 2009). Besides, according to the
Mayan cosmovision, to paint corpses with cinnabar gives
them the appearance of a living body (Schele &
Mathews, 1999).
PAL-44
The bone preservation is not uniform and in general
shows taphonomic alterations of natural origins (bone
disintegration, fragmentation, exfoliation and chalky
concretions). According to the morphological charac-
teristics of ossa coxae and the mental eminence and
protuberance of the mandible, a male sex is indicated.
The estimation of age-at-death (based on the morpho-
logical changes of pubic bone, auricular surface and
epiphysial fusion of medial clavicle, as well as the
histological method of tooth cementum annulations)
suggests that he died during the second half of his
twenties (Table 1).
Dental analysis
The occlusal surfaces of both dental arches have very
light wear, which can be attributed to his youth and
the non-abrasive dietary constituents. The right first
mandibular premolar is rotated (Figure S1). This resulted
in a direct occlusal contact between the distal incisal
edge of the upper canine with the mesial side of the pre-
molar, and this, in turn, was the cause of the premolar
enamel fracture. On the left side of the mandibular arch,
there is a diastema between the first premolar and canine.
The third molars did not erupt. Calculus and resorption
of the alveolar bone are present, both owing to the peri-
odontal disease. There is also an ectopic enamel pearl on
the furcation between the distobuccal root on both max-
illary second molar (Figure S2).
Table 1. Results of the estimation of age-at-death of PAL-44 and PAL-45
Skeleton Method AgeStage/N° lines
PAL-44 Pubic bone Phase II
Auricular surface
Stage II
Epiphysial fusion of medial clavicle Stage 4
Tooth cementum annulation 17 lines
PAL-45 Auricular surface
Stage III
Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
L. R. Couoh
Palaeopathological analysis
Idiopathic scoliosis is a deformity of the spine in which
there are one or more lateral curvatures deviating from
the midline in the coronal plane. On the sagittal plane,
kyphotic and lordotic deformities can also occur, and on
the transverse plane, the axial rotation of vertebrae can
cause deformation of the trunk. IS is a three-dimensional
deformity, which affects not only the vertebral column,
but also the whole functioning of the trunk, including
the pelvis (Patias et al., 2010) and the lower limbs
(Kotwicki et al., 2008).
PAL-44 presents a right thoracic principal structural
curve (i.e. stiff and not reducible) with 63° Cobb,
which is considered severe (Díaz et al., 2009), with its
apex at T9 between T6 and T12 [Figure 5(c)].
There is a left lumbar secondary or compensatory
structural curve with 36° Cobb, considered moderate
(Díaz et al., 2009), with its apex at L3 between L1
and L4 [Figure 5(c)]. A secondary curve develops after
the formation of the principal curve as a means of
balancing the head and trunk over the pelvis and takes
time to establish its structure.
Vertebrae rotation and torsion have repercussions
on the formation of adjacent spinal structures (liga-
ments and ribs), as well as on their own sagittal
and lateral displacement inside the body (Figure
S3a). In this way, the vertebrae of PAL-44 involved
in both structural curves show vertebral deformity,
which consists of vertebral asymmetry, deformation
of the articular processes and torsion of the entire
vertebrae [Figure S3(e and f)] that included the
deformity of the respective ribs [Figure S3(b–d)].
On a posterior view of the reconstructed spine, it is
clear that such vertebral rotation caused the loss of
normal thoracic kyphosis [Figure 5(b)]. Attempts at
measurement of the angle of the curvature on a
sagittal plane regrettably proved inconclusive for
reporting at this time.
In the case of PAL-44, it is not possible to
confidently establish the age at onset of IS, but consid-
ering that he died around his mid to late twenties with
two structural curvatures, it is very probable that he
Mean age (years) Author
23 ± 3.6 Brooks & Suchey (1990)
25–29 Lovejoy et al., (1985)
29 Buckberry & Chamberlain (2002)
25.2 Schultz et al., (2005)
26 (Wittwer-Backofen, 2012)
30–34 Lovejoy et al., (1985)
37 Buckberry & Chamberlain (2002)
Int. J. Osteoarchaeol. 25: 711–721 (2015)
Bioarchaeology of Royal Mayan Burial in Oldest Tomb in Palenque
Figure 6. Black dots point out the linear enamel hypoplasia on the up-
per central incisor.
developed the condition during the adolescence
period. His pubertal growth spurt must have promoted
rapid progression of the curves until bone maturity.
Idiopathic scoliosis is a progressive growth disease
that affects spine morphology, mobility and trunk
symmetry. It can also modify bilaterally, body kinemat-
ics (Kramers-de Quervain et al., 2004) and muscular
electromyographic activity during human locomotion
(Riddle & Roaf, 1955). The study of Mahaudens &
Mousny (2010) of patients with adolescent IS has
shown that the energy cost during physiological gait
is markedly increased, whatever the severity of the
scoliosis; lumbo-pelvic muscles activity is impaired,
and muscle efficiency during walking is significantly
reduced compared with healthy subjects.
On the lower limbs, PAL-44 presents these repercus-
sions of IS, such as bilateral increase of the neck-shaft
angle to 140°, which is referred to as coxa valga. Some
entheseal changes are also registered: the marked
robusticity of the femoral enthesis of m. gluteus maximus,
medius and minimus, the gluteal tuberosity and the
patellar enthesis of the quadriceps tendon. There is a
cavitation and erosion on the insertion zone of m. medial
head of the gastrocnemius, on the right distal femoral epiph-
ysis, which provides support to the posteromedial
corner of the knee. Therefore, it can be said that this
individual certainly had severe problems with his gait.
Such a three-dimensional deformity resulted in changes
Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
717
to his body mechanics and induced his motion
asymmetry (Mahaudens & Mousny, 2010).
In current clinical cases of untreated adolescent IS,
the curvature(s) could result in back pain, pulmonary
compromise, cor pulmonale and even death from respi-
ratory failure (Lombardi et al., 2011). However, the
evidence registered on the skeleton of PAL-44 is not
enough to determine if IS was the main cause of his
death, but this condition undoubtedly affected his
quality of life considerably.
Apparently, depictions suggest that physical deformi-
ties in the ruling lineage of Palenque were common in
the Late Classic (Robertson & Rosenblum, 1976). This
probably was because of the concordance with the ancient
Mesoamerican cosmovision that physical ailments and de-
formities were a divine design (Taube, 1988; Tate, 1995).
There are several depictions of ‘hunchbacks’ on
Mayan pottery and sculpture (like the one in the Palace
of the south side of Pier C, House C in Palenque), but
such a condition should not be associated with the IS
of PAL-44. The kyphosis condition (so-called ‘hunch-
back’) is a deformity that occurs solely in the sagittal
plane or can occur in association with an abnormality
in the coronal plane resulting in kyphoscoliosis. This
is very different from PAL-44’s condition.
PAL-45
This skeleton is in better overall condition than
PAL-44. Most of the bones were complete and some
taphonomic alterations of natural origin (disintegration
of the trabecular bone at the epiphyses, discolouration
and loss of bone surface) were seen.
Figure 7. Soft callus formation state of healing of the rib fracture,
which consists primarily of woven bone and osteoclastic activity. This
figure is available in colour online at wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/oa.
Int. J. Osteoarchaeol. 25: 711–721 (2015)
718
The morphological characteristic of the skull and
the postcranial skeleton indicate that this is a female.
With reference to the estimation of age-at-death, the
only method that could be used was on the auricular
surface of the ilium, which suggests an age in the
thirties (Table 1).
The cranium presents a deformity on the level of the
coronal suture [Figure S4(c)], a slightly bilobate shape.
An intentional cranial vault modification, as such, is not
very clear because the expression of the posterior
compression plane is not evident (Dembo & Imbelloni,
1938). On PAL-45, a malocclusion with maxillary
protrusion is present [Figure S4(b)], which is consid-
ered as Class II according to the Angle classification
(Angle, 1899). The presence of osteoarthrosis (wear
and porosity) on the left temporomandibular joint is
related to such malocclusion.
Entheseal changes
The upper limbs, mainly on the right side, present
noticeable entheseal changes that could be related to
her physical activities. Nevertheless, the current knowl-
edge on this issue (Villotte & Knüsel, 2012) points that
caution should be used when assessing entheseal changes
as a direct association with physical activities. However,
the case in question shows signs of osteoarthrosis at the
humeral head and the glenoid cavity. There is a cyst
Figure 8. The following are the cranial trauma: (a) Depressed circular fracture. (b) Close-up of affected zone and point of impact, as well as osteoclastic
and osteoblastic responses. (c) The arrows point to the radial fractures from the point of impact. (d) Line of demarcation. This figure is available in colour
online at wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/oa.
Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
L. R. Couoh
above the supra-condyloid foramena on the distal epiph-
ysis of the humerus that fits with the bony extension of
the olecranon edge of the ulna. These facts could be as-
sociated with an overuse of the right arm and therefore
could support the idea of the entheseal changes as a re-
sult of strenuous physical activity.
Despite the uncertainty of reaching a specific
conclusion about entheseal changes on PAL-45, it is
still worth recording. The principal parameter notice-
able is robusticity, found as a significant marker on
the humerus (at the insertion of m. deltoideus, m. latissimus
dorsi/teres major and m. biceps brachii and at the origin of m.
brachioradialis), radius (at the insertion of m. biceps brachii
and m. pronator teres), scapula (at the origin of m. deltoid
posterior and m. biceps brachii) and clavicle (at the
costoclavicular and trapezoid ligaments). Advanced
osteoclastic and osteoblast processes were found at
the origin of m. deltoid on the acromion.
Therefore, all these entheseal changes point to the
fact that PAL-45 might have belonged to a servant
class at this time.
Dental and paleopathology analysis
The alveolar bone shows resorption and signs of an
inflammatory process as a response to periodontal dis-
ease. In addition, there is calculus mainly on the dental
maxillary arch and moderate wear on the occlusal surface.
Int. J. Osteoarchaeol. 25: 711–721 (2015)
Bioarchaeology of Royal Mayan Burial in Oldest Tomb in Palenque 719

On the left upper central incisor, six marks of linear

enamel hypoplasia (LEH) are recorded (Figure 6). The
physiological conditions most frequently associated
with LEH appear to be malnutrition and/or febrile
disease (Hillson & Bond, 1997). Malnourishment and
fever suppressed the activity of the cells governing
enamel production (ameloblasts), and as a result, there
is a weak linear deposit and poor calcified enamel
(Boldsen, 2007). Hence, LEH is the most frequently
used indicator of early childhood episodes of stress
and ill health (Boldsen, 2007). In the case of PAL-45,
LEH might have been formed between age 1 and
5 years (Boldsen, 2007).
Related to LEH, in the outer table of the cranial
vault, are signs of porotic hyperostosis. Megaloblastic
anaemia (mainly lack of vitamin B12) suffered in the
childhood of PAL-45 is the most likely cause of this
pathological lesion (Walker et al., 2009).
Three ante-mortem traumas are registered: rib
transversal fracture (unfortunately, only the proximal
counterpart was found in situ), frontal depressed circular
fracture and nasal septal deviation. The age of each of
these injuries cannot be determined, and can only be
Figure 9. Nasal septal deviation (white arrow) and bony apposition as a
estimated in reference to the time of death, because consequence of a nasal septal abscess formation (black arrows). This figure
the rate of healing depends on age and health condi- is available in colour online at wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/oa.
tion of the individual, as well as the severity of injury
(Love & Hamilton, 2011).
According to the classification of Love et al. (2011), have led to her death because the three traumas, in
the stage of healing of PAL-45’s rib fracture at the time total, might have been severe or significant enough to
of her death shows the soft callus formation, which means be life threatening.
trauma took place two weeks, approximately, previous On the skeleton of PAL-45, there is not enough
her death. This stage of healing is characterized by evidence to indicate that her death was a sacrifice in
woven bone and significant osteoclastic activity honour of PAL-44, as have been reported in other
(Malcolm, 2008; Cattaneo et al., 2010) (Figure 7). funerary Mayan contexts (Ruz, 1989; Fitzsimmons,
In relation to the cranial trauma, the depressed circu- 2009). Nevertheless, the intention of the Palenque
lar fracture presents radial fractures running along the people to bury PAL-45 in this funerary context may
frontal bone from the point of impact [Figure 8(a and c)]. have been as that of a companion, to be useful to
In the fracture area, some pitting can be seen as PAL-44 in the afterlife (Ruz, 1989).
osteoclastic response, slight bone formation as osteo- However, the lower social status reflected in the
blastic response [Figure 8(b)] and a faint line of demar- burial matches with the malnourished episode in
cation [Figure 8(d)]. All these observations correspond childhood and entheseal changes probably related to
to the initial period for the osseous response, commonly her activity. The answer to the question of whether
seen around the second week after trauma (Barbian & or not PAL-45 was a slave, caregiver or servant to
Sledzik, 2008). At the time of the frontal fracture, the PAL-44 is conjecture and cannot be confirmed with
nasal trauma could have taken place, shown by the nasal archaeological evidence.
septal deviation (Mays, 2012) (Figure 9). The bony
apposition on the maxilla, beside the right nasal fossa,
is the result of an infection, which could be the Conclusion
consequence of a septal abscess formation (Alshaikh &
Lo, 2011) (Figure 9). Undoubtedly, at the time of the Tomb 3 burial at
Therefore, PAL-45 suffered a traumatic event Temple XVIII-A, Palenque society was ruled by a
(accidental or intentional) two weeks, approximately, powerful establishment with sufficient resources to
prior to her death. Such an incidence, probably, could build elaborate temples (Schele, 1986; Garza et al.,
Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Int. J. Osteoarchaeol. 25: 711–721 (2015)
720
2012). This research therefore opens the discussion on
the early Palenque rulers, and the implication of these
results is the ruling dynasty very probably began earlier
than is currently and widely believed (Schele &
Mathews, 1999; Grube, 2004; Garza et al., 2012).
The essential principles of construction laid down in
Temple XVIII-A, as well as in Temple XX, both Early
Classic, were later adopted in the Temple of the
Inscription, that is in the Late Classic by Janaab’ Pakal
(Schele, 1986; Garza et al., 2012). The person to whom
Temple XVIII-A was dedicated was a young man with a
severe physical condition (scoliosis idiophatic), and cer-
tainly, he was an early ruler of Palenque, as the funerary
context indicated (Schele, 1986; Ruz, 1989; Garza et al.,
2012). Curiously, he does not appear in any epigraphic
records (Schele & Mathews, 1999; Grube, 2004). The
reasons for this might be that the reign of PAL-44 was
short and not particulary eventful because of his health
condition, and it could be that he did not share the same
lineage as Janaab’ Pakal, which fact can only be solved,
in the future, by ancient DNA analysis.
PAL-45 was a woman of a lower social status than
PAL-44, and she suffered a traumatic event that caused
three fractures, which could be related to her death:
two weeks, approximately, prior to death. Could it be
that her inclusion in the burial was because of a close
relationship to PAL-44 as a caregiver, servant or slave?
Unfortunately, there is not enough evidence to fortify
the argument that she was sacrificed in his honour, but
it is possible that her death, which could possibly have
been at the time of PAL-44 (albeit based on evidence
which at this time is circumstantial), was not an acci-
dent, as evident in traumatic fractures on her body.
Santiago Genovés analysed these skeletons in 1957,
and his conclusion was that PAL-44 was a male of
19 years and PAL-45, a female of 25 (Ruz, 1957). This
research disagrees with this estimation of both, that
PAL-44 died in his middle to late twenties and
PAL-45 in her middle thirties.
Acknowledgements
This research is part of INAH project of Early Classic in
Palenque led by archaeologist Martha Cuevas García.
The author extends her gratitude to the director of the
Department of Physical Anthropology of INAH, José
Antonio Pompa y Padilla for providing facilities for bone
analyses and permission to take the photographs, as well
as David Volcanes. José Luis Ruvalcaba (Conacyt project
131944), Lauro Bucio and Eligio Orozco (Conacyt pro-
ject 167624) from the Institute of Physics, UNAM.
Aleksander Borejsza and Mauro de Ángeles for their
Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
L. R. Couoh
comments and finally, to the anonymous reviewers at
this journal for their constructive comments, which
helped to improve this paper.
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