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 Assumption College of Nabunturan
College of Teacher Education
Dr. Ram Bayani
Email: ramtomobayani.acn@gmail.com
Consultation Hour: Daily from 1:00-2:00pm

January 14, 2022

Dear Student,

Please find enclosed the course materials for the course titled:

ED 103: THE TEACHER AND THE COMMUNITY, SCHOOL CULTURE &

ORGANIZATIONAL LEADERSHIP

Hello students! Welcome to this course Ed 103: The Teacher and the Community, School Culture
and Organizational Leadership. Every Education student shall undergo this subject for it is deemed
essential to the course you are taking. Hopefully, after this you would learn the different types of
learners and learning principles both for children and adolescents.

I am pleased that you have chosen to study with us here at the College of Teacher Education of
Assumption College of Nabunturan. It is my hope that I will be able to provide the support and
information you need to succeed in this course.

I am the professor of this course and will be your primary point of contact in relation to any
academic matters concerning your study in this course. My contact details are shown above. I look
forward to communicating with you, particularly by email or text messages. I also expect your full
participation in our incoming discussions in MS Teams. If you have doubts with the concepts
presented, feel free to ask for clarification by posting questions in the dialog box.

I suggest also that you take time to support your classmates by reading their posts and leaving
comments if you agree with their views and ideas on the topic discussed. By then we will be able to
build a supportive learning community in this course which is essential for the completion of this
course.

Once again let me welcome you. I look forward to working with you throughout the semester.

Truly yours,

Dr. Ram
 Course Outline
ED 103: THE TEACHER AND THE COMMUNITY, SCHOOL CULTURE &
ORGANIZATIONAL LEADERSHIP

Instructor: Dr. Ram Bayani

Semester: 2nd Semester AY 2021-2022
Course Credit: 3 Units

Course Description:

This course focuses on society as a context upon which the schools have been established.
Educational philosophies that are related to the society as a foundation of schools and schooling
shall be emphasized. Further, principles and theories on school culture, and organizational
leadership shall be included to prepare prospective teachers to become leaders and manager.

Contact Hours: 1 hour online and 2 hours tutorial.

Course Objectives:
1. Articulate the philosophical, socio-cultural, historical, legal and political bases of education.
2. Determine the socio-cultural impact of Filipino character and
3. Discuss global issues and identify solutions to mitigate their impact to humans through
education
4. Discuss the essence of school-community partnership and its link to the educative process
and demonstrate the fulfillment of the professional obligation to uphold professional ethics,
accountability and transparency
5. Discuss leadership and management styles to promote professional and harmonious
relationships with internal and external stakeholders

Course Content
1. Philosophical Thoughts on Education
2. Historical Foundation of Education
3. Social Science Theories and Their Implications to Education
4. The Strengths and Weaknesses of the Filipino Character: A Socio-Cultural Issue
5. Global Issues that Concern Schools and Society
6. The Why and How of School and Community Partnership
7. The Teacher and the Community: Teacher’s Ethical and Professional Behavior
8. Organizational Leadership
9. The School Head in School-Based Management
10. Creating a Positive School Culture
11. School Policies and Their Functions
12. Roles and Competencies of School Heads
Course Requirement:
1. Presentation of Lessons
2. Research
 3. Quizzes
4. Recitation
5. Major Exams

Grading system:
Written Works 30%
Performance 25%
Final Exam 45%
Total 100%
UNIT 1

Objectives:
At the end of the lesson, you will be able to:
1. Discuss the contributions of education philosophers.
2. Make a summary of the philosophies of education.
3. Explain the relationship of society and schools.
4. Research on the educational systems of other countries.
5. Elaborate the school practices that based on social science theories.
6. Identify the social science theories in specific situations.

Input 1

PHILOSOPHICAL THOUGHTS ON EDUCATION

John Locke (1632-1704)

John Locke was born August 29, 1632, in Wrington, Somerset, England.
Regarded as one of the most influential Enlightenment thinkers, he was known
as the Father of Classical Liberalism. He was an economist, political operative,
physician, Oxford scholar, and medical researcher as well as one of the great
philosophers of the late 17th and early 18th centuries.

Locke created the philosophy that there was no legitimate government under
the Divine Right of Kings theory, which emphasized that God chose some
people to rule on earth in His will. Therefore, the monarch’s actions were the will of God and to
criticize the ruler meant you were challenging God. However, Locke did not believe in this theory
and wrote his own to challenge it.
Locke’s writings also greatly influenced the founding fathers of the United States when
writing the Constitution. They implemented his idea that the power to govern was obtained from the
permission of the people. He believed the purpose of government was to protect the natural rights
of its citizens. He stated that natural rights were life, liberty, and property, and that all people
automatically earned these simply by being born.
When a government did not protect those rights, the citizen had the right to overthrow the
government. These ideas were incorporated into the Declaration of Independence by Thomas
Jefferson. Once they took root in North America, the philosophy was adopted in other places as
justification for revolution.
Locke believed that children are born with their mind a blank sheet of paper, a clean slate,
a tabula rasa. He also maintained that children are potentially free and rational beings, and that the
realization of these human qualities tends to be disillusioned through imposition of the sort of
prejudice that perpetuates oppression and fallacy. Locke believed it was the upbringing and
education that hindered the development of children's humanity. Locke noted two consequences of
the doctrine of the tabula rasa: egalitarianism and vulnerability.
Locke believed the purpose of education was to produce an individual with a sound mind in
a sound body so as to better serve his country. Locke thought that the content of education ought to
depend upon one's station in life. The common man only required moral, social, and vocational
knowledge. He could do quite well with the Bible and a highly developed vocational skill that would
serve to support him in life and offer social service to others. However, the education of gentlemen
ought to be of the very highest quality. The gentleman must serve his country in a position of
leadership.
For gentlemen, Locke believed that the he must have a thorough knowledge of his own
language. The schools of the Puritans in England broke with tradition completely. They sought to
educate one for the society in which he would live. The schools were called, therefore, schools of
social realism. Locke, in keeping with Milton and other Puritans, held that the content of the
curriculum must serve some practical end. He recommended the introduction of contemporary
foreign languages, history, geography, economics, math and science.
Locke proposed the following for the education of the gentleman:

a. Moral Training. All Christians must learn to live virtuously.

b. Good Breeding. The gentleman must develop the poise, control and outward
behavior of excellent manners. Education must aim, therefore, at developing correct
social skills.
c. Wisdom. The gentleman ought to be able to apply intellectual and moral knowledge
in governing his practical affairs.
d. Useful Knowledge. The gentleman must receive education which will lead to a
successful life in the practical affairs of the society, as well as that which leads to the
satisfaction derived from scholarship and good books.
In his final years he lived in the country at Oates in Essex at the home of Sir Francis and
Lady Masham. Before his death, Locke saw four more editions of An Essay Concerning Human
Understanding. He died at Oates in Essex on October 28, 1704.
Source: https://educationalroots.weebly.com/john-locke.html
John Locke’s Philosophy on Education
By Hannah S. Bowers
Source: https://coffeeshopthinking.wordpress.com/2013/10/25/john-lockes-philosophy-of-education/

John Locke was an English philosopher and physician in the 17 th century who is known as
the “Father of Classical Liberalism.” He was also one of the most influential Enlightenment
thinkers. Locke is well-known for his tabula rasa view of the human mind, his social contract theory,
and his belief that knowledge is derived through experience of the senses. His political theories
influenced the writings of other philosophers and the key ideas behind the United States’
Declaration of Independence. Locke is famous for three works: A Letter Concerning
Toleration, The Second Treatise on Civil Government, and Some Thoughts Concerning Education.
Locke has also been labeled “the father of modern education in England” (Locke, 205).
 Locke outlined every detail on how to educate the human mind in Some Thoughts
Concerning Education. He wrote about how students should be dressed, fed, exercised, instructed,
and assessed (Baldwin, 186). He also advocated for a close relationship between teacher and
pupil, just like the American educational model (Baldwin, 184). Locke’s work in psychology helped
him develop the idea of “associationism,” where he warned parents not to allow their children to
develop negative associations that would hurt their education (Yolton, 28-29). He denounced
scholasticism and advocated for experimentation in learning. He also promoted training students in
wisdom and virtue rather than focusing on main content.
Most educators have ignored Locke’s educational works, but some critics argue that Locke’s
educational theories are best applied to private tutoring instead of real educational systems
(Baldwin, 187). Locke’s rejection of classical education annoyed the educators of his day, but his
advocacy for hands-on learning predated modern progressive educators by several centuries
(Locke, 206). Locke believed that play is just as essential as learning because play can reinforce
learning. So teachers should have some elements of “fun” in the classroom (Yolton, 84-85).

Locke had many profitable ideas about education but his approach to Biblical training is a
concern for Christian educators. Locke believed that the only virtue in reading the Bible was for
moral values (Yolton, 27). The Bible should be read so people learn about the Gospel, not just as a
moral guide. Classical education should be combined with hands-on activities to provide a well-
rounded education for the students. Locke was right on his approach to combining physical
education with mental study as evidenced by the physical education programs that have been
added to the American school system.

Herbert Spencer
Spencer on Education
By: CHARLES W. ELIOT (2016)

THE four essays on education which Herbert Spencer published in a single volume in 1861
were all written and separately published between 1854 and 1859. Their tone was aggressive and
their proposals revolutionary; although all the doctrines—with one important exception—had
already been vigorously preached by earlier writers on education, as Spencer himself was at pains
to point out. The doctrine which was comparatively new ran through all four essays; but was most
amply stated in the essay first published in 1859 under the title “What Knowledge is of Most
Worth?” In this essay Spencer divided the leading kinds of human activity into those which minister
to self-preservation, those which secure the necessaries of life, those whose end is the care of
offspring, those which make good citizens, and those which prepare adults to enjoy nature,
literature, and the fine arts; and he then maintained that in each of these several classes,
knowledge of science was worth more than any other knowledge. He argued that everywhere
throughout creation faculties are developed through the performance of the appropriate functions;
so that it would be contrary to the whole harmony of nature “if one kind of culture were needed for
the gaining of information, and another kind were needed as a mental gymnastic.” He then
maintained that the sciences are superior in all respects to languages as educational material; they
train the memory better, and a superior kind of memory; they cultivate the judgment, and they
impart an admirable moral and religious discipline. He concluded that “for discipline, as well as for
guidance, science is of chiefest value. In all its effects, learning the meaning of things is better than
learning the meaning of words.” He answered the question “what knowledge is of most worth?” with
the one word—science.
 This doctrine was extremely repulsive to the established profession of education in England,
where Latin, Greek, and mathematics had been the staples of education for many generations, and
were believed to afford the only suitable preparation for the learned professions, public life, and
cultivated society. In proclaiming this doctrine with ample illustration, ingenious argument, and
forcible reiteration, Spencer was a true educational pioneer, although some of his scientific
contemporaries were really preaching similar doctrines, each in his own field.
The profession of teaching has long been characterised by certain habitual convictions,
which Spencer undertook to shake rudely, and even to deride. The first of these convictions is that
all education, physical, intellectual, and moral, must be authoritative, and need take no account of
the natural wishes, tendencies, and motives of the ignorant and undeveloped child. The second
dominating conviction is that to teach means to tell, or show, children what they ought to see,
believe, and utter. Expositions by the teacher and books are therefore the true means of education.
The third and supreme conviction is that the method of education which produced the teacher
himself and the contemporary or earlier scholars, authors, and publicists, must be the righteous and
sufficient method. Its fruits demonstrate its soundness, and make it sacred. Herbert Spencer, in the
essays included in the present volume, assaulted all three of these firm convictions. Accordingly,
the ideas on education which he put forth more than fifty years ago have penetrated educational
practice very slowly—particularly in England; but they are now coming to prevail in most civilised
countries, and they will prevail more and more. Through him, the thoughts on education of
Comenius, Montaigne, Locke, Milton, Rousseau, Pestalozzi, and other noted writers on this
neglected subject are at last winning their way into practice, with the modifications or adaptations
which the immense gains of the human race in knowledge and power since the nineteenth century
opened have shown to be wise.
For teachers and educational administrators it is interesting to observe the steps by which
Spencer’s doctrines—and especially his doctrine of the supreme value of science—have advanced
towards acceptance in practice. In general, the advance has been brought about through the
indirect effects of the enormous industrial, social, and political changes of the last fifty years. The
first practical step was the introduction of laboratory teaching of one or more of the sciences into the
secondary schools and colleges. Chemistry and physics were the commonest subjects selected.
These two subjects had been taught from books even earlier; but memorising science out of books
is far less useful as training than memorising grammars and vocabularies. The characteristic
discipline of science can be imparted only through the laboratory method. The schoolmasters and
college faculties who took this step by no means admitted Spencer’s contention that science should
be the universal staple at all stages of child development. On the contrary, they believed, as most
people do to-day, that the mind of the young child cannot grasp the processes and generalisations
of science, and that science is no more universally fitted to develop mental power than the classics
or mathematics. Indeed, experience during the past fifty years seems to have proved that fewer
minds are naturally inclined to scientific study than to linguistic or historical study; so that if some
science is to be learnt by everybody, the amount of such study should be limited to acquiring in one
or two sciences knowledge of the scientific method in general. So much scientific training is indeed
universally desirable; because good training of the senses to observe accurately is universally
desirable, and the collecting, comparing, and grouping of many facts teach orderliness in thinking,
and lead up to something which Spencer valued highly in education—“a rational explanation of
phenomena.”
 Science having obtained a foothold in secondary schools and colleges, an adequate
development of science-teaching resulted from the introduction of options or elections for the pupils
among numerous different courses, in place of a curriculum prescribed for all. The elaborate
teaching of many sciences was thus introduced. The pupil or student saw and recorded for himself;
used books only as helps and guides in seeing, recording, and generalising; proceeded from the
known to the unknown; and in short, made numerous applications of the doctrines which pervade
all Spencer’s writings on education. In the United States these methods were introduced earlier and
have been carried farther than in England; but within the last few years the changes made in
education have been more extensive and rapid in England than in any other country;—witness the
announcements of the new high schools and the re-organised grammar schools, of such colleges
as South Kensington, Armstrong, King’s, the University College (London), and Goldsmiths’, and of
the new municipal universities such as Victoria, Bristol, Sheffield, Birmingham, Liverpool, and
Leeds. The new technical schools also illustrate the advent of instruction in applied science as an
important element in advanced education. Such institutions as the Seafield Park Engineering
College, the City Guilds of London Institute, the City of London College, and the Battersea
Polytechnic are instances of the same development. Some endowed institutions for girls illustrate
the same tendencies, as, for example, the Bedford College for Women and the Royal Holloway
College. All these institutions teach sciences in considerable variety, and in the way that Spencer
advocated,—not so much because they have distinctly accepted his views, as because modern
industrial and social conditions compel the preparation in science of young people destined for
various occupations and services indispensable to modern society. The method of the preparation
is essentially that which he advocated.
Spencer’s propositions to the effect that the study of science was desirable for artisans,
artists, and, in general, for people who were to get their livings through various skills of hand and
eye, were received with great incredulity, not to say derision—particularly when he maintained that
some knowledge of the theory which underlies an art was desirable for manual practitioners of the
art; but the changes of the last fifty years in the practice of the arts and trades may be said to have
demonstrated that his views were thoroughly sound. The applications of science in the arts and
trades have been so numerous and productive, that widespread training in science has become
indispensable to any nation which means to excel in the manufacturing industries, whether of large
scale or small scale. The extraordinary popularity of evening schools and correspondence schools
in the United States rests on the need which young people employed in the various industries of the
country feel of obtaining more theoretical knowledge about the physical or chemical processes
through which they are earning a livelihood. The Young Men’s Christian Associations in the
American cities have become great centres of evening instruction for just such young persons. The
correspondence schools are teaching hundreds of thousands of young people at work in machine-
shops, mills, mines, and factories, who believe that they can advance themselves in their several
occupations by supplementing their elementary education with correspondence courses, taken
while they are at work earning a livelihood in industries that rest ultimately on applications of
science.
Spencer’s objection to the constant exercise of authority and compulsion in schools,
families, and the State is felt to-day much more widely than it was in 1858, when he wrote his essay
on moral education. His proposal that children should be allowed to suffer the natural
consequences of their foolish or wrong acts does not seem to the present generation—any more
than it did to him—to be applicable to very young children, who need protection from the undue
severity of many natural penalties; but the soundness of his general doctrine that it is the true
function of parents and teachers to see that children habitually experience the normal
consequences of their conduct, without putting artificial consequences in place of them, now
commands the assent of most persons whose minds have been freed from the theological dogmas
of original sin and total depravity. Spencer did not expect the immediate adoption of this principle;
because society as a whole was not yet humane enough. He admitted that the uncontrollable child
of ill-controlled adults might sometimes have to be scolded or beaten, and that these barbarous
methods might be “perhaps the best preparation such children can have for the barbarous society
in which they are presently to play a part.” He hoped, however, that the civilised members of society
would by and by spontaneously use milder measures; and this hope has been realised in good
degree, with the result that happiness in childhood is much commoner and more constant than it
used to be. Parents and teachers are beginning to realise that self-control is a prime object in moral
education, and that this self-control cannot be practised under a regime of constant supervision,
unexplained commands, and painful punishments, but must be gained in freedom. Some large-
scale experience with American secondary schools which prepare boys for admission to college
has been edifying in this respect. The American colleges, as a rule, do not undertake to exercise
much supervision over their students, but leave them free to regulate their own lives in regard to
both work and play. Now it is the boys who come from the secondary schools where the closest
supervision is maintained that are in most danger of falling into evil ways when they first go to
college.
Spencer put very forcibly a valuable doctrine for which many earlier writers on the theory of
education had failed to get a hearing—the doctrine, namely, that all instruction should be
pleasurable and interesting. Fifty years ago almost all teachers believed that it was impossible to
make school-work interesting, or life-work either; so that the child must be forced to grind without
pleasure, in preparation for life’s grind; and the forcing was to be done by experience of the
teacher’s displeasure and the infliction of pain. Through the slow effects of Spencer’s teaching and
of the experience of practical teachers who have demonstrated that instruction can be made
pleasurable, and that the very hardest work is done by interested pupils because they are
interested, it has gradually come to pass that his heresy has become the prevailing judgment
among sensible and humane teachers. The experience of many adults, hard at work in the modern
industrial, commercial, and financial world, has taught them that human beings can make their
intensest application only to problems in which they are personally interested for one reason or
another, and that freemen work much harder than slaves, because they feel within themselves
strong motives for exertion which slaves cannot possibly feel. So, many intelligent adults, including
many parents and teachers, have come to believe it possible that children will learn to do hard
work, both in school and in after life, through the free play of interior motives which appeal to them,
and prompt them to persistent exertion.
The justice of Spencer’s views about training through pleasurable sensation and
achievement in freedom rather than through uninterested work and pain inflicted by despotic
government, is well illustrated by the recent improvements in the discipline of reformatories for boys
and girls and young men and women. It has been demonstrated that the only useful reformatories
are those which diminish the criminal’s liberty of action as little as possible, require him to perform
productive labour, educate him for a trade or other useful occupation, and offer him the reward of
an abridgment of sentence in return for industry and self-control. Repression and compulsion under
penalties however severe fail to reform, and often make bad moral conditions worse. Instruction, as
much freedom as is consistent with the safety of society, and an appeal to the ordinary motives of
emulation, satisfaction in achievement, and the desire to win credit, can, and do, reform.
 Many schools, both public and private, have now adopted—in most cases unconsciously—
many of Spencer’s more detailed suggestions. The laboratory method of instruction, for example,
now common for scientific subjects in good schools, is an application of his doctrines of concrete
illustration, training in the accurate use of the senses, and subordination of book-work. Many
schools realise, too, that learning by heart and, in general, memorising from books are not the only
means of storing the mind of a child. They should make parts of a sound education, but should not
be used to the exclusion of learning through eye, ear, and hand. Spencer pointed out with much
elaboration that children acquire in their early years a vast amount of information exclusively
through the incessant use of their senses. To-day teachers know this fact, and realise much better
than the teachers of fifty years ago did, that all through the school and college period the pupils
should be getting a large part of their new knowledge through the careful application of their own
powers of observation, aided, indeed, by books and pictures which record the observations, old and
new, of other people. The young human being, unlike the puppy or the kitten, is not confined to the
use of his own senses as sources of information and discovery; but can enjoy the fruits of a
prodigious width and depth of observation acquired by preceding generations and adult members of
his own generation. A recent illustration of this extension of the method of observation in teaching to
observations made by other people is the new method of giving moral instruction to school children
through photographs of actual scenes which illustrate both good morals and bad, the exhibition of
the photographs being accompanied by a running oral comment from the teacher. In this kind of
moral instruction it seems to be possible to interest all kinds of children, both civilised and
barbarous, both ill-bred and well-bred. The teaching comes through the eye, for the children
themselves observe intently the pictures which the lantern throws on the screen; but the striking
scenes thus put before them probably lie in most instances quite outside the region of their own
experiences.
The essay on “What Knowledge is of Most Worth?” contains a hot denunciation of that kind
of information which in most schools used to usurp the name of history. It is enough to say of this
part of Spencer’s educational doctrine that all the best historical writers since the middle of the
nineteenth century seem to have adopted the principles which he declared should govern the
writing of history. As a result, the teaching of history in schools and colleges has undergone a
profound change. It now deals with the nature and action of government, central, local, and
ecclesiastical, with social observances, industrial systems, and the customs which regulate popular
life, out-of-doors and indoors. It depicts also the intellectual condition of the nation and the progress
it has made in applied science, the fine arts, and legislation, and includes descriptions of the
peoples’ food, shelters, and amusements. To this result many authors and teachers have
contributed; but Spencer’s violent denunciation of history as it was taught in his time has greatly
promoted this important reform.
Many twentieth - century teachers are sure to put in practice Spencer’s exhortation to teach
children to draw with pen and pencil, and to use paints and brush. He maintained that the common
omission of drawing as an important element in the training of children was in contempt of some of
the most obvious of nature’s suggestions with regard to the natural development of human faculties;
and the better recent practice in some English and American schools verifies his statement;
nevertheless some of the best secondary schools in both countries still fail to recognise drawing
and painting as important elements in liberal education.
Modern society as yet hardly approaches the putting into effective practice of the sound
views which Spencer set forth with great detail in his essay on “Physical Education.” The instruction
given in schools and colleges on the care of the body and the laws of health is still very meagre;
and in certain subjects of the utmost importance no instruction whatever is given, as, for example,
in the normal methods of reproduction in plants and animals, in eugenics, and in the ruinous
consequences of disregarding sexual purity and honour. In one respect his fundamental doctrine of
freedom, carried into the domain of physical exercise, has been extensively adopted in England, on
the Continent, and in America. He taught that although gymnastics, military drill, and formal
exercises of the limbs are better than nothing, they can never serve in place of the plays prompted
by nature. He maintained that “for girls as well as boys the sportive activities to which the instincts
impel are essential to bodily welfare.” This principle is now being carried into practice not only for
school-children, but for operatives in factories, clerks, and other young persons whose occupations
are sedentary and monotonous. For all such persons, free plays are vastly better than formal
exercises of any sort.
The wide adoption of Spencer’s educational ideas has had to await the advent of the new
educational administration and the new public interest therein. It awaited the coming of the state
university in the United States and of the city university in England, the establishment of numerous
technical schools, the profound modifications made in grammar schools and academies, and the
multiplication in both countries of the secondary schools called high schools. In other words, his
ideas gradually gained admission to a vast number of new institutions of education, which were
created and maintained because both the governments and the nations felt a new sense of
responsibility for the training of the future generations. These new agencies have been created in
great variety, and the introduction of Spencer’s ideas has been much facilitated by this variety.
These institutions were national, state, or municipal. They were tax-supported or endowed. They
charged tuition fees, or were open to competent children or adults without fee. They undertook to
meet alike the needs of the individual and the needs of the community; and this undertaking
involved the introduction of many new subjects of instruction and many new methods. Through their
variety they could be sympathetic with both individualism and collectivism. The variety of instruction
offered is best illustrated in the strongest American universities, some of which are tax-supported
and some endowed. These universities maintain a great variety of courses of instruction in subjects
none of which was taught with the faintest approach to adequacy in American universities sixty
years ago; but in making these extensions the universities have not found it necessary to reduce
the instruction offered in the classics and mathematics. The traditional cultural studies are still
provided; but they represent only one programme among many, and no one is compelled to follow
it. The domination of the classics is at an end; but any student who prefers the traditional path to
culture, or whose parents choose that path for him, will find in several American universities much
richer provisions of classical instruction than any university in the country offered sixty years ago.
The present proposals to widen the influence of Oxford University do not mean, therefore, that the
classics, history, and philosophy are to be taught less there, but only that other subjects are to be
taught more, and that a greater number and variety of young men will be prepared there for the
service of the nation.
The new public interest in education as a necessary of modern industrial and political life
has gradually brought about a great increase in the proportional number of young men and women
whose education is prolonged beyond the period of primary or elementary instruction; and this
multitude of young people is preparing for a great variety of callings, many of which are new within
sixty years, having been brought into being by the extraordinary advances of applied science. The
advent of these new callings has favoured the spread of Spencer’s educational ideas. The recent
agitation in favour of what is called vocational training is a vivid illustration of the wide acceptance of
his arguments. Even the farmers, their farmhands, and their children must nowadays be offered
free instruction in agriculture; because the public, and especially the urban public, believes that by
disseminating better methods of tillage, better seed, and appropriate manures, the yield of the
farms can be improved in quality and multiplied in quantity. In regard to all material interests, the
free peoples are acting on the principle that science is the knowledge of most worth. Spencer’s
doctrine of natural consequences in place of artificial penalties, his view that all young people
should be taught how to be wise parents and good citizens, and his advocacy of instruction in public
and private hygiene, lie at the roots of many of the philanthropic and reformatory movements of the
day.
On the whole, Herbert Spencer has been fortunate among educational philosophers. He has
not had to wait so long for the acceptance of his teachings as Comenius, Montaigne, or Rousseau
waited. His ideas have been floated on a prodigious tide of industrial and social change, which
necessarily involved wide-spread and profound educational reform.
This introduction deals with Spencer’s four essays on education; but in the present volume
are included three other famous essays written by him during the same period (1854-59) which
produced the essays on education. All three are germane to the educational essays, because they
deal with the general law of human progress, with the genesis of that science which Spencer
thought to be the knowledge of most worth, and with the origin and function of music, a subject
which he maintained should play an important part in any scheme of education.

John Dewey
BY: BEN JANSE (2019)
Source: https://www.toolshero.com/change-management/john-dewey-theory/

This article provides a practical explanation of the John Dewey theory. After reading, you’ll
understand the basics of this powerful change management tool.
What Is the John Dewey Theory?

John Dewey is one of the big names in the history of educational theories. John Dewey was
influential in countless fields and had lots of ideas concerning educational reform. His collection of
views, philosophies and radically different ideas on education have been combined in the John
Dewey theory.

In many countries, the modern educational system looks the way it does thanks to John
Dewey. His approach to schooling was revolutionary for his time and proves to be fundamentally
important for modern education to this day. John Dewey probably gained the most publicity thanks
to his role in the studies into progressive education. Progressive education in essence is a vision of
education that emphasises the necessity of learning by doing. According to the John Dewey theory,
people learn best through a hands-on approach. As a result, the philosophies and views of John
Dewey are placed in the educational philosophy of pragmatism.

John Dewey and other pragmatists are convinced that students or other persons who are
learning must experience reality as it is. From John Dewey’s educational point of view, this means
that students must adapt to their environment in order to learn. The John Dewey theory shows that
the great thinker had the same ideas about teachers. His view of the ideal classroom had many
similarities with democratic ideals. Dewey posits that it isn’t just the student who learns, but rather
the experience of students and teachers together that yields extra value for both.

Reformation of the Educational System

Children learn better when they interact with their environment and are involved in the
school’s learning plan, according to John Dewey. He rejected most of the theories that were popular
at the time, such as behaviourism, and dismissed these as being too simplistic and insufficiently
complex to describe learning processes. In those days, at the end of the 20th century, it was
assumed by many people that children were passive recipients of knowledge. The John Dewey
theory, however, directly opposes this.
Dewey argued that education can only truly be effective when children have learning opportunities
that enable them to link current knowledge to prior experiences and knowledge. This was a ground-
breaking idea in those days. Particularly the part related to experience learning, where children
come into contact with their environment, was revolutionary.

Educational Experiment (John Dewey)

The above shows that John Dewey was a great advocate of progressive educational reform.
He was convinced that the educational system was flawed and that it should focus on learning by
doing. He and his wife Harriet therefore started their own experimental primary school: the
University Elementary School. It was part of the University of Chicago, and the goal was to test his
own theories. His wife was fired however, as a result of which Dewey resigned.

Over 25 years later, in 1919, Dewey founded The New School for Social Research in
collaboration with his colleagues Charles Beard, James Harvey Robinson and Wesley Slair
Mitchell. This too was a progressive, experimental school that encouraged the free exchange of
ideas in the field of arts and social sciences.

His revolutionary ideas soon bore fruit. In the twenties of the previous century, Dewey gave
a lecture on educational reform in schools all over the world. He was very impressed by
experiments in the Russian school system. This taught him that students particularly had to focus
on interactions with the present. The John Dewey theory, however, doesn’t reject the value of
learning about the past.

John Dewey Theory Applied in the Classroom

Particularly in those days, between the two world wars, it was common that desks were set
up in rows in the classroom and the students wouldn’t leave their chair all day. This was what John
Dewey meant with the fact that children were viewed as passive recipients of knowledge. They
really had no say in the learning process whatsoever and they certainly couldn’t indicate whether
they liked to learn more on a specific subject. John Dewey was also very clear about how things
could be improved. These ideas are no longer radical today, but at the beginning of the previous
century, his view of education clashed with the policy and view of most schools.

Interdisciplinary Curriculum
 The John Dewey theory recommends an interdisciplinary curriculum, or a curriculum that
focuses on connecting multiple subjects where students can freely walk in and out of classrooms. In
this way, they pursue their own interests, and build their own method for acquiring and applying
specific knowledge.

In this setting, the teacher has a facilitating role. According to John Dewey, the teacher
should observe the student’s interests, follow the directions, and help them develop problem-solving
skills.

As stated, it was common in those days that the teacher stood in front of the group of
students and provided information all day long. The students’ task was to absorb the information
and test this in the form of an exam or other written test. John Dewey’s ideal describes an entirely
different function of the teacher. According to Dewey, the teacher should only provide background
information and have the students work together in groups on the concept. This should start
conversation and discussion, and give rise to valuable collaboration. Although the written exam
would continue to play an important role, particularly presentations, projects and other evaluation
techniques are used to keep track of the progress.

John Dewey’s Theories of Education

By W. F. Warde (George Novack)

October 20, 1959 marked the one-hundredth anniversary of John Dewey’s birthday. This
eminent thinker of the Progressive movement was the dominant figure in American education. His
most valuable and enduring contribution to our culture came from the ideas and methods he
fathered in this field.

Dewey won a greater international following for his educational reforms than for his
instrumentalist philosophy. Between the two World Wars, where previously backward countries
were obliged to catch up quickly with the most modern methods, as in Turkey, Japan, China, the
Soviet Union and Latin America, the reshapers of the educational system turned toward Dewey’s
innovations for guidance.

Most broadly considered, Dewey’s work consummated the trends in education below the
university level initiated by pioneer pedagogues animated by the impulses of the bourgeois-
democratic revolution. This was especially clear in his views on child education which built on ideas
first brought forward by Rousseau, Pestalozzi and Froebel in Western Europe and by kindred
reformers in the United States.

In its course of development on a world scale the democratic movement forced

consideration of the needs and claims of one section of the oppressed after another. Out of the
general cause of “rights of the people” there sprouted specific demands voicing the grievances of
peasants, wage workers, the religiously persecuted, slaves, women, paupers, the aged, the
disabled, prisoners, the insane, the racially oppressed.

The movement to reform child education must be viewed in this historical context. Children
as such are not usually included among the oppressed. Yet they necessarily compose one of the
weakest, most dependent and defenseless sections of the population. Each generation of children
is not only helped but hindered and hurt by the elders who exercise direct control over them.
 Just as society may deny satisfaction to the physical, educational and cultural needs of the
young, so their parents and guardians may slight or ignore their rights. Most adults cannot be held
individually culpable for such misdeeds; they, too, have been shaped by the society around them
and are goaded by its necessities. Through them and others around them the rising generation
suffers from the inadequacies of their social inheritance and the evils of their surroundings. Growing
children are normally unaware of the remoter social causes of their misfortunes and miseries; even
their elders may not know about them. So they direct their resentments, as well as focus their
affections, upon the members of their immediate circle. The novels of the past 150 years provide
plenty of pathetic tales and tragic descriptions of family conflicts at all age levels.

Children cannot formulate their grievances collectively, or conduct organized struggle for
improvements in their conditions of life and mode of education. Apart from individual explosions of
protest, they must be helped by spokesmen among adults who are sensitive to the troubles of the
young and are resolved to do something about remedying them.

However, the impulsion for educational reform does not come in the first place from any
abstract recognition of the deprivations suffered by the young. It arises from reactions to
widespread changes in the conditions of life which affect all age groups. Their new situation forces
both parents and children to seek new ways of satisfying the new demands thrust upon them. The
child brought up in a tenement or an apartment in crowded city streets has different needs and
faces more complex and perplexing problems than the child on a family farm. The families who
have migrated from Puerto Rico to Manhattan since the end of the Second World War can testify to
this.

The problems of readjustment differ somewhat according to the child’s social status. The
class structure quickly impresses its stamp upon the plastic personality, conditioning and regulating
the relations between the sexes, the rich and the poor, the upper, middle and lower classes. This
determines both the characteristics of the educational system and of the children tutored and
trained under it.

Each broad struggle against antiquated social and political conditions since the French
Revolution has evoked demands for the reconstruction of the educational system. The kindergarten
and child-play movement now incorporated in our public schools was part and parcel of the ferment
created by the French Revolution. Thomas Jefferson first called for national free public schools to
defend and extend the newly won American democracy. The utopian socialists, in accord with their
understanding that people were the products of their social environment, gave much thought to the
upbringing of children and introduced many now accepted educational innovations.

The communist colony in New Harmony, Indiana, founded by Robert Owen in 1826,
pioneered a pattern in free, equal, comprehensive and secular education that had yet to be realized
throughout this country over a century later. From the age of two the children were cared for and
instructed by the community. The youngest spent the day in play school until they progressed to
higher classes. There the Greek and Latin classics were discarded; practice in various crafts
constituted an essential part of the program. The teachers aimed to impart what the children could
most readily understand, making use of concrete objects and avoiding premature abstractions.
They banished fear and all artificial rewards and punishments and appealed instead to the
spontaneous interest and inclinations of the children as incentives for learning. Girls were on an
equal footing with boys.
 The educational reformers of the late eighteenth and nineteenth centuries dealt with the two
distinct aspects of children’s problems. One concerned the claims of childhood as a specific and
independent stage in human growth. This perennial problem arises from the efforts of adults to
subject growing children to ends foreign to their own needs and to press them into molds shaped,
not by the requirements of the maturing personality, but by the external interests of the ruling order.
Rousseau had protested against this when he wrote:

“Nature wants children to be children before they are men . . . Childhood has ways of
seeing, thinking, and feeling, peculiar to itself, nothing can be more foolish than to substitute our
ways for them.“

The other involved efforts to reshape the obsolete system of schooling to make it fit the
revolutionary changes in social life. These two problems were closely connected. The play school,
for example, was devised not only to care for the specific needs of very young children but also to
meet new needs which had grown out of the transformations in the family affected by industrial and
urban conditions; it was no longer a unit of production as in feudal and colonial times but became
more and more simply a center of consumption.

Dewey’s theories blended attention to the child as an individual with rights and claims of his
own with a recognition of the gulf between an outdated and class-distorted educational setup
inherited from the past and the urgent requirements of the new era.

The educational system had to be thoroughly overhauled, he said, because of the deep-
going changes in American civilization. Under colonial, agrarian, small-town life, the child took part
in household, community and productive activities which spontaneously fostered capacities for self-
direction, discipline, leadership and independent judgment. Such worthwhile qualities were
discouraged and stunted by the new industrialized, urbanized, atomized conditions which had
disintegrated the family and weakened the influence of religion.

In the city the training of children became one-sided and distorted because intellectual
activities were dissociated from practical everyday occupations. Dewey wrote:

“While the child of bygone days was getting an intellectual discipline whose significance he
appreciated in the school, in his home life he was securing acquaintance in a direct fashion with the
chief lines of social and industrial activity. Life was in the main rural. The child came into contact
with the scenes of nature, and was familiarized with the care of domestic animals, the cultivation of
the soil, and the raising of crops. The factory system being undeveloped, the house was the center
of industry. Spinning, weaving, the making of clothes, etc., were all carried on there.“

“As there was little accumulation of wealth,” Dewey continued, “the child had to take part in
these, as well as to participate in the usual round of household occupations. Only those who have
passed through such training, [as Dewey himself did in Vermont], and, later on, have seen children
raised in city environments, can adequately realize the amount of training, mental and moral,
involved in this extra-school life ... It was not only an adequate substitute for what we now term
manual training, in the development of hand and eye, in the acquisition of skill and deftness; but it
was initiation into self-reliance, independence of judgment and action, and was the best stimulus to
habits of regular and continuous work.“

“In the urban and suburban life of the child of today this is simply memory,” he went on to
point out. “The invention of machinery, the institution of the factory system, the division of labor,
have changed the home from a workshop into a simple dwelling place. The crowding into cities and
the increase of servants [!] have deprived the child of an opportunity to take part in those
occupations which still remain. Just at the time when a child is subjected to a great increase in
stimulus and pressure from his environment, he loses the practical and motor training necessary to
balance his intellectual development. Facility in acquiring information is gained; the power of using it
is lost. While need of the more formal intellectual training in school has decreased, there arises an
urgent demand for the introduction of methods of manual and industrial discipline which shall give
the child what he formerly obtained in his home and social life. The old schooling had to be
renovated for still another reason. The curriculum and mode of colonial education had been largely
shaped by medieval concepts and aims. The schools were controlled by the clergy and access to
them was restricted to the favored few, the wealthy and well born. The teacher tyrannized over the
classroom, imposing a schematic routine upon a passive, obedient, well-drilled student body.

In The School and Society Dewey pointed out how haphazardly the existing school
organization had grown up. It was composed of oddly assorted and poorly fitting parts, fashioned in
different centuries and designed to serve different needs and even conflicting social interests.

The crown of the system, the university, had come down from medieval times and was
originally intended to cater to the aristocracy and train an elite for such professions as law, theology
and medicine. The high school dated from the nineteenth century when it was instituted to care for
the demands from commerce and industry for better-trained personnel. The grammar school was
inherited from the eighteenth century when it was felt that boys ought to have the minimum ability to
read, write and calculate before being turned out to shift for themselves. The kindergarten was a
later addition arising from the breakup of the family and the home by the industrial revolution.

A variety of specialized institutions had sprung up alongside this official hierarchy of

education. The normal or teachers’ training school produced the teachers demanded by the
expansion of public education in the nineteenth century. The trade and technical school turned out
skilled craftsmen needed for industry and construction.

Thus the various parts of our educational system ranged from institutions of feudal formation
like the university to such offshoots of industrial capitalism as the trade school. But no single
consistent principle or purpose of organization unified the whole.

Dewey sought to supply that unifying pattern by applying the principles and practices of
democracy, as he interpreted them, consistently throughout the educational system. First, the
schools would be freely available to all from kindergarten to college. Second, the children would
themselves carry on the educational process, aided and guided by the teacher. Third, they would
be trained to behave cooperatively, sharing with and caring for one another. Then these creative,
well-adjusted equalitarians would make over American society in their own image.

In this way the opposition between the old education and the new conditions of life would be
overcome. The progressive influences radiating from the schools would stimulate and fortify the
building of a democratic order of free and equal citizens.

The new school system envisaged by Dewey was to take over the functions and
compensate for the losses sustained by the crumbling of the old institutions clustered around the
farm economy, the family, the church and the small town. “The school,” he wrote, “must be made
into a social center capable of participating in the daily life of the community . . . and make up in
part to the child for the decay of dogmatic and fixed methods of social discipline and for the loss of
reverence and the influence of authority.” Children were to get from the public school whatever was
missing in their lives elsewhere that was essential for their balanced development as members of a
democratic country.

He therefore urged that manual training, science, nature-study, art and similar subjects be
given precedence over reading, writing and arithmetic (the traditional three R’s) in the primary
curriculum. The problems raised by the exercise of the child’s motor powers in constructive work
would lead naturally, he said, into learning the more abstract, intellectual branches of knowledge.

Although Dewey asserted that activities involving the energetic side of the child’s nature
should take first place in primary education, he objected to early specialized training or technical
segregation in the public schools which was dictated, not by the individual needs or personal
preferences of the growing youth, but by external interests.

The question of how soon vocational training should begin had been under debate in
educational circles since the days of Benjamin Franklin. The immigrants, working and middle
classes regarded education, not as an adornment or a passport to aristocratic culture, but as
indispensable equipment to earn a better living and rise in the social scale. They especially valued
those subjects which were conducive to success in business. During the nineteenth century private
business colleges were set up in the cities to teach the mathematics, bookkeeping, stenography
and knowledge of English required for business offices. Mechanics institutes were established to
provide skilled manpower for industry.

These demands of capitalist enterprise invaded the school system and posed the question
of how soon children were to be segregated to become suitable recruits for the merchant princes
and captains of industry. One of the early nineteenth century promoters of free public education,
Horace Mann, appealed both to the self-interest of the people and to the cupidity of the industrialists
for support of his cause on the ground that elementary education alone could properly prepare the
youth for work in the field, shop or office and would increase the value of labor. “Education has a
market value; that it is so far an article of merchandise, that it can be turned to pecuniary account; it
may be minted, and will yield a larger amount of statutable coin than common bullion,” he said.

Dewey, following his co-educator, Francis Parker, rejected so commercial-minded an

approach to elementary education. They opposed slotting children prematurely into grooves of
capitalist manufacture. The business of education is more than education for the sake of business,
they declared. They saw in too-early specialization the menace of uniformity and the source of a
new division into a master and a subject class.

Education should give every child the chance to grow up spontaneously, harmoniously and
all-sidedly. “Instead of trying to split schools into two kinds, one of a trade type for children whom it
is assumed are to be employees and one of a liberal type for the children of the well-to-do, it will
aim at such a reorganization of existing schools as will give all pupils a genuine respect for useful
work, an ability to render service, and a contempt for social parasites whether they are called
tramps or leaders of ’society.’ “Such a definition did not please those who looked upon themselves
as preordained to the command posts of the social system.

Each stage of child development, as Gesell’s experiments and conclusions have proved,
has its own dominant needs, problems, modes of behavior and reasoning. These special traits
required their own methods of teaching and learning which had to provide the basis for the
educational curriculum.
 The kindergarten was the first consciously to adopt the methods of instruction adapted to a
particular age group. Dewey extended this approach from pre-school age to primary and secondary
schooling. Each grade ought to be child-centered, not externally oriented, he taught. “The actual
interests of the child must be discovered if the significance and worth of his life is to be taken into
account and full development achieved. Each subject must fulfill present needs of growing children .
. . The business of education is not, for the presumable usefulness of his future, to rob the child of
the intrinsic joy of childhood involved in living each single day,” he insisted.

Children must not be treated as miniature adults or merely as means for ministering to adult
needs, now or later. They had their own rights. Childhood was as much a period of consummation
and of enjoyment of life on its own terms as it was a prelude to later life. The first should not be
sacrificed to the second on penalty of wronging the child, robbing him of his just due and twisting
his personality development.

Socially desirable qualities could not be brought forth in the child by pouring a ready-made
curriculum into a passive vessel. They could be most easily and fully developed by guiding the
normal motor activities, irrepressible inquisitiveness and outgoing energies of the child along the
lines of their greatest interest.

Interest, not outside pressure, mobilizes the maximum effort in acquiring knowledge as well
as in performing work. The authoritarian teacher, the cut-and-dried curriculum, the uniform
procession from one grade to the next and the traditional fixed seats and desks laid out in rows
within the isolated and self-contained classroom were all impediments to enlightened education.
Whenever the occasion warranted, children should be permitted to go outdoors and enter the
everyday life of their community instead of being shut up in a classroom “where each pupil sits at a
screwed down desk and studies the same part of some lesson from the same textbook at the same
time.” The child could freely realize his capacities only in an unobstructed environment.

The child learns best through direct personal experience. In the primary stage of education
these experiences should revolve around games and occupations analogous to the activities
through which mankind satisfies its basic material needs for food, clothing, shelter and protection.
The city child is far removed from the processes of production: food comes from the store in cans
and packages, clothing is made in distant factories, water comes from the faucet.

The school has to give children, not only an insight into the social importance of such
activities, but above all the opportunities to practice them in play form. This leads naturally into the
problem or “project method” which has come to be identified with the essence of the progressive
procedure.

Children soak up knowledge and retain it for use when they are spontaneously induced to
look into matters of compelling interest to themselves. They progress fastest in learning, not
through being mechanically drilled in prefabricated material, but by doing work, experimenting with
things, changing them in purposive ways.

Occasionally children need to be alone and on their own. But in the main they will learn
more by doing things together. By choosing what their group would like to do, planning their work,
helping one another do it, trying out various ways and means of performing the tasks, involved and
discovering what will forward the project, comparing and appraising the results, the youngsters
would best develop their latent powers, their skill, understanding, self-reliance and cooperative
habits.
 The questions and answers arising from such joint enterprises would expand the child’s
horizon by linking his immediate activities with the larger life of the community. Small children of six
or seven who take up weaving, for example, can be stimulated to inquire into the cultivation of
cotton, its processes of manufacture, the history of spinning devices. Such lines of inquiry emerging
from their own interests and occupations would open windows upon the past, introduce them
naturally to history, geography, science and invention, and establish vivid connections between
what they are doing in school and the basic activities of human existence.

Participation in meaningful projects, learning by doing, encouraging problems and solving

them, not only facilitates the acquisition and retention of knowledge but fosters the right character
traits: unselfishness, helpfulness, critical intelligence, individual initiative, etc. Learning is more than
assimilating; it is the development of habits which enable the growing person to deal effectively and
most intelligently with his environment. And where that environment is in rapid flux, as in modern
society, the elasticity which promotes readjustment to what is new is the most necessary of habits.

Dewey aimed to integrate the school with society, and the processes of learning with the
actual problems of life, by a thoroughgoing application of the principles and practices of democracy.
The school system would be open to all on a completely free and equal basis without any
restrictions or segregation on account of color, race, creed, national origin, sex or social status.
Group activity under self-direction and self-government would make the classroom a miniature
republic where equality and consideration for all would prevail.

This type of education would have the most beneficial social consequences. It would tend to
erase unjust distinctions and prejudices. It would equip children with the qualities and capacities
required to cope with the problems of a fast-changing world. It would produce alert, balanced,
critical-minded individuals who would continue to grow in intellectual and moral stature after
graduation.

The Progressive Education Association, inspired by Dewey’s ideas, later codified his
doctrines as follows:

1. The conduct of the pupils shall be governed by themselves, according to the social
needs of the community.
2. Interest shall be the motive for all work.
3. Teachers will inspire a desire for knowledge, and will serve as guides in the
investigations undertaken, rather than as task-masters.
4. Scientific study of each pupil’s development, physical, mental, social and spiritual, is
absolutely essential to the intelligent direction of his development.
5. Greater attention is paid to the child’s physical needs, with greater use of the out-of-
doors.
6. Cooperation between school and home will fill all needs of the child’s development
such as music, dancing, play and other extra-curricular activities.
7. All progressive schools will look upon their work as of the laboratory type, giving
freely to the sum of educational knowledge the results of their experiments in child
culture. These rules for education sum up the theoretical conclusions of the reform
movement begun by Colonel Francis Parker and carried forward by Dewey at the
laboratory school he set up in 1896 with his first wife in connection with the University
of Chicago. With his instrumentalist theory of knowledge as a guide, Dewey tried out
and confirmed his new educational procedures there with children between the ages of
four and fourteen.
 This work was subsequently popularized by the leading faculty members of
Teachers College in New York after Dewey transferred from Chicago to Columbia
University. From this fountainhead Dewey’s ideas filtered throughout most of the
teachers training schools and all the grades of public instruction below the university
level. His disciples organized a John Dewey Society and the Progressive Education
Association and have published numerous books and periodicals to propagate and
defend his theories.

Dewey’s progressive ideas in education have had a curious career. Despite the
criticisms they have received from the right and from the left, and even within
Progressive circles, they have no serious rival. Today, on the century of his birth, they
are the accepted and entrenched creed on education from Maine to California.

Yet this supremacy in the domain of educational theory has not been matched
by an equivalent reconstruction of the educational system. Dewey’s ideas have inspired
many modifications in the traditional curriculum, in the techniques of instruction, in the
pattern of school construction. But they have not changed the basis or the essential
characteristics of the school system, and certainly not the class stratification of
American society.

Such restricted results are not a very good testimonial for the principal product
of a philosophy which demands that the merits of a theory be tested and judged by its
ability to transform a defective situation,

How is this ineffectiveness in practice to be explained? If Dewey’s procedures,

ideas and aims are so admirable—as they are—why after fifty years haven’t they
succeeded in accomplishing more in the spheres of educational and social reform?
Why have they fallen so far short of expectations and even become one of the favorite
targets of reaction?

George Counts (1889–1974)

Source: https://education.stateuniversity.com/pages/1891/Counts-George-S-1889-
1974.html#:~:text=Counts's%20educational%20philosophy%20was%20also,than%20be
%20isolated%20from%20it.
Sociology and Education, Social Reform, Political Activism, Contribution
Progressive educator, sociologist, and political activist, George S. Counts challenged
teachers and teacher educators to use school as a means for critiquing and transforming the social
order. Perhaps best known for his controversial pamphlet Dare the School Build a New Social
Order? (1932), Counts authored scores of scholarly works that advanced the social study of
education and emphasized teaching as a moral and political enterprise. His work on schooling and
society continue to have relevance to contemporary dilemmas in education.

Counts was born and raised in Baldwin, Kansas. His family was Methodist and, by his own
account, imparted strong ideals of fairness and brotherhood. Counts earned his B.A. from Baker
University, the local Methodist school, in 1911 with a degree in classical studies. After graduating,
he was employed as a high school math and science teacher, an athletic coach, and principal
before beginning postgraduate studies in education at the University of Chicago in 1913, at the age
of twenty-four. After receiving a Ph.D. degree with honors, Counts taught at Delaware College, now
the University of Delaware (1916–1917) as head of the department of education. He taught
educational sociology at Harris Teachers College in St. Louis, Missouri (1918–1919), secondary
education at the University of Washington (1919–1920), and education at Yale University (1920–
1926) and at the University of Chicago (1926–1927). For nearly thirty years, Counts taught at
Teachers College, Columbia University in New York (1927–1956). After being required to retire at
the age of 65 from Teachers College, Counts taught at the University of Pittsburgh (1959), Michigan
State University (1960), and Southern Illinois University (1962–1971).

Sociology and Education

Much of Counts's scholarship derives from his pioneering work in the sociology of education.
His adviser as a doctoral student at the University of Chicago was the chairman of the department
of education, psychologist Charles H. Judd. Significantly, Counts insisted on fashioning for himself
a minor in sociology and social science at a time when professors of education wholly embraced
psychology as the mediating discipline through which to study educational practice and problems.
Although his contemporaries were fascinated with the "science of education" and its psychological
underpinnings, Counts was interested in the study of social conditions and problems and their
relationship to education. Heavily influenced by Albion Small and other Chicago sociologists,
Counts saw in sociology the opportunity to examine and reshape schools by considering the impact
of social forces and varied political and social interests on educational practice. For example, in
the Selective Character of American Secondary Education (1922), Counts demonstrated a close
relationship between students' perseverance in school and their parents' occupations. In the Social
Composition of Boards of Education: A Study in the Social Control of Public Education (1927)
and School and Society in Chicago (1928), he asserted that dominant social classes control
American boards of education and school practices respectively. Because schools were run by the
capitalist class who wielded social and economic power, Counts argued, school practices tended
towards the status quo, including the preservation of an unjust distribution of wealth and power.

Counts's educational philosophy was also an outgrowth of John Dewey's philosophy. Both
men believed in the enormous potential of education to improve society and that schools should
reflect life rather than be isolated from it. But unlike Dewey's Public and Its Problems, much of
Counts's writing suggests a plan of action in the use of schools to fashion a new social order.
Social Reform
From 1927 to the early 1930s Counts became fascinated with the Soviet Union precisely for
its willingness to employ schools in the inculcation of a new social order. Although he later became
disillusioned with mounting evidence of Soviet totalitarianism and an outspoken critic of the
Communist Party (he was elected as president of the American Federation of Teachers in 1939
having run as the anti-Communist candidate), Counts–like twenty-first century criticalists–believed
that schools always indoctrinated students. What interested Counts was the schools' orientation:
what kind of society did the schools favor and to what degree. As he put it, the
word indoctrination "does not frighten me" (1978, p. 263). This position, in particular, later brought
Counts fierce critics like Franklin Bobbit, a leader of the social efficiency movement, who countered
that the schools were not to be used as agents of social reform.

Counts was accordingly critical of the child-centered Progressives for their failure to articulate
any conception of a good society. He chided their preoccupation with individual growth at the
expense of democratic solidarity and social justice. In his speech to the Progressive Education
Association (PEA), "Dare Progressive Education be Progressive?" which later became the
pamphlet Dare the School Build a New Social Order?, he argued that Progressive education had
"elaborated no theory of social welfare" (1978, p. 258), and that it must "emancipate itself from the
influence of class" (p. 259).

Political Activism
Counts was also a political activist. He was chairman of the American Labor Party (1942–
1944), a founder of the Liberal Party, and a candidate for New York's city council, lieutenant
governor, and the U.S. Senate. He was president of the American Federation of Teachers (AFT)
and a member of the Commission on the Social Studies of the American Historical Association. He
was the first editor of the Progressive journal Social Frontier which, at its peak, boasted a circulation
of 6,000, and advocated enlisting teachers in the reconstruction of society.

Contribution
Counts's importance to and impact on American education remain a matter of debate. His
contributions to the evolving discourse on democracy and education are evident in a great deal of
his writing, specifically in his conviction that schools could be the lever of radical social change.
Highly critical of economic and social norms of selfishness, individualism, and inattention to human
suffering, Counts wanted educators to "engage in the positive task of creating a new tradition in
American life" (1978, p.262). He wanted teachers to go beyond abstract, philosophical conceptions
of democracy and teach explicitly about power and injustice. He wanted teachers and students to
count among their primary goals the building of a better social order.

Theodore Brameld
Theodore Burghard Hurt Brameld
The Prophet Father of the Coming World
Source:
http://www2.southeastern.edu/Academics/Faculty/nadams/educ692/Brameld.html#:~:text=Brameld
%20founded%20the%20educational%20philosophy,as%20the%20aim%20of%20education.
Theodore Burghard Hurt Brameld (1904-1987) was a leading educational philosopher of the
20th century. As an American educator and educational philosopher, Brameld was best known as
the founder of Social Reconstructionism. In reaction to the realities of World War II, he recognized
the potential for either human annihilation through technology and human cruelty or the capacity to
create a beneficent society using technology and human compassion (Philosophical Perspectives).
Brameld dedicated his efforts to employing schools as agents for social change. Brameld’s works
include: Ends and Means in Education (1950), Patterns of Educational Philosophy (1955),
Philosophies of Education in Cultural Perspective (1955), Toward a Reconstructed Philosophy of
Education (1956), Cultural Foundations of Education (1957), Education and the Emerging Age
(1961), Education as Power (1965), The Use of Explosive Ideas in Education (1965), The Climactic
Decades (1970), Patterns of Educational Philosophy (1971), The Teacher as World Citizen (1976),
and Tourism as Cultural Learning (1977). The objective of this writing is to present a brief synopsis
of Theodore Brameld’s educational philosophy and his relevance to education.
Brameld advocated that schools be a driving force for social and political change. He held
that a system of public education that is aware of the findings of the behavioral sciences could bring
about fundamental changes in the social and economic structure of society (The Columbia
Encyclopedia). Brameld founded the educational philosophy of Social Reconstructionism which
emphasized the addressing of social questions and a quest to create a better society and worldwide
democracy (Philosophical Perspectives). Reconstructionist educators focus on a curriculum that
emphasizes social reform as the aim of education.
In the early 1950’s, Brameld outlined the distinctive features of Social Reconstructionism
(McNeil). First, he believed in a commitment to building a new culture in which the common people
would emerge as the leaders of society. Second, he felt that the working people should control all
principal institutions and resources if the world is to become genuinely democratic. The structure,
goals, and policies of the new order must be approved and enacted with public support. Third,
Brameld believed that the school should help the individual, not only to develop socially, but to learn
how to participate in social planning as well. The individual must find ways to satisfy personal needs
through social consensus. Fourth, he believed learners must be convinced of the validity and
urgency of change but must adhere to democratic procedures.
Brameld believed the creation of a new social order through education would fulfill the basic
values of society and harmonize with the underlying social and economic forces of the modern
world. The child, the school, and education would be conditioned by social and cultural forces. The
teacher’s role was to convince his or her students of the validity and urgency of the
Reconstructionist solution. In order to do this, education would have to be completely re-fashioned
to meet the demands of the present cultural crisis (Four Theories of Education).
Theodore Brameld set out to perfect the American democracy by utilizing education and
establishing goals for world unity. Specifically, he proposed a curriculum structure which included
the following: 1) a nursery school for ages 2-5 which emphasized guidance and personal
development, 2) a lower elementary for ages 6-11 which emphasized social development and
related personal qualities, 3) an upper elementary for ages 12-16 which emphasized activities and
learning, and 4) a secondary school for ages 17-21 which would be equal to present day high
school and 2 years of college (Brameld). Many of his proposals such as a longer school day; a year
round school calendar; and open facilities to facilitate adult education, recreation, and counseling
are widely accepted as means of improving the education system of today. Brameld has had a
major impact on educational thought and practice to which the effects will continue to influence the
modern culture of America for generations to come.

The Educational Theory of Theodore Burghard Hurt Brameld

Analyst: Deborah B. McKay (2014)
Source: https://www.newfoundations.com/GALLERY/Brameld.html

1. Theory of Value:
What knowledge and skills are worth learning? What are the goals of education?
Theodore Brameld believed that the goal of education was to employ schools as agents for social
change. He is the founder of the educational philosophy of Social Reconstructionism
whichemphasized addressing social questions and a quest to create a better society and
worldwidedemocracy (Haindel, page 1). The knowledge and skills that are worth learning include
science,economics, mathematics, human relations, arts, religion and politics as these areas can
teachpeople to reason. Education As Power means education competent and strong enough to
enableus, the majority of people, to decide what kind of a world we want and how to achieve that
kind ofworld (Brameld, page 9). Only the power of education is capable of controlling the other
powersthat man has gained and will use either for his annihilation or for his transformation
(Brameld,page 1).

2. Theory of Knowledge:
What is knowledge? How is it different from belief. What is a mistake? What is a lie?
Knowledge is virtue and our civilization will fail if power and virtue are not balanced. It is different
from belief since Brameld believed that people could be taught toreason. With education as the
core and creation of culture, the world can save itself fromdestruction by choosing to reason
accordingly. A mistake would be construed as "man's inabilityto solve the crises in favor of a
reconstructed and higher equilibrium" (Brameld, page 20). A lie is man's inability to face the
consequences of his actions.

3. Theory of Human Nature:

What is a human being? How does it differ from other species?
What are the limits of human potential?Human beings have become emotionally ill as the mores
and values of society have changed and aloss of equilibrium has occurred. Man has the ability to
build a better society, however, throughbringing this issue of values into a clearer focus. Human
beings have the ability to analyzecritically what is wrong with the values that we have been holding
and then to decide about the values that we should be holding. It is ultimately man's decision
whether the power that isacquired be used for good or evil purposes since man does have the
capacity to destroy itself.

4. Theory of Learning:
What is learning? How are skills and knowledge acquired?
Learning is acquired through a cultural context. Students learn through participation in a
democraticprocess, which includes a problem-based context and cooperative investigation. For
example, as students discover and learn history and the context of the past and present cultural
and societalenvironments and analyze the data, then students
are able to make better decisions to affect thegreater good of mankind. Skills and knowledge are
acquired as continual interaction betweencommunity and school occurs.

5. Theory of Transmission:
Who should teach? By what methods? What will the curriculum be?
Teachers should help young people learn how the scientific method applies, not just to
physics,chemistry or biology, but to the whole of life, including personal and social life (Brameld,
page 53).

In addition, teachers should help students to understand themselves as well as their

relationship toothers. Teaching, however, should not be limited to teachers. In the Floodwood
Project, "students met two or three times each week with the instructor acting as chairman to
exchange information andquestions, listen to guest experts and plan the schedule ahead"
(Thompson, page 266).

The methods of instruction should include: group research, reports, analysis of current
issues, reading, guestspeakers, small group discussion, field trips, essay writing, students
refonnulating ideas and providingstrategies for implementation. Curriculum should be designed
around contemporary social life ratherthan academic disciplines and should be whatever is going to
help a culture to evolve, change and problem solve.

6. Theory of Society:
What is society? What institutions are involved in the education process?
Education as power means that we, the teachers, the students and the parents, are the only ones
whoshould control education-control it for our own good ends and by our own good means
(Brameld,page 8). He believed in a commitment to building a new culture in which the common
people wouldemerge as the leaders of society (Haindel, page 1).
In addition to these stakeholders, there are otherinstitutions that should be involved in the
educational process. In the Floodwood Project, this is clearly seen: A wide range of pamphlets and
books from more that 40 organizations were collectedfor classroom use. They included publications
issued by the National Association of Manufacturers,the Cooperative League, the Congress of
Industrial Organizations, and federal new Deal Agencies(Thompson, page 270).

7. Theory of Opportunity
Who is to be educated?
Education is the right and responsibility of each person. The average student must be educated to
thelimits of his ability-above all, his ability both to understand and serve the prevailing power
struggleon his own level. We see our fundamental goals as a world civilization and an educational
system which in all ways support human dignity for all races,castes, and classes; self-realization;
and the fullest vocational, civic, and social cooperative and service(Brameld, 1965).

8. Theory of Consensus
Why do people disagree? How is Consensus achieved? Whose opinion takes precedence?
American philosophers have disagreed with one another a great deal in the area of consensus
since different ideals have different meaning for different people. The bottom line, though, is that
eachand every human being has the right to'have their basic needs satisfied and to have the
opportunityfor self-actualization. Brameld contended that social consensus is the basis of
meaningful socialaction (Thompson, page 277). The individual must find ways to satisfy personal
needs through social consensus (Haindel, page 1). Ultimately, the good of mankind must take
precedence.
Paulo Freire (1921–1997)
Source: https://education.stateuniversity.com/pages/1998/Freire-Paulo-1921-1997.html

Conceptual Tools, Philosophy of Education, Criticism

Paulo Reglus Neves Freire was a Brazilian educator whose revolutionary pedagogical theory
influenced educational and social movements throughout the world and whose philosophical
writings influenced academic disciplines that include theology, sociology, anthropology, applied
linguistics, pedagogy, and cultural studies. He was born to a middle-class family in Recife, in the
state of Pernambuco in the northeast of Brazil. His early work in adult literacy–the most famous
being his literacy experiments in the town of Angicos in Rio Grande do Norte–was terminated after
the military coup in 1964. That year he went into exile, during which time he lived in Bolivia; then
Chile where he worked for the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
(UNESCO) and the Chilean Institute for Agrarian Reform, and where he wrote his most important
work, Pedagogy of the Oppressed (1970); Mexico; the United States where he held a brief
appointment at Harvard University's Center for Studies in Development and Social Change; and
Switzerland where he worked for the World Council of Churches as the director of their education
program. He also served as an adviser for various governments, most notably the government of
Guinea-Bissau. In 1980 he returned to Brazil to teach and later to serve as secretary of education
for Sāo Paulo. He worked as a consultant for revolutionary governments such as the New Jewel
Movement in Grenada, the Sandinista government in Nicaragua, and the government of Julius K.
Nyerere in Tanzania. From 1985 until his death in 1997, Freire served as the honorary president of
the International Council for Adult Education. Freire's conception of education as a deeply political
project oriented toward the transformation of society has been crucial to the education of
revolutionary societies and societies undergoing civil war, as well as established Western
democracies. Freire's work has exercised considerable influence among progressive educators in
the West, especially in the context of emerging traditions of critical pedagogy, bilingual education,
and multicultural education.

Freire's revolutionary pedagogy starts from a deep love for, and humility before, poor and
oppressed people and a respect for their "common sense," which constitutes a knowledge no less
important than the scientific knowledge of the professional. This humility makes possible a condition
of reciprocal trust and communication between the educator, who also learns, and the student, who
also teaches. Thus, education becomes a "communion" between participants in a dialogue
characterized by a reflexive, reciprocal, and socially relevant exchange, rather than the unilateral
action of one individual agent for the benefit of the other. Nevertheless, this does not amount to a
celebration of the untrammeled core of consciousness of the oppressed, in which the educator
recedes into the background as a mere facilitator. Freire conceived of authentic teaching as
enacting a clear authority, rather than being authoritarian. The teacher, in his conception, is not
neutral, but intervenes in the educational situation in order to help the student to overcome those
aspects of his or her social constructs that are paralyzing, and to learn to think critically. In a similar
fashion, Freire validated and affirmed the experiences of the oppressed without automatically
legitimizing or validating their content. All experiences–including those of the teacher–had to be
interrogated in order to lay bare their ideological assumptions and presuppositions. The benchmark
that Freire used for evaluating experiences grew out of a Christianized Marxist humanism. From
this position, Freire urged both students and teachers to unlearn their race, class, and gender
privileges and to engage in a dialogue with those whose experiences are very different from their
own. Thus, he did not uncritically affirm student or teacher experiences but provided the conceptual
tools with which to critically interrogate them so as to minimize their politically domesticating
influences.
Conceptual Tools
Banking education. Freire criticized prevailing forms of education as reducing students to
the status of passive objects to be acted upon by the teacher. In this traditional form of education it
is the job of the teacher to deposit in the minds of the students, considered to be empty in an
absolute ignorance, the bits of information that constitute knowledge. Freire called this banking
education. The goal of banking education is to immobilize the people within existing frameworks of
power by conditioning them to accept that meaning and historical agency are the sole property of
the oppressor. Educators within the dominant culture and class fractions often characterize the
oppressed as marginal, pathological, and helpless. In the banking model, knowledge is taken to be
a gift that is bestowed upon the student by the teacher. Freire viewed this false generosity on the
part of the oppressor–which ostensibly aims to incorporate and improve the oppressed–as a crucial
means of domination by the capitalist class. The indispensable soil of good teaching consists of
creating the pedagogical conditions for genuine dialogue, which maintains that teachers should not
impose their views on students, but neither should they camouflage them nor drain them of political
and ethical import.

Problem-posing method. Against the banking model, Freire proposed a

dialogical problem-posing method of education. In this model, the teacher and student become co-
investigators of knowledge and of the world. Instead of suggesting to students that their situation in
society has been transcendentally fixed by nature or reason, as the banking model does, Freire's
problem-posing education invites the oppressed to explore their reality as a "problem" to be
transformed. The content of this education cannot be determined necessarily in advance, through
the expertise of the educator, but must instead arise from the lived experiences or reality of the
students. It is not the task of the educator to provide the answer to the problems that these
situations present, but to help students to achieve a form of critical thinking (or conscientization)
that will make possible an awareness of society as mutable and potentially open to transformation.
Once they are able to see the world as a transformable situation, rather than an unthinkable and
inescapable stasis, it becomes possible for students to imagine a new and different reality.
In order, however, to undertake this process, the oppressed must challenge their own
internalization of the oppressor. The oppressed are accustomed to thinking of themselves as "less
than." They have been conditioned to view as complete and human only the dominating practices of
the oppressor, so that to fully become human means to simulate these practices. Against a "fear of
freedom" that protects them from a cataclysmic reorganization of their being, the oppressed in
dialogue engage in an existential process of dis-identifying with "the oppressor housed within." This
dis-identification allows them to begin the process of imagining a new being and a new life as
subjects of their own history.

Culture circle. The concrete basis for Freire's dialogical system of education is the culture
circle, in which students and coordinator together discuss generative themes that have significance
within the context of students' lives. These themes, which are related to nature, culture, work, and
relationships, are discovered through the cooperative research of educators and students. They
express, in an open rather than propagandistic fashion, the principle contradictions that confront the
students in their world. These themes are then represented in the form of codifications (usually
visual representations) that are taken as the basis for dialogue within the circle. As students decode
these representations, they recognize them as situations in which they themselves are involved as
subjects. The process of critical consciousness formation is initiated when students learn to read
the codifications in their situationality, rather than simply experiencing them, and this makes
possible the intervention by students in society. As the culture circle comes to recognize the need
for print literacy, the visual codifications are accompanied by words to which they correspond.
Students learn to read these words in the process of reading the aspects of the world with which
they are linked.

Although this system of codifications has been very successful in promoting print literacy
among adult students, Freire always emphasized that it should not be approached mechanically,
but rather as a process of creation and awakening of consciousness. For Freire, it is a mistake to
speak of reading as solely the decoding of text. Rather, reading is a process of apprehending power
and causality in society and one's location in it. Awareness of the historicity of social life makes it
possible for students to imagine its re-creation. Literacy is thus a "self-transformation producing a
stance of intervention" (Freire 1988, p. 404). Literacy programs that appropriate parts of Freire's
method while ignoring the essential politicization of the process of reading the world as a limit
situation to be overcome distort and subvert the process of literacy education. For Freire, authentic
education is always a "practice of freedom" rather than an alienating inculcation of skills.

Philosophy of Education

Freire's philosophy of education is not a simple method but rather an organic political
consciousness. The domination of some by others must be overcome, in his view, so that the
humanization of all can take place. Authoritarian forms of education, in serving to reinforce the
oppressors' view of the world, and their material privilege in it, constitute an obstacle to the
liberation of human beings. The means of this liberation is a praxis, or process of action and
reflection, which simultaneously names reality and acts to change it. Freire criticized views that
emphasized either the objective or subjective aspect of social transformation, and insisted that
revolutionary change takes place precisely through the consistency of a critical commitment in both
word and deed. This dialectical unity is expressed in his formulation, "To speak a true word is to
transform the world" (Freire 1996, p. 68).

Freire's educational project was conceived in solidarity with anticapitalist and anti-imperialist
movements throughout the world. It calls upon the more privileged educational and revolutionary
leaders to commit "class suicide" and to struggle in partnership with the oppressed. Though this
appeal is firmly grounded in a Marxist political analysis, which calls for the reconfiguring of systems
of production and distribution, Freire rejected elitist and sectarian versions of socialism in favor of a
vision of revolution from "below" based on the work of autonomous popular organizations. Not only
does Freire's project involve a material reorganization of society, but a cultural reorganization as
well. Given the history of European imperialism, an emancipatory education of the oppressed
involves a dismantling of colonial structures and ideologies. The literacy projects he undertook in
former Portuguese colonies in Africa included an emphasis on the reaffirmation of the people's
indigenous cultures against their negation by the legacy of the metropolitan invaders.

Freire's work constitutes a rejection of voluntarism and idealism as well as determinism and
objectivism. The originality of Freire's thought consists in his synthesis of a number of philosophical
and political traditions and his application of them to the pedagogical encounter. Thus, the Hegelian
dialectic of master and slave informs his vision of liberation from authoritarian forms of education;
the existentialism of Jean Paul Sartre and Martin Buber makes possible his description of the self-
transformation of the oppressed into a space of radical intersubjectivity; the historical materialism of
Karl Marx influences his conception of the historicity of social relations; his emphasis on love as a
necessary precondition of authentic education has an affinity with radical Christian liberation
theology; and the anti-imperialist revolutionism of Ernesto Che Guevara and Frantz Fanon
undergird his notion of the "oppressor housed within" as well as his commitment to a praxis of
militant anticolonialism.
 Freire's pedagogy implies an important emphasis on the imagination, though this is not an
aspect that has been emphasized enough in writings about him. The transformation of social
conditions involves a rethinking of the world as a particular world, capable of being changed. But
the reframing proposed here depends upon the power of the imagination to see outside, beyond,
and against what is. More than a cognitive or emotional potential, the human imagination, in Freire's
view, is capable of a radical and productive envisioning that exceeds the limits of the given. It is in
this capacity that everyone's humanity consists, and for this reason it can never be the gift of the
teacher to the student. Rather, educator-student and student-educator work together to mobilize the
imagination in the service of creating a vision of a new society. It is here that Freire's notion of
education as an ontological vocation for bringing about social justice becomes most clear. For
Freire, this vocation is an endless struggle because critical awareness itself can only be a
necessary precondition for it. Because liberation as a goal is always underburdened of a necessary
assurance that critical awareness will propel the subject into the world of concrete praxis, the critical
education must constantly be engaged in attempts to undress social structures and formations of
oppression within the social universe of capital without a guarantee that such a struggle will bring
about the desired results.

Criticism
Since its first enunciation, Freire's educational theory has been criticized from various
quarters. Naturally, conservatives who are opposed to the political horizon of what is essentially a
revolutionary project of emancipation have been quick to condemn him as demagogic and utopian.
Freire has faced criticism from the left as well. Some Marxists have been suspicious of the Christian
influences in his work and have accused him of idealism in his view of popular consciousness.
Freire has also been criticized by feminists and others for failing to take into account the radical
differences between forms of oppression, as well as their complex and contradictory instantiation in
subjects. It has been pointed out that Freire's writing suffers from sexism in its language and from a
patriarchal notion of revolution and subjecthood, as well as a lack of emphasis on domination based
on race and ethnicity. Postmodernists have pointed to the contradiction between Freire's sense of
the historicity and contingency of social formations versus his vision of liberation as a universal
human vocation.
Freire was always responsive to critics, and in his later work undertook a process of self-criticism in
regard to his own sexism. He also sought to develop a more nuanced view of oppression and
subjectivity as relational and discursively as well as materially embedded. However, Freire was
suspicious of postmodernists who felt that the Marxist legacy of class struggle was obsolete and
whose antiracist and antisexist efforts at educational reform did little to alleviate–and often worked
to exacerbate–existing divisions of labor based on social relations of capitalist exploitation. Freire's
insights continue to be of crucial importance. In the very gesture of his turning from the vaults of

official knowledge to the open space of humanity, history, and poetry–the potential space of
dialogical problem-posing education–Freire points the way for teachers and others who would
refuse their determination by the increasingly enveloping inhuman social order. To believe in that
space when it is persistently obscured, erased, or repudiated remains the duty of truly progressive
educators. Freire's work continues to be indispensable for liberatory education, and his insights
remain of value to all who are committed to the struggle against oppression.

Paulo Freire's Educational Theory

Source: https://www.newfoundations.com/GALLERY/Freire.html
1. Theory of Value: What knowledge and skills are worthwhile learning? What are the goals of
education?

Education should raise the awareness of the students so that they become subjects, rather
than objects, of the world. This is done by teaching students to think democratically and to
continually question and make meaning from (critically view) everything they learn.

...our relationship with the learners demands that we respect them and demands equally
that we be aware of the concrete conditions of their world, the conditions that shape them. To try to
know the reality that our students live is a task that the educational practice imposes on us: Without
this, we have no access ' to the way they think, so only with great difficulty can we perceive what
and how they know.

... there are no themes or values of which one cannot speak, no areas in which one must be silent.
We can talk about everything, and we can give testimony about everything.

2. Theory of Knowledge: What is knowledge? How is it different from belief? What is a mistake?
What is a lie?

Knowledge is a social construct.

... knowing is a social process, whose individual dimension, however, cannot be forgotten or
even devalued. The process of knowing, which involves the whole conscious self, feelings,
emotions, memory, affects, an epistemologically curious mind, focused on the object, equally
involves other thinking subjects, that is, others also capable of knowing and curious. This simply
means that the relationship called "thinking" is not enclosed in a relationship "thinking subject -
knowable object" because it extends to other thinking subjects.

Freire discusses two types of knowledge, unconscious, sometimes practical knowledge and critical,
reflective or theory knowledge. Beliefs are shaped into knowledge by discussion and critical
reflection.

In the first moment, that of the experience of and in daily living, my conscious self is
exposing itself to facts, to deeds, without, nevertheless, asking itself about them, without looking for
their "reason for being." I repeat that the knowingbecause there also is knowingthat results from
these involvements is that made from pure experience. In the second moment, in which our minds
work epistemologically, the methodological rigor with which we come closer to the object, having
"distanced ourselves" from it, that is, having objectified it, offers us another kind of knowing, a
knowing whose exactitude gives to the investigator or the thinking subject a margin of security that
does not exist in the first kind of knowing, that of common sense.

While I didn't find discussion about the meaning of the word "mistake", Paulo does talk at
length that it is wrong to accept one side of any dichotomy. Knowledge should not be limited to logic
and content, or emotions and superstitions, but should seek the connections between
understandings and feelings.

We must dare so as never to dichotomize cognition and emotion.

... does not dichotomize between commonsense knowledge and other, more systematic,
more precise knowledge, but rather, seeks a synthesis of opposites...
 One of the mistakes we often make is to dichotomize reading and writing and, even from
children's earliest steps in the practice of reading and writing, to conceive of these processes as
detached from the general process of knowing. This dichotomy between reading and writing follows
us forever, as students and as teachers.

3. Theory of Human Nature: What is a human being? How does it differ from other species? What
are the limits of human potential?

The ability of humans to plan and shape the world for their future needs is what separates
man from animals. The oppressed majority must be taught to imagine a better way so that they can
shape their future and thereby become more human.

Growing to us is something more than growing to the trees or the animals that, unlike us,
cannot take their own growth as an object of their preoccupation. For us, growing is a process in
which we can intervene. The point of decision of human growth is not found in the species.

We are ... the only beings capable of being both the objects and the subjects of the
relationships that we weave with others and with the history that we make and that makes and
remakes us. Between us and the world, relationships can be critically, naively, or magically
perceived, but we are aware of these relationships to an extent that does not exist between any
other living being and the world.

... because we are "programmed to learn," we live, or experience, or we find ourselves open
to experience the relationship between what we inherit and what we acquire. We become genetic-
cultural beings. We are not only nature, nor are we only culture, education, and thinking.

One can really perceive the absurdity of the authoritarianism that claims that all these
spaces belong to the educational authorities, to teachers. (This claim of ownership is not based on
adulthood, since cooks, janitors, security guards, and cleaning staff are also adults but, because
they are mere servers within school space, that space does not belong to them any more than it
belongs to students.) It is as if learners were in the space but not with the space.

The elite naturally believe that they are better and anything else is naturally inferior. We
have a strong tendency to affirm that what is different from us is inferior. We start from the belief
that our way of being is not only good but better than that of others who are different from us. This
is intolerance. It is the irresistible preference to reject differences. The dominant class, then,
because it has the power to distinguish itself from the dominated class, first, rejects the differences
between them but, second, does not pretend to be equal to those who are different; third, it does
not intend that those who are different shall be equal. What it wants is to maintain the differences
and keep its distance and to recognize and emphasize in practice the inferiority of those who are
dominated.

One of the challenges to progressive educators, in keeping with their choice, is not to feel or
to proceed as if they were inferior to dominant-class learners in the private schools who arrogantly
mistreat and belittle middleclass teachers. But on the other hand, nor should they feel superior, in
the public school system, to the learners from the slums, to the lowerclass children, to the children
with no comforts, who do not eat well, who do not "dress nicely," who do not "speak correctly," who
speak with their own syntax, semantics, and accent.
 There are many things that limit the success of the oppressed majority. Non-critical thinking
(naive consciousness) is a source of many limitations. Some poor people see no way out of their
conditions.

4. Theory of Learning: What is learning? How are skills and knowledge acquired?

Freire talks about the fallacy of looking at the education system like a bank, a large
repository where students come to withdraw the knowledge they need for life. Knowledge is not a
set commodity that is passed from the teachers to the students. Students must construct knowledge
from knowledge they already possess. Teachers must learn how the students understand the world
so that the teacher understands how the student can learn.

...teaching cannot be a process of transference of knowledge from the one teaching to the
learner. This is the mechanical transference from which results machinelike memorization, which I
have already criticized. Critical study correlates with teaching that is equally critical, which
necessarily demands a critical way of comprehending and of realizing the reading of the word and
that of the world, the reading of text and of context.

Learning is a process where knowledge is presented to us, then shaped through

understanding, discussion and reflection.

When I understand an object, rather than memorizing the profile of the concept of the object,
I know that object, I produce the knowledge of that object. When the reader critically achieves an
understanding of the object that the author talks about, the reader knows the meaning of the text
and becomes coauthor of that meaning. The reader then will not speak of the meaning of, the text
merely as someone who has heard about it. The reader has worked and reworked the meaning of
the text; thus, it was not there, immobilized, waiting. Here lies the difficulty and the fascination in the
act of reading.

We must be forewarned that only rarely does a text easily lend itself to the reader's
curiosity....the reading of a text is a transaction between the reader and the text, which mediates the
encounter between the reader and writer. It is a composition between the reader and the writer in
which the reader "rewrites" the text making a determined effort not to betray the author's spirit.

Just as bricklayers require a collection of tools and instruments, without which they cannot
build up a wall, studentreaders also require fundamental instruments, without which they cannot
read or write effectively. They require dictionaries, including etymological dictionaries, dictionaries
focusing on verbs and those looking at nouns and adjectives, philosophical dictionaries,
thesauruses, and encyclopedias. They need comparative readings of texts, readings by different
authors who deal with the same topics but with varying degrees of language complexity.

A reader does not suddenly comprehend what is being read or studied, in a snap,
miraculously. Comprehension needs to be worked forged, by those who read and study; as
subjects of the action, they must seek to employ appropriate instruments in order to carry out the
task. For this very reason, reading and studying form a challenging task, one requiring patience and
perseverance.

...studying is a preparation for knowing; it is a patient and impatient exercise on the part of
someone whose intent is not to know it all at once but to struggle to meet the timing of knowledge.
5. Theory of Transmission: Who is to teach? By what methods? What will the curriculum be?

Teaching is a political process. It must be a democratic process to avoid teaching authority

dependence. The teacher must learn about (and from) the student so that knowledge can be
constructed in ways that are meaningful to the student. The teachers must become learners and the
learners must become teachers.

Only insofar as learners become thinking subjects, and recognize that they are as much
thinking subjects as are the teachers, is it possible for the learners to become productive subjects of
the meaning or knowledge of the object. It is in this dialectic movement that teaching and learning
become knowing and reknowing. The learners gradually know what they did not yet know, and the
educators reknow what they knew before.

To think that such work can be realized when the theoretical context is separated in such a
way from the learners' concrete experiences is only possible for one who judges that the content is
taught without reference to and independently from what the learners already know from their
experiences prior to entering school.... Content cannot be taught, except in an authoritarian,
vanguardist way, as if it was a set of things, pieces of knowledge, that can be superimposed on or
juxtaposed to the conscious body of the learners. Teaching, learning, and knowing have nothing to
do with this mechanistic practice.

Educators need to know what happens in the world of the children with whom they work.
They need to know the universe of their dreams, the language with which they skillfully defend
themselves from the aggressiveness of their world, what they know independently of the school,
and how they know it.

The democratic school that we need is not one in which only the teacher teaches, in which
only the student learns, and in which the principal is the allpowerful commander.

Teachers must have humility, coupled with love and respect for their students. Humility
helps us to understand this obvious truth: No one knows it all; no one is ignorant of everything. We
all know something; we are all ignorant of something. Without humility, one can hardly listen with
respect to those one judges to be too far below one's own level of competence. But the humility that
enables one to listen even to those considered less competent should not be an act of
condescension or resemble the behavior of those fulfilling a vow...

It is through hearing the learners, a task unacceptable to authoritarian educators, that

democratic teachers increasingly prepare themselves to be heard by learners. But by listening to
and so learning to talk with learners, democratic teachers teach the learners to listen to them as
well.

Another fundamental aspect related to the early experiences of novice teachers, one that
teacher training programs should pay the closest attention to if they don't already, is teachers'
preparation for "reading" a class of students as if it were a text to be decoded, comprehended.

The novice teacher must be attentive to everything, even to the most innocent movements
on the part of the students: the restlessness of their bodies, a surprised gaze, or a more or less
aggressive reaction on the part of this or that student.

... it is not possible to be a teacher without loving one's students, even realizing that love is
not enough. It is not possible to be a teacher without loving teaching.
6. Theory of Society: What is society? What institutions are involved in the educational process?

Freire challenges the conventional assumption that there is equal opportunity in a

democratic society. He asserts, often, that education is a political process. Schools become tools
that are used by parents, business and the community to impose their values and beliefs. While no
intentional harm is intended, this process often results in the oppression of less privileged persons.
It is truly difficult to make a democracy. Democracy, like arty dream, is not made with spiritual words
but with reflection and practice. It is not what I say that says I am a democrat, that I am not racist or
machista but what I do. What I say must not be contradicted by what I do. It is what I do that
bespeaks my faithfulness or not to what I say.

As one might expect, authoritarianism will at times cause children and students to adopt
rebellious positions, defiant of any limit, discipline, or authority. But it will also lead to apathy,
excessive obedience, uncritical conformity, lack of resistance against authoritarian discourse, self-
abnegation, and fear of freedom.

... there are moments in which the teacher, as the authority talks to the learners, says what
must be done, establishes limits without which the very freedom of learners is lost in lawlessness,
but these moments, in accordance with the political options of the educator, are alternated with
others in which the educator speaks with the learner.

It doesn’t hurt to repeat here the statement, still rejected by many people in spite of its
obviousness, that education is a political act.

No one can learn tolerance in a climate of irresponsibility, which does not produce
democracy. The act of tolerating requires a climate in which limits may be established, in which
there are principles to be respected. That is why tolerance is not coexistence with the intolerable.
Under an authoritarian regime, in which authority is abused, or a permissive one, in which freedom
is not limited, one can hardly learn tolerance. Tolerance requires respect, discipline, and ethics.

Being tolerant does not mean acquiescing to the intolerable; it does not mean covering up
disrespect; it does not mean coddling the aggressor or disguising aggression. Tolerance is the
virtue that teaches us to live with the different. It teaches us to learn from and respect the different.

I have never said, as is sometimes believed, or even suggested that lower-class children
should not learn the so-called educated norm of the Portuguese language of Brazil. What I have
said is that the problems of language always involve ideological questions and, along with them,
questions of power.

Finally, it is important to make it clear that imagination is not an exercise for those detached
from reality, those who live in the air. On the contrary, when we imagine something, we do it
necessarily conditioned by a lack in our concrete reality. When children imagine free and happy
schools, it is because their real schools deny them freedom and happiness.

7. Theory of Opportunity: Who is to be educated? Who is to be schooled?

Freire's entire education career is based on his desire to provide greater opportunity for the
poor and oppressed people of the world, but particularly in Brazil.
Knowing has everything to do with growing. But the knowing of dominant minorities absolutely must
not prohibit, must not asphyxiate, must not castrate the growing of the immense dominated
majorities.

Citizenship implies freedom -- to work, to eat, to dress, to wear shoes, to sleep in a house,
to support oneself and one's family, to love, to be angry, to cry, to protest, to support, to move, to
participate in this or that religion, this or that party, to educate oneself and one's family, to swim
regardless in what ocean of one's country. Citizenship is not obtained by chance: It is a construction
that, never finished, demands we fight for it. It demands commitment, political clarity, coherence,
decision. For this reason a democratic education cannot be realized apart from an education of and
for citizenship.

8. Theory of Consensus: Why do people disagree? How is consensus achieved? Whose opinion
takes precedence?

Disagreement is normal and something to expect. Disagreement can be an impetus to

reflection and a source of growth. The problem that Freire wants to address is when opinions and
disagreements are suppressed in the name of control and authority.
There may not be life or human existence without struggle and conflict. Conflict shares in our
conscience. Denying conflict, we ignore even the most mundane aspects of our vital and social
experience. Trying to escape conflict, we preserve the status quo.

None of this is easily accomplished, and I would not like to leave readers with the
impression that wanting is enough to change the world. Desire is fundamental, but it is not enough.
It is also necessary to know how to want, to learn how to want, which implies learning how to fight
politically with tactics adequate to our strategic dreams.

FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT

Activity 1. Explain in a sentence why each education philosopher was associated with these given
words:
a. John Locke – the empiricist
b. Spencer – the utilitarianist
c. John Dewey – experience
d. George Counts – building a new social order
e. Theodore Brameld – the Social Reconstructionist
f. Paulo Freire – Critical pedagogy vs. Banking Method

Activity 2. Make a summary of the philosophies of education.

Philisopher Philosophy on Aims/Methods Classroom / School

of Education Application
Input 2

Historical Foundation of Education

Education in Primitive Society

Education in primitive & earlier civilized culture
Source: http://thehistoryofeducation.blogspot.com/2007/01/education-in-primitive-earlier.htmls

Education can be thought of as the transmission of the values and accumulated knowledge
of a society. In this sense, it is equivalent to what social scientists term socialization or
enculturation. Children—whether conceived among New Guinea tribespeople, the Renaissance
Florentines, or the middle classes of Manhattan—are born without culture. Education is designed to
guide them in learning a culture, molding their behaviour in the ways of adulthood, and directing
them toward their eventual role in society. In the most primitive cultures, there is often little formal
learning, little of what one would ordinarily call school or classes or teachers; instead, frequently,
the entire environment and all activities are viewed as school and classes, and many or all adults
act as teachers. As societies grow more complex, however, the quantity of knowledge to be passed
on from one generation to the next becomes more than any one person can know; and hence there
must evolve more selective and efficient means of cultural transmission. The outcome is
formal education—the school and the specialist called the teacher.
As society becomes ever more complex and schools become ever more
institutionalized, educational experience becomes less directly related to daily life, less a matter of
showing and learning in the context of the workaday world, and more abstracted from practice,
more a matter of distilling, telling, and learning things out of context. This concentration of learning
in a formal atmosphere allows children to learn far more of their culture than they are able to do by
merely observing and imitating. As society gradually attaches more and more importance
to education, it also tries to formulate the overall objectives, content, organization, and strategies
of education. Literature becomes laden with advice on the rearing of the younger generation. In
short, there develop philosophies and theories of education.
A further discussion of educational theory can be found in the article education, philosophy
of. The teaching profession and the functions and methods of teachers are treated
in teaching, teacher education, and pedagogy.
Education in primitive and early civilized cultures
Prehistoric and primitive cultures
The term education can be applied to primitive cultures only in the sense of enculturation,
which is the process of cultural transmission. A primitive person, whose culture is the totality of his
universe, has a relatively fixed sense of cultural continuity and timelessness. The model of life is
relatively static and absolute, and it is transmitted from one generation to another with little
deviation. As for prehistoric education, it can only be inferred from educational practices in surviving
primitive cultures.
The purpose of primitive education is thus to guide children to becoming good members of
their tribe or band. There is a marked emphasis upon training for citizenship, because primitive
people are highly concerned with the growth of individuals as tribal members and the thorough
comprehension of their way of life during passage from prepuberty to postpuberty.
Because of the variety in the countless thousands of primitive cultures, it is difficult to
describe any standard and uniform characteristics of prepuberty education. Nevertheless, certain
things are practiced commonly within cultures. Children actually participate in the social processes
of adult activities, and their participatory learning is based upon what the American
anthropologist Margaret Mead has called empathy, identification, and imitation. Primitive children,
before reaching puberty, learn by doing and observing basic technical practices. Their teachers are
not strangers but, rather, their immediate community.
In contrast to the spontaneous and rather unregulated imitations in prepuberty education,
postpuberty education in some cultures is strictly standardized and regulated. The teaching
personnel may consist of fully initiated men, often unknown to the initiate though they are his
relatives in other clans. The initiation may begin with the initiate being abruptly separated from his
familial group and sent to a secluded camp where he joins other initiates. The purpose of this
separation is to deflect the initiate's deep attachment away from his family and to establish his
emotional and social anchorage in the wider web of his culture.
The initiation “curriculum” does not usually include practical subjects. Instead, it consists of a
whole set of cultural values, tribal religion, myths, philosophy, history, rituals, and other knowledge.
Primitive people in some cultures regard the body of knowledge constituting the initiation curriculum
as most essential to their tribal membership. Within this essential curriculum, religious instruction
takes the most prominent place.
Education in the earliest civilizations
The Old World civilizations of Egypt, Mesopotamia, and North China
The history of civilization started in the Middle East about 3000 BC, whereas the North
China civilization began about a millennium and a half later.
The Mesopotamian and Egyptian civilizations flourished almost simultaneously during the first
civilizational phase (3000–1500 BC). Although these civilizations differed, they shared monumental
literary achievements. The need for the perpetuation of these highly developed civilizations made
writing and formal education indispensable.
Egypt. Egyptian culture and education were preserved and controlled chiefly by the priests,
a powerful intellectual elite in the Egyptian theocracy who also served as the political bulwarks by
preventing cultural diversity. The humanities as well as such practical subjects as science,
medicine, mathematics, and geometry were in the hands of the priests, who taught in formal
schools. Vocational skills relating to such fields as architecture, engineering, and sculpture were
generally transmitted outside the context of formal schooling.

Egyptians developed two types of formal schools for privileged youth under the supervision
of governmental officials and priests: one for scribes and the other for priest trainees. At the age of
five, pupils entered the writing school and continued their studies in reading and writing until the age
of 16 or 17. At the age of 13 or 14, the schoolboys were also given practical training in offices for
which they were being prepared. Priesthood training began at the temple college, which boys
entered at the age of 17, the length of training depending upon the requirements for various priestly
offices. It is not clear whether or not the practical sciences constituted a part of the systematically
organized curriculum of the temple college.
Rigid method and severe discipline were applied to achieve uniformity in cultural
transmission, since deviation from the traditional pattern of thought was strictly prohibited. Drill and
memorization were the typical methods employed. But, as noted, Egyptians also used a work-study
method in the final phase of the training for scribes.
Mesopotamia. As a civilization contemporary with Egyptian civilization, Mesopotamia
developed education quite similar to that of its counterpart with respect to its purpose and training.
Formal education was practical and aimed to train scribes and priests. It was extended from basic
reading, writing, and religion to higher learning in law, medicine, and astrology. Generally, youth of
the upper classes were prepared to become scribes, who ranged from copyists to librarians and
teachers. The schools for priests were said to be as numerous as temples. This indicates not only
the thoroughness but also the supremacy of priestly education. Very little is known about
higher education, but the advancement of the priestly work sheds light upon the extensive nature of
intellectual pursuit.

As in the case of Egypt, the priests in Mesopotamia dominated the intellectual

and educational domain as well as the applied. The centre of intellectual activity and training was
the library, which was usually housed in a temple under the supervision of influential priests.
Methods of teaching and learning were memorization, oral repetition, copying of models, and
individual instruction. It is believed that the exact copying of scripts was the hardest and most
strenuous and served as the test of excellence in learning. The period of education was long and
rigorous, and discipline was harsh.

North China. In North China, the civilization of which began with the emergence of
the Shang era, complex educational practices were in effect at a very early date. In fact, every
important foundation of the formation of modern Chinese character was already established, to a
great extent, more than 3,000 years ago.

Chinese ancient formal education was distinguished by its markedly secular and moral
character. Its paramount purpose was to develop a sense of moral sensitivity and duty toward
people and the state. Even in the early civilizational stage, harmonious human relations, rituals, and
music formed the curriculum.
Formal colleges and schools probably antedate the Chou dynasty of the 1st millennium BC,
at least in the imperial capitals. Local states probably had less-organized institutions, such as halls
of study, village schools, and district schools. With regard to actual methods of education, ancient
Chinese learned from bamboo books and obtained moral training and practice in rituals by word of
mouth and example. Rigid rote learning, which typified later Chinese education, seems to have
been rather condemned. Education was regarded as the process of individual development from
within.

Key Periods in Educational History

First Known School
Approx. 2000 BC

Cuneiform mathematics textbooks from this time period have been discovered. This suggests that
some form of schooling may have existed in Sumer during that time. Formal schools are also
known to have existed in China during this time period.

Age of Pericles
0455 BC - 431 BC

Most Greek city-states have adopted a formal educational system. Sparta used their educational
system to train their children for effective military support. Athens, however, stressed more
intellectual and aesthetic lessons.

Development of Roman Schools

50 BC - 200 AD

The Romans were heavily influenced by the Greek education system. Many children, after learning
to read and write, attended a school to study Latin, literature, history, math, music, and dialectics.
These Latin schools are very similar to secondary schools in the 20th century.

The Dark Ages

400 - 1000

During this period, the common people were politically and religiously oppressed, which stunted the
ability for the population to grow and innovate intellectually as the Greeks and Romans previously
had. Although formal education was not an option for most people, certain people in the church and
in wealthy families were able to receive education and make small advances.

Thomas Aquinas
1225 - 1274

During the medieval times, most people were taught by Catholic priests, many of whom were
corrupt. Through his works as a theologian, Thomas Aquinas helped to change the churches view
on how commoners should learn and grow in knowledge. Thomas Aquinas helped pave the way for
the creation of medieval universities.

The Renaissance
Approx. 1350 - 1700

The Renaissance, which started in Italy, was a rebirth of the people's thirst for new knowledge. The
Renaissance slowly spread throughout Europe, which led to a revival of classical learning known as
"humanism."

Earliest American Colleges Established

Approx. 1630 - Approx. 1640

The first colonial college, Harvard, was established in 1636 to prepare ministers. A few years later,
other schools such as Yale, Princeton, Dartmouth, and Brown are established.
John Locke
1632 - 1704

John Locke was one of the most influential Enlightenment philosophers. In 1678, he wrote an essay
titled "Concerning Human Understanding." In this essay, he discusses his belief that at birth, our
minds are a blank slate, and that we gain knowledge through experience. His views of the mind and
how people learn were greatly influential to the US educational system.

Old Deluder Satan Act

1647

This act decreed that every town of 50 families or more needs to hire a schoolmaster who would
teach the town's children to read and write and that all towns of at least 100 families need to have a
Latin grammar school teacher who would prepare students to attend Harvard.

American Academy
1751

In 1751, Benjamin Franklin founded the American Academy, an educational institution. Its
curriculum was both classical and modern, which included lessons in history, geography,
navigation, surveying, and languages. This went on to become the University of Pennsylvania.
http://bestcrnaschools.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/College-Hall-.jpg
State Control of Education
1791

When the 10th Amendment of the United States Constitution is passed, the individual states gain
the right to control education.

Invention of the Blackboard

1801

In 1801, James Pillans invented the blackboard when he hung a large slate on the classroom wall.

Compulsory Education
1852

In 1524, during the Reformation, Martin Luther had advocated for compulsory schooling so that all
parishioners would be able to read the Bible. In 1852, Massachusetts passed a law making
education mandatory. This spread throughout the country, and the final state to adopt it was
Mississippi in 1917.

Invention of the Typewriter

1867

In 1867, Christopher Sholes invented the modern typewriter. This was later manufactured by E.
Remington & Sons in 1873.

Dewey Decimal System

1876
In 1873, the Dewey Decimal System, developed by Melvil Dewey, was patented and published.
This became the world's most used library organization/classification system.

High School Curriculum

1892

A standardized high school curriculum was formed by the National Education Association to
establish a standard secondary school curriculum, the Committee of Ten, recommended a
curriculum that was college oriented, which laid the foundation to high schools today.

Pencils and Paper

1900

Mass produced pencils and paper are starting to become more accessible, which eventually
replaced the school slate, and made writing easier.

First Community College

1901

In 1901, Joliet Junior College in Joliet, Illinois, opened, and became the first community college in
America.

SAT
1926

The Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT) was first administered in 1926. The SAT is owned, published,
and developed by the College Board, a nonprofit organization in the United States. The test was
developed to assess a student's readiness for college.

IQ Testing
1939

In 1939, David Wechsler developed the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale. This introduced
"deviation IQ," which calculates scores based on how far from the average subject's score another
subject's score is. These tests are still used widely in schools to determine students needing special
needs.

First Computer
Approx. 1946 - Approx. 1956

The Electronic Numerical Integrator And Computer (ENIAC), the first vacuum-tube computer, was
built for the U.S. military by Presper Eckert and John Mauchly in the 1950s. This marked the
beginning of the computer age.

Brown v. Board of Education

1954

The United States Supreme Court passes the case, Brown v. Board of Education, which makes
segregated schools illegal.

ACT
1959

In November of 1959, Everett Franklin Lindquist administered the first ACT test as as direct
competition to the SAT. The ACT has usually consisted of 4 different tests: English, Math, Reading,
and Science Reasoning. Although the SAT is the standard, the ACT is still very popular, and is
used exclusively in certain districts.

First Computer Used in School

1959

Computers were first used in New York elementary schools to teach arithmetic. This was the
beginning of a major technological revolution in education.

First African American Child to Attend All White Elementary

1960

At William Frantz Elementary School in New Orleans, Ruby Bridges, a first grader, was the first
African American child to attend. She eventually became the only child in the class, because all the
white parents pulled their students out of the class.

Tinker v. Des Moines

1969

During the Vietnam War, students in the Des Moines wore black armbands in protest. The district
passed a rule prohibiting the bands, but the students argued it infringed on their First Amendment
rights. The court agreed with the students and struck down the ban.

Handheld Calculator
1970

Serving as the predecessor to the TI-83, this first calculator was originally concerning to teachers,
as they feared it would undermine students' learning.

Scantron Grading System

1972

In 1972, the Scantron Corporation removed the need to grade multiple choice tests by hand. The
machines were free to use, but the company charged for the grading forms.
http://dmc122011.delmar.edu/socsci/rlong/problems/scantron.jpg
Whiteboard
1990

Although the inventor of the whiteboard has been heavily debated, they first started to gain
popularity in the 90's, partly due to students having allergic reactions to the chalkboard dust.

Higher Education Act

1998

This act was amended and reauthorized, and required institutions and states to produce report
cards about teacher education performance. This was another attempt to unify the educational
experience in the USA.
No Child Left Behind Act
2001

The No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) was approved by Congress and signed into law by President
George W. Bush in January of 2002. This law mandates high-stakes student testing, holds schools
accountable for the students' achievement levels, and punishes schools that do not make adequate
yearly progress toward meeting the goals of NCLB.

Common Core
2009

The Common Core State Standards Initiatives is launched which details what K-12 students should
know at the end of the year.

The History of the Philippine Educational System

A History of the System of Education in the Philippines – Its Implication for the Present Generation
Source: https://www.teacherph.com/history-system-education-philippines/

In ancient Philippines, children were given the rudiments of education. Such education was
both academic and vocation. The father trained his sons to be warriors, hunters, fishermen, miners,
lumbermen and ship builders. The mother on her part trained her daughters in cooking, gardening,
serving and other household arts.

It is said that in ancient Panay, there was a barangay school called Bothoan under the
charge of the teacher usually an old man. The subjects taught to the children in this barangay
school were reading, writing, arithmetic, use of weapons and lubus (acquiring kinaadman or
amulets).
Hence, education during that time was geared toward their needs. Because of colonization by
several foreign countries and several historical events, our education underwent several changes
although we also retained some of the ancient teachings which are practical even during our time.

With the country’s celebration of independence in 1946, scarcely seven decades ago, have
come every aspect of educational system in line with the new status of a new nation seeking to
achieve and maintain political and economic independence and to fashion a nation truly united out
of social and cultural diversities.

Introduction of the Western or European System of Education

With the coming of Spain, the European system of education was introduced to the
archipelago. Primary schools, colleges and universities were established in our country by the
missionaries.

The principal aim of Spain in the Philippines during their regime was to make the native
Filipinos obedient and God-fearing Christians. For this reason, religion was a compulsory subject at
all levels – from the primary schools to the universities.
 The first schools were the parochial schools opened by the missionaries in their parishes. In
addition to religion, the native children in these schools were taught reading, writing, arithmetic and
some vocational and practical arts subjects.

Later on, colleges for boys and girls were opened by the missionaries. These colleges were
the equivalent of our high schools today. The subjects taught to the students included history, Latin,
geography, mathematics and philosophy.

There was no co-education during the Spanish times. Boys and girls studied in separate
schools.

University education was started in the Philippines during the early part of the 17th century.
Originally, the colleges and universities were open only to the Spaniards and those with Spanish
blood (mestizos). It was only during the 19th century that these universities began accepting native
Filipinos.

It is interesting to note that for nearly 300 years, education in the Philippines was the
primary responsibility of the Catholic Church. The missionaries established the schools, provided
the teachers and facilities and decided what should be taught. It was only in the last half of the 19th
century that the government took an active part in promoting education in the colony. In 1863, a
royal decree called for the establishment of a public school system in the colony.

Education under the Americans

The United States had a different approach dictated by what the Americans considered to
be their principal goal in coming to the Philippines – “to educate and to train in the science of self-
government.”

Consequently, it was not surprising that the United States considered educating the Filipinos
as one of its top priorities in the Philippines. Even while US troops were consolidating their foothold
in Manila in 1898, schools were already opened in the city. But unlike the Spaniards who neglected
to propagate their language, the Americans made it a point to teach English to the Filipinos. The
American soldiers were the first teachers of the Filipinos.

In January 1901, free primary education was provided and a school for Filipino teachers was
established. It called for the recruitment of trained teachers in America. It abolished compulsory
religious instruction.

The Americans gave bright young Filipino students opportunity to take up higher education
in American colleges and universities. These Filipinos came to be known as “pensionados” for their
education in the United States was financed by the government in the Philippines. Hundreds of
Filipino pensionados were able to study in the US until 1928. From the ranks of
these pensionados came the future civic, business and political leaders of our country.
Hungry for education, the Filipinos flocked to public and private schools in large numbers.
Education under the Commonwealth

Education continued to receive from the Commonwealth government the same attention that
the Americans gave it. President Quezon created the National Council of Education in 1936 as an
advisory body on educational matters. The council made important recommendations to further
improve the educational system in the Philippines. Most of these recommendations were accepted
and carried out by the government.

Under the Commonwealth, vocational and adult education were given emphasis. It was also
during the Commonwealth regime that an organized effort to develop a common national language
was stared in compliance with the mandate of the 1935 constitution. To help counteract the
American cultural influence among the Filipinos, President Quezon greatly encouraged the revival
of native culture as well as desirable Filipino values. And to help strengthen the moral fibers of the
Filipinos and to foster love of country especially among the youth, President Quezon issued his
famous Code of Ethics which was required to be taught in all schools.

In 1940, several changes were made in the Philippine educational system by virtue of the
Educational Act of 1940. Under this law, the elementary course was reduced from 7 years to 6
years. The minimum age for admission to Grade I was raised to 7. The school calendar was also
changed so instead of the school year from June to March, it was changed to July to April.

Education under the Japanese

Schools and churches were also used as propaganda tools of the Japanese. Nippon-go, the
Japanese language, was made a compulsory subject in all schools. In government and private
offices, classes in Nippon-go were opened to propagate the Japanese language and culture.
Japanese Catholic priests were sent to the Philippines to help promote the idea that Japan, being
an Asian country, was a friend of all Asian people’s including the Filipinos.

The Iloilo Experiment

In 1948. Dr. Jose V. Aguilar, the Superintendent of the Iloilo school division initiated a six
year experiment with vernacular instruction in his school division. The experiment involved seven
control schools where English was used as the medium of instruction in Grades 1 and 2 and seven
experimental schools where the vernacular, Hiligaynon, was used as the instructional medium. This
was controversial. As late as 1963, the Dean of the College of Education, Xavier University on the
island of Mindanao, observed that the vernacular instruction was not producing maximum results. It
was curtailing full instructional benefit. Instead of narrowing the regional gaps of the country, it was
widening it and was producing dangerous trends towards regional and cultural imbalance.
Educational Thrust of the New Society and Today

It was assumed that the most fundamental objective of education is the development of an
individual’s potential which will simultaneously improve society. Educational policies have been
geared to the accomplishment of better manpower production through the understanding by the
students of land reform, taxation, economic production, anti-drug and anti-pollution and
conservation education. To accomplish these goals, the value and work oriented curricula were
encouraged. However, many parents and teachers were still confused because they did not
understand the philosophy, operations, and evaluations of this innovation in education. The concept
of an average layman or teacher in the “new society” was always associated with the advent of
Martial Law. This must be redirected to a functional definition of wholesome integration of our
economic, social and moral lives for a progressive Philippines. The direction of education as
envisioned by our educators can be best described by the following changes:

1. A relevant and flexible curriculum. Educational content is focused on the need of society
which is for sound economy. This means better knowledge in skills and food production,
conservation of natural resources, technical knowledge in harnessing mineral deposits and
less emphasis on white collar jobs which result only in producing the “educated
unemployed.”

2. Productive-coordinated technocrats. The inevitable reorganization of the Department of

Education (DepEd) was a response to these needs. For centuries, our educational system
generally operated on a system of isolation where the Bureau of Public, Private and
Vocational Education worked almost independently and promoted secrecy and privacy
instead of attaining harmony for the good of our country.

3. A quality teacher with effective methods of teaching. To teach effectively, the teacher must
have the solid foundations in terms of educational training from reputable institutions, update
his method of teaching by reading and attending conferences, and should have the courage
of trying out various means or ways of maximizing learner. To do this, it becomes necessary
to understand the psychology of pupils and to be able to communicate with them in
teaching-learning situations. The increase in teachers’ pay should be a strong justification
for the better policy on the recruitment and retention of teachers.

Every time changes in our educational system occur to search for the solution for our
educational ills, some pressure groups interfere and say it is “unrealistic and expensive,” which is
not a valid reason. Courage and energy for action should be sustained to invigorate the lives of the
citizenry.

After four centuries and a half of being a colony of Spain, America and Japan, the concern
of the Filipino educators and policy makers is the Filipinization of the Filipinos and Filipino
institutions.

Education in Philippines
Source: https://www.studycountry.com/guide/PH-education.htm
The education system of the Philippines has been highly influenced by the country’s colonial
history. That history has included periods of Spanish, American and Japanese rule and
occupation. The most important and lasting contributions came during America’s occupation of the
country, which began in 1898. It was during that period that English was introduced as the primary
language of instruction and a system of public education was first established—a system modeled
after the United States school system and administered by the newly established Department of
Instruction.
The United States left a lasting impression on the Philippine school system. Several colleges and
universities were founded with the goal of educating the nation’s teachers. In 1908, the University
of the Philippines was chartered, representing the first comprehensive public university in the
nation’s history.
Like the United States, the Philippine nation has an extensive and highly inclusive system of
education, including higher education. In the present day, the United States continues to influence
the Philippines education system, as many of the country’s teachers and professors have earned
advanced degrees from United States universities.
Although the Philippine system of education has long served as a model for other Southeast
Asian countries, in recent years that system has deteriorated. This is especially true in the more
remote and poverty-stricken regions of the country. While Manila, the capital and largest city in the
Philippines, boasts a primary school completion rate of nearly 100 percent, other areas of the
country, including Mindanao and Eastern Visayas, have a primary school completion rate of only 30
percent or less. Not surprisingly, students who hail from Philippine urban areas tend to score much
higher in subjects such as mathematics and science than students in the more rural areas of the
country.
Below we will discuss the education system of the Philippines in great detail, including a
description of both the primary and secondary education levels in the country, as well as the
systems currently in place for vocational and university education.

Education in the Philippines: Structure

Education in the Philippines is offered through formal and non-formal systems. Formal
education typically spans 14 years and is structured in a 6+4+4 system: 6 years of primary school
education, 4 years of secondary school education, and 4 years of higher education, leading to a
bachelor’s degree. This is one of the shortest terms of formal education in the world.
In the Philippines, the academic school year begins in June and concludes in March, a
period that covers a total of 40 weeks. All higher education institutions operate on a semester
system—fall semester, winter semester and an optional summer term. Schooling is compulsory for
6 years, beginning at age 7 and culminating at age 12. These 6 years represent a child’s primary
school education.
Although English was the sole language of instruction in the Philippines form 1935 to 1987,
the new constitution prescribed that both Pilipino (Tagalog) and English are the official language of
instruction and communication. After primary school, however, the language of instruction is almost
always English, especially in the country’s urban areas and at most of the nation’s universities.

The education system is administered and overseen by the Department of Education, a

federal department with offices in each of the country’s 13 regions. Traditionally, the government
has found it difficult to fully fund the entire education system. Because of that, most of the money
earmarked for education goes to the country’s primary schools. Consequently, public school
enrollment at the primary level is about 90 percent, while at the secondary level enrollment typically
hovers somewhere around 75 percent.

Education in the Philippines: Primary Education

Primary school education in the Philippines spans 6 years in duration and is compulsory for
all students. This level of education is divided into a four-year primary cycle and a two-year
intermediate cycle. In the country’s public schools, Filipino children generally begin school at age 6
 or 7; however, private schools typically start a year earlier and operate a seven-year curriculum
rather than a six-year curriculum.
At the conclusion of each school year, students are promoted from one grade level to the
next, assuming they meet the achievement standards set for that particular grade. Students are
rated in every subject four times during the school year. A cumulative points system is typically
used as the basis for promotion. To pass a grade, students must earn at least 75 points out of 100,
or seventy-five percent.
During grades one and two in the Philippines, the language of instruction is generally the
local dialect, of which there are over 170 nationally, of the region in which the children reside.
English and Pilipino are taught as second languages. From third grade through sixth grade, or the
remainder of primary education, subjects such as mathematics and science are taught in English,
with the social sciences and humanities courses taught in Pilipino.
Once a student successfully completes each of the six grades of primary school, he or she
is awarded a certificate of graduation from the school they attended. There is no leaving
examination or entrance examination required for admission into the nation’s public secondary
schools.
The educational content of the primary school system varies from one grade and one cycle to the
next. As you’ll recall, the primary school system is divided into two cycles:

 Primary Cycle. Four years—Grades 1-4, age 6-11

 Intermediate Cycle—Grades 5 and 6, age 11-13

There are a number of core subjects that are taught, with varying degrees of difficulty, in all six
grades of primary school. These are:

 Language Arts (Pilipino, English and Local Dialect)

 Mathematics
 Health
 Science

In addition to the core subjects above, students in Grades 1-3 also study civics and culture.
In grades 4-6 students study music and art; physical education; home economics and livelihood;
and social studies. Values education and “good manners and right conduct” are integrated in all
learning areas.
All students in primary school are also introduced to Makabayan. According to the
Department of Education, Makabayan is a learning area that serves as a practice environment for
holistic learning; an area in which students develop a healthy personal and national self-identity. In
a perfect world, this type of construction would consist of modes of integrative teaching that will
allow students to process and synthesize a wide variety of skills and values (cultural, vocational,
aesthetic, economic, political and ethical).

Education in the Philippines: Secondary Education

Although secondary education is not compulsory in the Philippines, it is widely attended,
particularly in the more urban areas of the country. At this level, private schools enroll a much
higher percentage of students than at the elementary level. According to statistics from the
Department of Education, roughly 45 percent of the country’s high schools are private, enrolling
about 21 percent of all secondary school students.
At the secondary school level there are two main types of schools: the general secondary
schools, which enroll approximately 90 percent of all high school students, and the vocational
secondary school. Additionally, there are also several schools that are deemed “Science
Secondary Schools”—which enroll students who have demonstrated a particular gift in math,
science, or technology at the primary school level. Vocational high schools in the Philippines differ
from their General Secondary School counterparts in that they place more focus on vocationally-
oriented training, the trades and practical arts.
Just as they are in primary school, secondary school students are rated four times
throughout the year. Students who fail to earn a rating of 75 percent in any given subject must
repeat that subject, although in most cases they are permitted to enter the next grade. Once a
student has completed all four years of his/her secondary education, earning a 75 percent or better
in all subjects, they are presented a secondary school graduation certificate.
Admission to public schools is typically automatic for those students who have successfully
completed six years of primary education. However, many of the private secondary schools in the
country have competitive entrance requirements, usually based on an entrance examination score.
Entrance to the Science High Schools is also the result of competitive examinations.
Schooling at the secondary level spans four years in duration, grades 7-10, beginning at age
12 or 13 and culminating at age 16 or 17. The curriculum that students are exposed to depends on
the type of school they attend.
General Secondary Schools
Students in the General Secondary Schools must take and pass a wide variety of courses.
Here the curriculum consists of language or communicative arts (English and Pilipino),
mathematics, science, technology, and social sciences (including anthropology, Philippine history
and government, economics, geography and sociology). Students must also take youth develop
training (including physical education, health education, music, and citizen army training), practical
arts (including home economics, agriculture and fisheries, industrial arts and entrepreneurship),
values education and some electives, including subjects from both academic and vocational
pathways.
Vocational Secondary Schools
Although students who opt to study at one of the country’s vocational secondary schools are
still required to take and pass many of the same core academic subjects, they are also exposed to
a greater concentration of technical and vocational subjects. These secondary schools tend to offer
technical and vocational instruction in one of five major fields: agriculture, fishery, trade/technical,
home industry, and non-traditional courses with a host of specializations. The types of vocational
fields offered by these vocational schools usually depend on the specific region in which the school
is located. For example, in coastal regions, fishery is one of the most popular vocational fields
offered.
During the initial two years of study at one of the nation’s vocational secondary schools,
students study a general vocational area (see above). During the third and fourth years they must
specialize in a particular discipline within that general vocational area. For instance, a student may
take two years of general trade-technical courses, followed by two years specializing specifically in
cabinet making. All programs at vocational secondary schools contain a combination of theory and
practice courses.
Secondary Science High Schools
The Philippine Science High School System is a dedicated public system that operates as
an attached agency of the Philippine Department of Science and Technology. In total, there are
nine regional campuses, with the main campus located in Quezon City. Students are admitted on a
case-by-case basis, based on the results of the PSHS System National Competitive Examination.
Graduates of the PSHS are bound by law to major in the pure and applied sciences, mathematics,
or engineering upon entering college.
The curriculum at the nation’s 9 Secondary Science schools is very similar to that of the
General Secondary Schools. Students follow that curriculum path closely; however, they must also
take and pass a variety of advanced courses in mathematics and science.
Students who complete a minimum of four years of education at any one of the country’s
secondary schools typically receive a diploma, or Katibayan, from their high school. Additionally,
they are rewarded the secondary school Certificate of Graduation (Katunayan) by the Department
of Education. A Permanent Record, or Form 137-A, listing all classes taken and grades earned, is
also awarded to graduating students.

Education in the Philippines: Higher Education

There are approximately 1,621 institutions of higher education in the Philippines, of which
some 1,445 (nearly 90 percent) were in the private sector. There are approximately 2,500,000
students who participate in higher education each year, 66 percent of whom are enrolled in private
institutions.
The public institutions of higher learning include some 112 charted state universities and
colleges, with a total of 271 satellite campuses. There are also 50 local universities, as well as a
handful of government schools whose focus is on technical, vocational and teacher training. Five
special institutions also provide training and education in the areas of military science and national
defense.
Before 1994, the overseer of all higher education institutions was the Bureau of Higher
Education, a division of the former Department of Education, Culture and Sports. Today, however,
with the passage of the Higher Education Act of 1994, an independent government agency known
as the Commission on Higher Education (CHED) now provides the general supervision and control
over all colleges and universities in the country, both public and private. CHED regulates the
founding and/or closures of private higher education institutions, their program offerings, curricular
development, building specifications and tuition fees. Private universities and colleges adhere to the
regulations and orders of CHED, although a select few are granted autonomy or deregulated status
in recognition of their dedicated service through quality education and research when they reach a
certain level of accreditation.
The Higher Education Act also had an impact on post-secondary vocational education. In
1995, legislation was enacted that provided for the transfer of supervision of all non-degree
technical and vocational education programs from the Bureau of Vocational Education, also under
the control of the Department of Education, to a new and independent agency now known as the
Technical Education and Skills Development Authority (TESDA). The establishment of TESDA has
increased emphasis on and support for non-degree vocational education programs.
Higher education institutions can apply for volunteer accreditation through CHED—a system
modeled after the regional accreditation system used in the United States. There are four levels of
accreditation:
 Level I. Gives applicant status to schools that have undergone a preliminary survey and are
capable of acquiring accredited status within two years.
 Level II. Gives full administrative deregulation and partial curricular autonomy, including priority
in funding assistance and subsidies for faculty development.
 Level III. Schools are granted full curricular deregulation, including the privilege to offer distance
education programs.
 Level IV. Universities are eligible for grants and subsidies from the Higher Education
Development Fund and are granted full autonomy from government supervision and control.

University Education
The credit and degree structure of university education in the Philippines bears a striking
resemblance to that of the United States. Entrance into Philippine universities and other institutions
of higher education is dependent on the possession of a high school Certificate of Graduation and
in some cases on the results of the National Secondary Achievement Test (NSAT), or in many
colleges and universities the results of their own entrance examinations.
There are essentially three degree stages of higher education in the Philippines: Bachelor
(Batsilyer), Master (Masterado) and PhD ((Doktor sa Pilospiya).
Bachelor Degrees
Bachelor degree programs in the Philippines span a minimum of four years in duration. The
first two years are typically dedicated to the study of general education courses (63 credits), with all
classes counting towards the major the student will undertake in the final two years. Certain
bachelor degree programs take five years rather than four years to complete, including programs in
agriculture, pharmacy and engineering.
Master Degrees
Master degrees in the Philippines typically span two years for full-time students, culminating
with a minor thesis or comprehensive examination. To qualify for a Master’s degree, students must
possess a bachelor’s degree in a related field, with an average grade equal to or better than 2.00,
85 percent or B average. Certain professional degrees, such as law and medicine are begun
following a first bachelor degree. These programs, however, span far beyond the normal two years
of study.
PhD Degrees
PhD degrees in the Philippines, also known as a Doctor of Philosophy, involve a great deal
of coursework, as well as a dissertation that may comprise from one-fifth to one-third of the final
grade. Admission into one of the country’s PhD programs is very selective, requiring, at minimum,
a Master’s degree with a B average or better. Most PhD programs span two to four years beyond
the Master’s degree, not counting the time it takes to complete the dissertation. Topics for
dissertations must be approved by the faculty at the university at which the student is studying.
Non-University Higher Education (Vocational and Technical)
In recent years, vocational and technical education has become very popular in the
Philippines. Technical and vocational schools and institutes offer programs in a wide range of
disciplines, including agriculture, fisheries, technical trades, technical education, hotel and
restaurant management, crafts, business studies, secretarial studies, and interior and fashion
design. Interested candidates who wish to pursue their education at one of the country’s post-
secondary vocational schools must have at least a high school diploma and a Certificate of
Graduation to qualify. Vocational and technical programs lead to either a certificate (often entitled
a Certificate of Proficiency) or a diploma. The Philippines’ Professional Regulation Commission
regulates programs for 38 different professions and administers their respective licensure
examinations.

The Importance of Studying History of Education

Source: https://oer.avu.org/handle/123456789/68#:~:text=History%20of%20Education%20is%20of
%20fundamental%20importance%20to%20a%20professional%20teacher.&text=When%20you
%20study%20the%20past,helps%20to%20illuminate%20the%20future.

History of education is a study of the past that focuses on educational issues. These include
education systems, institutions, theories, themes and other related phenomena.
History of Education is of fundamental importance to a professional teacher. We have noted
that the study deals primarily with the past events and developments in education. However, this
should not be looked at in isolation. This is because the past is closely linked to the present and the
later influences the future. When you study the past, you are able to understand the process of
education and how it evolved up to the present. In this way, the present not only becomes clear but
also helps to illuminate the future.
Note that the education arena is a broad one. It encompasses philosophical, sociological,
comparative, administrative, curricular and other issues. Each of these may have a historical
dimension or perspective.

FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT

Activity 1. Answer the following:

1. In not more than two sentences, state the relationship of society and schools.

______________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________

2. What is meant by socialization as a function of schools?

______________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________

3. Can school change the socializing effect of family, the primary agent of socialization? Can
an excellent school undo the socializing effect of an extremely deprived home?
 ______________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________

4. In the Philippines, was education a privilege enjoyed by all Filipinos since pre-colonial
period? Why or why not?

______________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________

Activity 2. Research on the following:

a. In the Philippines, education from elementary to secondary education is free. What

law made tertiary education free? Research on the tertiary education of other
countries. Is it also free?, or “only in the Philippines?” Share your findings in class.

b. Life skills were taught to primitive society. Are these life skills for primitive society the
same life skills for the 21st century? Find out.
Input 3

Social Science Theories and Their Implications to Education

Structural-Functional Theory
Sociological Paradigm #1: Functionalism
Source: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/alamo-sociology/chapter/functionalism/

Functionalism, also called structural-functional theory, sees society as a structure with

interrelated parts designed to meet the biological and social needs of the individuals in that society.
Functionalism grew out of the writings of English philosopher and biologist, Hebert Spencer (1820–
1903), who saw similarities between society and the human body; he argued that just as the various
organs of the body work together to keep the body functioning, the various parts of society work
together to keep society functioning (Spencer 1898). The parts of society that Spencer referred to
were the social institutions, or patterns of beliefs and behaviors focused on meeting social needs,
such as government, education, family, healthcare, religion, and the economy.

Émile Durkheim, another early sociologist, applied Spencer’s theory to explain how societies
change and survive over time. Durkheim believed that society is a complex system of interrelated
and interdependent parts that work together to maintain stability (Durkheim 1893), and that society
is held together by shared values, languages, and symbols. He believed that to study society, a
sociologist must look beyond individuals to social facts such as laws, morals, values, religious
beliefs, customs, fashion, and rituals, which all serve to govern social life. Alfred Radcliff-Brown
(1881–1955) defined the function of any recurrent activity as the part it played in social life as a
whole, and therefore the contribution it makes to social stability and continuity (Radcliff-Brown
1952). In a healthy society, all parts work together to maintain stability, a state called dynamic
equilibrium by later sociologists such as Parsons (1961).

Durkheim believed that individuals may make up society, but in order to study society,
sociologists have to look beyond individuals to social facts. Social facts are the laws, morals,
values, religious beliefs, customs, fashions, rituals, and all of the cultural rules that govern social life
(Durkheim 1895). Each of these social facts serves one or more functions within a society. For
example, one function of a society’s laws may be to protect society from violence, while another is
to punish criminal behavior, while another is to preserve public health.

Another noted structural functionalist, Robert Merton (1910–2003), pointed out that social
processes often have many functions. Manifest functions are the consequences of a social process
that are sought or anticipated, while latent functions are the unsought consequences of a social
process. A manifest function of college education, for example, includes gaining knowledge,
preparing for a career, and finding a good job that utilizes that education. Latent functions of your
college years include meeting new people, participating in extracurricular activities, or even finding
a spouse or partner. Another latent function of education is creating a hierarchy of employment
based on the level of education attained. Latent functions can be beneficial, neutral, or harmful.
Social processes that have undesirable consequences for the operation of society are called
dysfunctions. In education, examples of dysfunction include getting bad grades, truancy, dropping
out, not graduating, and not finding suitable employment.

One criticism of the structural-functional theory is that it can’t adequately explain social
change. Also problematic is the somewhat circular nature of this theory; repetitive behavior patterns
are assumed to have a function, yet we profess to know that they have a function only because
they are repeated. Furthermore, dysfunctions may continue, even though they don’t serve a
function, which seemingly contradicts the basic premise of the theory. Many sociologists now
believe that functionalism is no longer useful as a macro-level theory, but that it does serve a useful
purpose in some mid-level analyses.

A Global Culture?

Some sociologists see the online world contributing to the creation of an emerging global
culture. Are you a part of any global communities?

Sociologists around the world look closely for signs of what would be an unprecedented
event: the emergence of a global culture. In the past, empires such as those that existed in China,
Europe, Africa, and Central and South America linked people from many different countries, but
those people rarely became part of a common culture. They lived too far from each other, spoke
different languages, practiced different religions, and traded few goods. Today, increases in
communication, travel, and trade have made the world a much smaller place. More and more
people are able to communicate with each other instantly—wherever they are located—by
telephone,

video, and text. They share movies, television shows, music, games, and information over the
Internet. Students can study with teachers and pupils from the other side of the globe. Governments
find it harder to hide conditions inside their countries from the rest of the world.

Sociologists research many different aspects of this potential global culture. Some explore
the dynamics involved in the social interactions of global online communities, such as when
members feel a closer kinship to other group members than to people residing in their own
countries. Other sociologists study the impact this growing international culture has on smaller,
less-powerful local cultures. Yet other researchers explore how international markets and the
outsourcing of labor impact social inequalities. Sociology can play a key role in people’s abilities to
understand the nature of this emerging global culture and how to respond to it.

Structural Functionalism/ Consensus Theory

Source:
https://learning.uonbi.ac.ke/courses/TFD301/scormPackages/path_2/3_structural_funtionalism_con
sensus_theory.html

Structural functionalists believe that society tends towards equilibrium and social order. They
see society like a human body, where key institutions work like the body's organs to keep the
society/body healthy and well[4]. Social health means the same as social order, and is guaranteed
when nearly everyone accepts the general moral values of their society. Hence structural
functionalists believe the purpose of key institutions, such as education, is to socialise young
members of society. Socialisation is the process by which the new generation learns the
knowledge, attitudes and values that they will need as productive citizens. Although this purpose is
stated in the formal curriculum, it is mainly achieved through "the hidden curriculum", a subtler, but
nonetheless powerful, indoctrination of the norms and values of the wider society. Students learn
these values because their behaviour at school is regulated until they gradually internalise them
and so accept them. Education must, however perform another function to keep society running
smoothly. As various jobs in society become vacant, they must be filled with the appropriate people.
Therefore the other purpose of education is to sort and rank individuals for placement in the labour
market. Those with the greatest achievement will be trained for the most important jobs in society
and in reward, be given the highest incomes. Those who achieve the least, will be given the least
demanding jobs, and hence the least income.

According to Sennet and Cobb however, "to believe that ability alone decides who is
rewarded is to be deceived". Meighan agrees, stating that large numbers of capable students from
working class backgrounds fail to achieve satisfactory standards in school and therefore fail to
obtain the status they deserve. Jacob believes this is because the middle class cultural experiences
that are provided at school may be contrary to the experiences they've had at home [8]. In other
words working class children are not adequately prepared to cope at school. They are therefore
"cooled out"[9] from school with the least qualifications, hence they get the least desirable jobs, and
so remain working class. Sargent agrees with this cycle, stating that schooling supports continuity,
which in turn support social order.[3] Talcott Parsons believed that this process, whereby some
students were identified and labelled educational failures, "was a necessary activity which one part
of the social system, education, performed for the whole"[7]. Yet the structural functionalist
perspective maintains that this social order, this continuity, is what most people desire[4]. The
weakness of this perspective here becomes evident. Why would the working class wish to stay the
working class? Such an inconsistency demonstrates that another perspective may be more useful
in examining the issue further.

Functionalist perspective. People who employ the functionalist perspective view society as a
set of interrelated parts that work together to produce a stable social system. According to
functionalists, society is held together through consensus. In other words, most people agree on
what is best for society and work together to ensure that the social system runs smoothly.
Sociologists who adopt this perspective follow in the tradition of Herbert Spencer and Emile
Durkheim. Some of the topics of interest to functional sociologists include the division of work in the
family and the functions served by education in society.

Like Durkheim, functionalists view the various elements in society in terms of their functions
their positive consequences for society. Recognizing that not everything in society operates
smoothly, functionalists also label certain elements as dysfunctional. A dysfunction is the negative
consequence an element has for the stability of the social system. Dysfunctional elements, such as
crime, disrupt society rather than stabilize it.

In addition to being either positive or negative, functions can be either manifest or latent. A
manifest function is the intended and recognized consequence of some element of society. A
manifest function of the automobile, for example, is to provide speedy transportation from one
location to another. A latent function, on the other hand, is the unintended and unrecognized
consequence of an element of society. A latent function of the automobile is to gain social standing
through the display of wealth.

How Consensus Theory could be applied to education

Consensus theorists see society as an integrated system maintaining an equilibrium with

interrelated institutions. These institutions provide the rules governing behaviours that serve to
maintain a kind of equilibrium and set of common values that bind people together.

Implications to educational practice

Consensus theory has the following implications to educational practice:

 According to Consensus Theory, education will aim to produce experts in all professions for
the benefit of all members of the society for example teachers, doctors, engineers, etc

Secondly, Consensus theorists suggest that selection to higher levels of education should
be based on merit, that is, it should be based on one's performance in competitive examinations.

Further, Consensus theorists believe that the best-brained pupils are expected to join the
higher occupational/ professional jobs for the benefit of the entire society.

Based on ideas of Consensus theorists, it is assumed that those who do not do well in
school are lazy or have less intellectual abilities.

Consensus Theory is likely to support a differentiated type of education and educational

opportunities for the different categories of people. For example, having public and private schools,
high cost and low cost schools, pupils doing different examinations like KCSE and A- level, etc.

Finally, Consensus theorists believe that education is likely to be conservative in order to

maintain the status quo and stability in the society.

Conflict Theory
Source: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/alamo-sociology/chapter/reading-conflict-theory-on-
education/
Conflict theorists do not believe that public schools reduce social inequality. Rather, they
believe that the educational system reinforces and perpetuates social inequalities that arise from
differences in class, gender, race, and ethnicity. Where functionalists see education as serving a
beneficial role, conflict theorists view it more negatively. To them, educational systems preserve the
status quo and push people of lower status into obedience.
Conflict theorists see the education system as a means by which those in power stay in
power.
The fulfillment of one’s education is closely linked to social class. Students of low
socioeconomic status are generally not afforded the same opportunities as students of higher
status, no matter how great their academic ability or desire to learn. Picture a student from a
working-class home who wants to do well in school. On a Monday, he’s assigned a paper that’s due
Friday. Monday evening, he has to babysit his younger sister while his divorced mother works.
Tuesday and Wednesday, he works stocking shelves after school until 10:00 p.m. By Thursday, the
only day he might have available to work on that assignment, he’s so exhausted he can’t bring
himself to start the paper. His mother, though she’d like to help him, is so tired herself that she isn’t
able to give him the encouragement or support he needs. And since English is her second
language, she has difficulty with some of his educational materials. They also lack a computer and
printer at home, which most of his classmates have, so they have to rely on the public library or
school system for access to technology. As this story shows, many students from working-class
families have to contend with helping out at home, contributing financially to the family, poor study
environments and a lack of support from their families. This is a difficult match with education
systems that adhere to a traditional curriculum that is more easily understood and completed by
students of higher social classes.
 Such a situation leads to social class reproduction, extensively studied by French sociologist
Pierre Bourdieu. He researched how cultural capital, or cultural knowledge that serves
(metaphorically) as currency that helps us navigate a culture, alters the experiences and
opportunities available to French students from different social classes. Members of the upper and
middle classes have more cultural capital than do families of lower-class status. As a result, the
educational system maintains a cycle in which the dominant culture’s values are rewarded.
Instruction and tests cater to the dominant culture and leave others struggling to identify with values
and competencies outside their social class. For example, there has been a great deal of
discussion over what standardized tests such as the SAT truly measure. Many argue that the tests
group students by cultural ability rather than by natural intelligence.
The cycle of rewarding those who possess cultural capital is found in formal educational
curricula as well as in the hidden curriculum, which refers to the type of nonacademic knowledge
that students learn through informal learning and cultural transmission. This hidden curriculum
reinforces the positions of those with higher cultural capital and serves to bestow status unequally.
Conflict theorists point to tracking, a formalized sorting system that places students on
“tracks” (advanced versus low achievers) that perpetuate inequalities. While educators may believe
that students do better in tracked classes because they are with students of similar ability and may
have access to more individual attention from teachers, conflict theorists feel that tracking leads to
self-fulfilling prophecies in which students live up (or down) to teacher and societal expectations
(Education Week 2004).
To conflict theorists, schools play the role of training working-class students to accept and
retain their position as lower members of society. They argue that this role is fulfilled through the
disparity of resources available to students in richer and poorer neighborhoods as well as through
testing (Lauen and Tyson 2008).
IQ tests have been attacked for being biased—for testing cultural knowledge rather than
actual intelligence. For example, a test item may ask students what instruments belong in an
orchestra. To correctly answer this question requires certain cultural knowledge—knowledge most
often held by more affluent people who typically have more exposure to orchestral music. Though
experts in testing claim that bias has been eliminated from tests, conflict theorists maintain that this
is impossible. These tests, to conflict theorists, are another way in which education does not
provide opportunities, but instead maintains an established configuration of power.

Symbolic Interactionist Theory

https://courses.lumenlearning.com/alamo-sociology/chapter/reading-symbolic-interactionist-theory-
on-education/

Symbolic interactionism sees education as one way that labeling theory is seen in action. A
symbolic interactionist might say that this labeling has a direct correlation to those who are in power
and those who are labeled. For example, low standardized test scores or poor performance in a
particular class often lead to a student who is labeled as a low achiever. Such labels are difficult to
“shake off,” which can create a self-fulfilling prophecy (Merton 1968).

In his book High School Confidential, Jeremy Iverson details his experience as a Stanford
graduate posing as a student at a California high school. One of the problems he identifies in his
research is that of teachers applying labels that students are never able to lose. One teacher told
him, without knowing he was a bright graduate of a top university, that he would never amount to
anything (Iverson 2006). Iverson obviously didn’t take this teacher’s false assessment to heart. But
when an actual seventeen-year-old student hears this from a person with authority over her, it’s no
wonder that the student might begin to “live down to” that label.
The labeling with which symbolic interactionists concern themselves extends to the very
degrees that symbolize completion of education. Credentialism embodies the emphasis on
certificates or degrees to show that a person has a certain skill, has attained a certain level of
education, or has met certain job qualifications. These certificates or degrees serve as a symbol of
what a person has achieved, and allows the labeling of that individual.

Indeed, as these examples show, labeling theory can significantly impact a student’s
schooling. This is easily seen in the educational setting, as teachers and more powerful social
groups within the school dole out labels that are adopted by the entire school population.

ACTIVITY

Activity 1. Research

Research on more school practices based on the functionalist theory, conflict theory and
symbolic interaction theory. Write them down on a whole sheet of paper to be passed in class.

Activity 2. Which social science theory is referred to?

a. The overall health of society depends upon the healthy functioning of its institutions.
b. Meaning that individuals give to symbols change over time.
c. Faulty communication can result from differences in the perception of the same events
and symbols.
d. Schools reach humanitarian attitude, altruism, democracy, civil rights, and other positive
aspects of society to preserve society and social order.
e. When one institution fails to function, another institution ought to come in to perform the
function for the stability of society.
f. A new society comes as a result of the resolution of clash between the powers.
g. Two opposing sides are welcomed. This paves the way to change.change.
h. When one institution fails to perform it function, the other institution comes in for the
preservation of the society.
i. One weakness of this theory is this is focused on small interactions.
j. Differences in meaning of symbols for both sende and receiver result to
misunderstanding.
 Input 4

The Strengths and Weaknesses of the Filipino Character: A Socio-Cultural Issue

Strength and Weaknesses of Filipino People
STRENGTHS WEAKNESS

1. Pakikipagkapwa-tao : Opening yourself to 1. Extreme Personalism

others and feel one with others with dignity and - always trying to to give personal interpretation to
respect deal with them as fellow human beings. actions
- sense of fairness and justice - thank you with "but" (compliment-criticism-
- concern for others compliment)
- ability to empathize with others
- helpfulness and generosity 2. Extreme Family Centeredness
- practice of hospitality - strong family protection good or bad condition
- sensitive to other feelings and trust
3. Lack of Discipline : relaxed attitude but poor time
management
2. Family Orientation : a genuine and deep love
- impatient and unable to delay gratification or reward
for family.
- love to take short-cuts or 'palusot' system
- commitment and responsibility
- carelessness
- honor and respect
- generosity and sacrifice
4. Passivity and Lack of Initiative : strong reliance
- sense of trust and security
to others fate
- yeah proud Pinoy. It's all because of the race
3. Joy and Humor : Filipinos have a cheerful and (nationality/blood) not by persons attitude, hard-work,
fun-loving approach to life and its up and down, dream and perseverance etc.
pleasant disposition, a sense of humor and - very complacent (relax) but their rarely is a sense of
propensity for happiness that contribute not only urgency (It's OK we have 1 day left to finished, just
to the Filipino charm but also to the Filipino relax)
Spirit. We laugh at those we love and hate. We - too patient without any plan or action (matiisin)
tend to make joke about our good and even bad "Bahala na System" - No matter what, At least we
fortune, to smile even in the most trying of times. tried.
- emotional balance and optimism - doubt and debate first than study, discuss until
- healthy disrespect for power and office. planning and action

5. Colonial Mentality : Patriotism vs Active

4. Flexibility, Adaptability and Creativity
5. Hard Work and Industry : capacity for hard
work given to raise one's standard living of a
decent life for one's family.
6. Faith and Religiosity : Faith in God -
awareness
- luck of love and appreciation on what they have
- open outside but side-open or close inside
6. Kanya-kanya Syndrome : self-serving attitude
that generates feeling of envy and competitiveness
towards others (status vs prestige).
- personal ambition but insensitive to common good
accepting reality to comprehend as a human
created by God. "Pampalakas-loob"
7. Ability to Survive
- crab mentality
- lack of appreciation resulting unhealthy competition
7. Lack of Self Analysis and Reflection
- Sometimes superficial and flighty

Read and Download the Powerpoint presentation found at

https://www.slideshare.net/BelindoAguilar/strengths-and-weaknesses-of-the-filipino-character

A Moral Recovery Program: Building a People--Building a Nation

by Patricia Licuanan
Source: https://ourhappyschool.com/esp-values-education/moral-recovery-program-building-
people-building-nation-patricia-licuanan

The events at EDSA in February 1986 not only ousted a dictator, but also demonstrated to
the world and to ourselves our great strengths as a people. At EDSA we saw courage,
determination and strength of purpose; we saw unity and concern for one another; we saw deep
faith in God; and even in the grimmest moments, there was some laughter and humor.
We were proud of ourselves at EDSA and we expected great changes after our moment of
glory. Today, sometime after, we realize that most of our problems as a nation still remain. We may
have ousted a dictator, but that was the easy part. The task of building a nation is so much more
difficult. Now, with EDSA only an inspiring memory, we are faced with our weaknesses. Self-interest
and disregard for the common good rears its ugly head. We are confronted with our lack of
discipline and rigor, our colonial mentality, and our emphasis on porma (form). Despite our great
display of people's power, now we are passive once more, expecting our leaders to take all
responsibility for solving our many problems.
The task of building our nation is an awesome one. There is need for economic recovery.
There is need to re-establish democratic institutions and to achieve the goals of peace and genuine
social justice. Along with these goals, there is a need as well to build ourselves as a people. There
is need to change structures and to change people.
Building a people means eliminating our weaknesses and developing our strengths; this
starts with the analysis, understanding, and appreciation of these strengths and weaknesses. We
must take a good look at ourselves--objectively with scientific detachment, but also emotionally (i.e.,
lovingly) and, when appropriate, with disgust. We must view ourselves as might a lover viewing a
loved one but also as might a judge capable of a harsh verdict. We must not be self-flagellating, but
neither can we afford to be defensive.
We must change, and for this understanding ourselves is the first step.
Strengths of the Filipino Character
Pakikipagkapwa-Tao (regard for others). Filipinos are open to others and feel one with
others. We regard others with dignity and respect, and deal with them as fellow human
beings. Pakikipagkapwa-tao is manifested in a basic sense of justice and fairness, and in concern
for others. It is demonstrated in the Filipino's ability to empathize with others, in helpfulness and
generosity in times of need (pakikiramay), in the practice of bayanihan or mutual assistance, and in
the famous Filipino hospitality.
Filipinos possess a sensitivity to people's feelings or pakikiramdam, pagtitiwala or trust, and
a sense of gratitude or utang-na-loob. Because of pakikipagkapwa-tao, Filipinos are very sensitive
to the quality of interpersonal relationships and are very dependent on them: if our relationships are
satisfactory, we are happy and secure.
Pakikipagkapwa-tao results in camaraderie and a feeling of closeness one to another. It
helps promote unity as well a sense of social justice.
Family Orientation. Filipinos possess a genuine and deep love for the family, which includes
not simply the spouses and children, parents, and siblings, but also grandparents, aunts, uncles,
cousins, godparents, and other ceremonial relatives. To the Filipino, one's family is the source of
personal identity, the source of emotional and material support, and the person's main commitment
and responsibility.
Concern for family is manifested in the honor and respect given to parents and elders, in the
care given to children, the generosity towards kin in need, and in the great sacrifices one endures
for the welfare of the family. This sense of family results in a feeling of belonging or rootedness and
in a basic sense of security.
Joy and Humor. Filipinos have a cheerful and fun-loving approach to life and its ups and
downs. There is a pleasant disposition, a sense of humor, and a propensity for happiness that
contribute not only to the Filipino charm, but to the indomitability of the filipino spirit. Laughing at
ourselves and our trouble is an important coping mechanism. Often playful, sometimes cynical,
sometimes disrespectful, we laugh at those we love and at those we hate, and make jokes about
our fortune, good and bad.
This sense of joy and humor is manifested in the Filipino love for socials and celebrations, in
our capacity to laugh even in the most trying of times, and in the appeal of political satire.
The result is a certain emotional balance and optimism, a healthy disrespect for power and
office, and a capacity to survive.
Flexibility, Adaptability and Creativity. Filipinos have a great capacity to adjust, and to adapt
to circumstances and to the surrounding environment, both physical and social. Unplanned or
unanticipated events are never overly disturbing or disorienting as the flexible Filipino adjusts to
whatever happens. We possess a tolerance for ambiguity that enables us to remain unfazed by
uncertainty or lack of information. We are creative, resourceful, adept at learning, and able to
improvise and make use of whatever is at hand in order to create and produce.
This quality of the Filipino is manifested in the ability to adapt to life in any part of the world;
in the ability to make new things out of scrap and to keep old machines running; and, of course, in
the creative talent manifested in the cultural sphere. It is seen likewise in the ability to accept
change.
The result is productivity, innovation, entrepreneurship, equanimity, and survival.

Hard work and Industry. Filipinos have the capacity for hard work, given proper conditions.
The desire to raise one's standard of living and to possess the essentials of a decent life for one's
family, combined with the right opportunities and incentives, stimulate the Filipino to work very hard.
This is manifested most noticeably in a willingness to take risks with jobs abroad, and to work there
at two or three jobs. The result is productivity and entrepreneurship for some, and survival despite
poverty for others.
Faith and Religiosity. Filipinos have a deep faith in God. Innate religiosity enables us to
comprehend and genuinely accept reality in the context of God's will and plan. Thus, tragedy and
bad fortune are accepted and some optimism characterizes even the poorest lives.
Filipinos live very intimately with religion; this is tangible--a part of everyday life. We ascribe
human traits to a supernatural God whom we alternately threaten and thank, call upon for mercy or
forgiveness, and appease by pledges. Prayer is an important part of our lives.
The faith of the Filipino is related to bahala na, which, instead of being viewed as defeatist
resignation, may be considered positively as a reservoir of psychic energy, an important
psychological support on which we can lean during difficult times. This pampalakas ng loob allows
us to act despite uncertainty.
Our faith and daring was manifest at EDSA and at other times in our history when it was
difficult to be brave. It is seen also in the capacity to accept failure and defeat without our self-
concept being devastated since we recognize forces external to ourselves as contributing to the
unfolding of events in our lives.
The results of the Filipino's faith are courage, daring, optimism, inner peace, as well as the
capacity to genuinely accept tragedy and death.
Ability to Survive. Filipinos have an ability to survive which is manifested in our capacity for
endurance despite difficult times, and in our ability to get by on so little. Filipinos make do with what
is available in the environment, even, e.g., by eking out a living from a garbage dump. This survival
instinct is related to the Filipinos who bravely carry on through the harshest economic and social
circumstances. Regretfully, one wonders what we might be able to do under better circumstances.
Weaknesses of the Filipino Character
Extreme Personalism. Filipinos view the world in terms of personal relationships and the
extent to which one is able personally to relate to things and people determines our recognition of
their existence and the value. There is no separation between an objective task and emotional
involvement. This personalism is manifested in the tendency to give personal interpretations to
actions, i.e., to "take things personally." Thus, a sincere question may be viewed as a challenge to
one's competence or positive feedback may be interpreted as a sign of special affection. There is,
in fact, some basis for such interpretations as Filipinos become personal in their criticism and
praise. Personalism is also manifested in the need to establish personal relationships before any
business or work relationship can be successful.
 Because of this personalistic world view, Filipinos have difficulty dealing with all forms of
impersonal stimuli. For this reason one is uncomfortable with bureaucracy, with rules and
regulations, and with standard procedures--all of which tend to be impersonal. We ignore them or
we ask for exceptions.

Personal contacts are involved in any transaction and are difficult to turn down. Preference
is usually given to family and friends in hiring, delivery of services, and even in voting. Extreme
personalism thus leads to the graft and corruption evident in Philippine society.
Extreme Family-Centeredness. While concern for the family is one of the Filipino's greatest
strengths, in the extreme it becomes a serious flaw. Excessive concern for the family creates an in-
group to which the Filipino is fiercely loyal, to the detriment of concern for the larger community or
the common good.
Excessive concern for family manifests itself in the use of one's office and power as a
means of promoting the interests of the family, in factionalism, patronage, and political dynasties,
and in the protection of erring family members. It results in lack of concern for the common good
and acts as a block to national consciousness.
Lack of Discipline. The Filipino's lack of discipline encompasses several related
characteristics. We have a casual and relaxed attitude towards time and space which manifests
itself in lack of precision and compulsiveness, in poor time management and in procrastination. We
have an aversion to following strictly a set of procedures, which results in lack of standardization
and quality control. We are impatient and unable to delay gratification or reward, resulting in the use
of short cuts, skirting the rules (the palusot syndrome) and in foolhardiness. We are guilty of ningas
cogon, starting out projects with full vigor and interest which abruptly die down, leaving things
unfinished.
Our lack of discipline often results in inefficient and wasteful work systems, the violation of
rules leading to more serious transgressions, and a casual work ethic leading to carelessness and
lack of follow-through.
Passivity and Lack of Initiative. Filipinos are generally passive and lacking in initiative. One
waits to be told what has to be done. There is a strong reliance on others, e.g., leaders and
government, to do things for us. This is related to the attitude towards authority. Filipinos have a
need for a strong authority figure and feel safer and more secure in the presence of such an
authority. One is generally submissive to those in authority, and is not likely to raise issues or to
question decisions.
Filipinos tend to be complacent and there rarely is a sense of urgency about any problem.
There is a high tolerance for inefficiency, poor service, and even violations of one's basic rights. In
many ways, it can be said that the Filipino is too patient and long-suffering (matiisin), too easily
resigned to one's fate. Filipinos are thus easily oppressed and exploited.
Colonial Mentality. Filipinos have a colonial mentality which is made up of two dimensions:
the first is a lack of patriotism or an active awareness, appreciation, and love of the Philippines; the
second is an actual preference for things foreign.
 Filipino culture is characterized by an openness to the outside--adapting and incorporating
the foreign elements into our image of ourselves. Yet this image is not built around a deep core of
Philippine history and language. The result is a cultural vagueness or weakness that makes
Filipinos extraordinarily susceptible to the wholesome acceptance of modern mass culture which is
often Western. Thus, there is preference for foreign fashion, entertainment, lifestyles, technology,
consumer items, etc.
The Filipino colonial mentality is manifested in the alienation of the elite from their roots and
from the masses, as well as in the basic feeling of national inferiority that makes it difficult for
Filipinos to relate as equals to Westerners.
Kanya-Kanya Syndrome. Filipinos have a selfish, self-serving attitude that generates a
feeling of envy and competitiveness towards others, particularly one's peers, who seem to have
gained some status or prestige. Towards them, the Filipino demonstrated the so-called "crab
mentality", using the levelling instruments of tsismis, intriga and unconstructive criticism to bring
others down. There seems to be a basic assumption that another's gain is our loss.
The kanya-kanya syndrome is also evident in personal ambition and drive for power and
status that is completely insensitive to the common good. Personal and in-group interests reign
supreme. This characteristic is also evident in the lack of a sense of service among people in the
government bureaucracy. The public is made to feel that service from these offices and from these
civil servants is an extra perk that has to be paid for.
The kanya-kanya syndrome results in the dampening of cooperative and community spirit
and in the denial of the rights of others.
Lack of Self-Analysis and Self-Reflection. There is a tendency in the Filipino to be superficial
and even somewhat flighty. In the face of serious problems both personal and social, there is lack
of analysis or reflection. Joking about the most serious matters prevents us from looking deeply into
the problem. There is no felt need to validate our hypotheses or explanations of things. Thus we are
satisfied with superficial explanations for, and superficial solutions to, problems.
Related to this is the Filipino emphasis on form (maporma) rather than upon substance.
There is a tendency to be satisfied with rhetoric and to substitute this for reality. Empty rhetoric and
endless words are very much part of public life. As long as the right things are said, as long as the
proper documents and reports exist, and as long as the proper committees, task forces, or offices
are formed, Filipinos are deluded into believing that what ought to be actually exists.
The Filipino lack of self-analysis and our emphasis upon form is reinforced by an
educational system that is often more form than substance and a legal system that tends to
substitute law for reality.
The Many Faces of the Filipino
From this discussion of the strengths and weaknesses of the Filipino, it is clear that there is
much that is good here, but there is also much that needs to be changed. Many of our strong points
are also the sources of our weakness.
As a people, we are person-oriented, and relationships with others are a very important part
of our lives. Thus, we are capable of much caring and concern for others. On the other hand, in the
extreme our person orientation leads to lack of objectivity and a disregard for universal rules and
procedures so that everyone, regardless of our relationship with them, is treated equally. Our
person orientation leads us to be concerned for people, and yet unfair to some.
Our family orientation is both a strength and a weakness, giving us a sense of rootedness
and security, both very essential to any form of reaching out to others. At the same time, it develops
in us an in-group orientation that prevents us from reaching out beyond the family to the larger
community and the nation.

Our flexibility, adaptability and creativity is a strength that allows us to adjust to any set of
circumstances and to make the best of the situation. But this ability to "play things by ear" leads us
to compromise on the precision and discipline necessary to accomplish many work-oriented goals.
Our sense of joy and humor serves us well in difficult times. it makes life more pleasant, but
serious problems do need serious analysis, and humor can also be destructive.
Our faith in God and our religiosity are sources of strength and courage, but they also lead
to an external orientation that keeps us passive and dependent on forces outside ourselves.
There are other contradictions in the many faces of the Filipino. We find pakikipagkapwa-
tao and the kanya-kanya mentality living comfortably together in us. We are other-oriented and
capable of great empathy; and yet we are self-serving, envious of others, and unconstructively
critical of one another.
We also find the Filipino described alternately as hardworking and lazy. Indeed we see that
we are capable of working long and hard at any job. However, our casual work ethic as well as our
basic passivity in the work setting also is apparent as we wait for orders and instructions rather than
taking the initiative.
Roots of the Filipino Character
The strengths and weaknesses of the Filipino have their roots in many factors such as: (1)
the home environment, (2) the social environment, (3) culture and language, (4) history, (5) the
educational system, (6) religion, (7) the economic environment, (8) the political environment, (9)
mass media, and (10) leadership and role models.
The Family and Home Environment. Childbearing practices, family relations, and family
attitudes and orientation are the main components of the home environment. Childbearing in the
Filipino family is characterized by high nurturance, low independence training, and low discipline.
The Filipino child grows up in an atmosphere of affection and over protection, where one learns
security and trust, on the one hand, and dependence, on the other. In the indulgent atmosphere of
the Filipino home, rigid standards of behavior or performance are not imposed, leading to a lack of
discipline. Attempts to maintain discipline come in the form of many "no's" and "don'ts" and a
system of criticism to keep children in line. Subtle comparisons among siblings also are used by
mothers to control their children. These may contribute to the "crab mentality."
In a large family where we are encouraged to get along with our siblings and other relatives,
we learn pakikipagkapwa-tao. In an authoritarian setting we learn respect for age and authority; at
the same time we become passive and dependent on authority.
In the family, children are taught to value family and to give it primary importance.
 The Social Environment. The main components of the social environment are social
structures and social systems such as interpersonal religious and community interaction. The social
environment of the Filipino is characterized by a feudal structure with great gaps between the rich
minority and the poor majority. These gaps are not merely economic but cultural as well, with the
elite being highly westernized and alienated from the masses. This feudal structure develops
dependence and passivity.

The Filipino is raised in an environment where one must depend on relationships with others
in order to survive. In a poor country where resources are scarce and where the systems meant to
respond to people's needs can be insensitive, inefficient, or non-existent, the Filipino becomes very
dependent on kinship and interpersonal relationships.
Sensitivity about hurting established relationships controls our behavior. We are restrained
from making criticisms no matter how constructive, so standards of quality are not imposed. We
have difficulty saying no to requests and are pressured to favor our family and friends. That trying to
get ahead of others is not considered acceptable exerts a strong brake upon efforts to improve our
individual performance. The struggle for survival and our dependence on relationships make us in-
group oriented.
Culture and Language. Much has been written about Filipino cultural values. Such
characteristics such as warmth and person orientation, devotion to family, and sense of joy and
humor are part of our culture and are reinforced by all socializing forces such as the family, school,
and peer group.
Filipino culture rewards such traits and corresponding behavioral patterns develop because
they make one more likable and enable life to proceed more easily.
Aside from emphasizing interpersonal values, Filipino culture is also characterized by an
openness to the outside which easily incorporates foreign elements without a basic consciousness
of our cultural core. This is related to our colonial mentality and to the use of English as the medium
of instruction in schools.
The introduction of English as the medium of education de-Filipinized the youth and taught
them to regard American culture as superior. The use of English contributes also to a lack of self-
confidence on the part of the Filipino. The fact that doing well means using a foreign language,
which foreigners inevitably can handle better, leads to an inferiority complex. At a very early age,
we find that our self-esteem depends on the mastery of something foreign.
The use of a foreign language may also explain the Filipino's unreflectiveness and mental
laziness. Thinking in our native language, but expressing ourselves in English, results not only in a
lack of confidence, but also in a lack in our power of expression, imprecision, and a stunted
development of one's intellectual powers.
History. We are the product of our colonial history, which is regarded by many as the culprit
behind our lack of nationalism and our colonial mentality. Colonialism developed a mind-set in the
Filipino which encouraged us to think of the colonial power as superior and more powerful. As a
second-class citizen beneath the Spanish and then the Americans, we developed a dependence on
foreign powers that makes us believe we are not responsible for our country's fate.
 The American influence is more ingrained in the Philippines because the Americans set up a
public school system where we learned English and the American way of life. Present-day media
reinforce these colonial influences, and the Filipino elite sets the example by their western ways.
Another vestige of our colonial past is our basic attitude towards the government, which we
have learned to identify as foreign and apart from us. Thus, we do not identify with government and
are distrustful and uncooperative towards it. Much time and energy is spent trying to outsmart the
government, which we have learned from our colonial past to regard as an enemy.
The Educational System. Aside from the problems inherent in the use of a foreign language
in our educational system, the educational system leads to other problems for us as a people. The
lack of suitable local textbooks and dependence on foreign textbooks, particularly in the higher
school levels, force Filipino students as well as their teachers to use school materials that are
irrelevant to the Philippine setting. From this comes a mind-set that things learned in school are not
related to real life.
Aside from the influences of the formal curriculum, there are the influences of the "hidden
curriculum" i.e., the values taught informally by the Philippine school system. Schools are highly
authoritarian, with the teacher as the central focus. The Filipino student is taught to be dependent
on the teacher as we attempt to record verbatim what the teacher says and to give this back during
examinations in its original form and with little processing. Teachers reward well-behaved and
obedient students and are uncomfortable with those who ask questions and express a different
viewpoint. The Filipino student learns passivity and conformity. Critical thinking is not learned in the
school.
Religion. Religion is the root of Filipino optimism and its capacity to accept life's hardships.
However, religion also instills in the Filipino attitudes of resignation and a pre-occupation with the
afterlife. We become vulnerable also to being victimized by opportunism, oppression, exploitation,
and superstition.
The Economic Environment. Many Filipino traits are rooted in the poverty and hard life that
is the lot of most Filipinos. Our difficulties drive us to take risks, impel us to work very hard, and
develop in us the ability to survive. Poverty, however, has also become an excuse for graft and
corruption, particularly among the lower rungs of the bureaucracy. Unless things get too difficult,
passivity sets in.
The Political Environment. The Philippine political environment is characterized by a
centralization of power. Political power and authority is concentrated in the hands of the elite and
the participation of most Filipinos often is limited to voting in elections.
Similarly, basic services from the government are concentrated in Manila and its outlying
towns and provinces. A great majority of Filipinos are not reached by such basic services as water,
electricity, roads, and health services. Government structures and systems--e.g., justice and
education--are often ineffective or inefficient.
Since the government often is not there to offer basic services, we depend on our family,
kin, and neighbors for our everyday needs. The absence of government enhances our extreme
family-and even community-centeredness. We find it difficult to identify with a nation-family, since
the government is not there to symbolize or represent the state.
 The fact that political power is still very much concentrated in the hands of a few may lead to
passivity. The inefficiency of government structures and systems also leads to a lack of integrity
and accountability in our public servants.
Mass Media. Mass media reinforces our colonial mentality. Advertisements using Caucasian
models and emphasizing a product's similarity with imported brands are part of our daily lives.

The tendency of media to produce escapist movies, soap operas, comics, etc., feed th
Filipino's passivity. Rather than confront our poverty and oppression, we fantasize instead. The
propensity to use flashy sets, designer clothes, superstars, and other bongga features
reinforce porma.
Leadership and Role Models. Filipinos look up to their leaders as role models. Political
leaders are the main models, but all other leaders serve as role models as well. Thus, when our
leaders violate the law or show themselves to be self-serving and driven by personal interest--when
there is lack of public accountability--there is a negative impact on the Filipino.
Goals and Strategies for Change
Goals. Based on the strengths and weaknesses of the Filipino, the following goals for
change are proposed. The Filipino should develop:
1. a sense of patriotism and national pride--a genuine love, appreciation, and commitment to the
Philippines and things Filipino;
2. a sense of the common good--the ability to look beyond selfish interests, a sense of justice and a
sense of outrage at its violation;
3. a sense of integrity and accountability--an aversion toward graft and corruption in society and an
avoidance of the practice in one's daily life;
4. the value and habits of discipline and hard work; and
5. the value and habits of self-reflection and analysis, the internalization of spiritual values, and an
emphasis upon essence rather than on form.
General Stategic Principles. In identifying goals for change and developing our capabilities
for their achievement, it is necessary to consider certain general principles:
1. Strategies must be multi-layered and multi-sectoral;
2. Strategies must emphasize change in the power-holders as well as in the masa (people);
3. Strategies should be holistic, emphasizing individual as well as systemic or structural change;
4. The change should involve a critical mass of people;
5. The goals should be divided into small pieces for implementation;
6. Strategies must be connected to the daily life of people; and
7. Strategies must be implemented by an act of the will and involve self-sacrifice.
 Multi-Layered, Multi-Sectoral Strategies. A program of change must adopt strategies that
are multi-layered and multi-sectoral. These layers and sectors could consist of the following: (1) the
government; (2) non-governmental organizations; (3) people or the masa; (4) the family;
(5) educational institutions; (6) religious institutions; and (7) media. Some strategies should target
all sectors of society, while other strategies should focus on particular sectors.

Roles of Power-Holders and the Masa. To ensure that meaningful change will take place,
proposed strategies must emphasize change among power-holders or decision-makers as much as
among the masa. These power-holders and decision-makers hold the key to structures and
systems which in most cases need to be set up first before change can take place. Unless the
people on top change, it will be difficult to expect real change. On the other hand, as
the masa constitute the greater majority of Philippine society, any program for change will have to
target this critical mass. Their active participation and support are indispensable components of our
strategies.
Holistic, Individual and Systemic/Structural Change. Our approach to change should be
holistic in that our strategies should facilitate individual as well as systemic or structural change.
Individual conversion or renewal, as manifested in changed values, attitudes, habits and behavior,
is a prerequisite to social change. However, individual conversion or renewal needs to be
complemented and reinforced by a corresponding systemic or structural transformation. Otherwise,
the effect of solely individual renewal would be shallow and limited, especially since many systems
and structures in Philippine society themselves are the stumbling blocks to individual renewal.
Critical Mass or Network of Change Initiators. The initiators of change should not be a few
individuals, but a critical mass or network of people highly committed to the goals of change. Aside
from initiating change, the role of the critical mass or network of people is to follow through with
persistence on the implementation of these strategies. This prevents ningas cogon from setting in.
Restricted or "Bite-Size" Goals. Strategies for change must be worked on one goal at a time,
with everyone's effort concentrated on the goal chosen for that designated time period. The goals
must be cut up into bite-size, realistic pieces, for easier management.
Goals Related to People's Lives. Change strategies must be connected to our daily lives,
particularly to our economic activities, businesses, professions, occupations and jobs. Value
change must likewise address matters close to our hearts, that is, activities and affairs of our
families and communities from which change must start.
Act of the Will and Self-Sacrifice. The implementation of these strategies must be an act of
the will. If we want change, kailangang kayanin natin. We must be ready for tremendous sacrifice--
starting with ourselves.
Specific Strategies
A. For Developing Patriotism, and National Pride:
1. Ideology. We need a national ideology that can summon all our resources for the task of lifting
national morale, pride and productivity.
2. History.
 a. We have to write and teach our true history; history books must be rewritten from our
perspective.
b. We should include in our education those aspects of the past that are still preserved by
cultural communities. The culture and traditions of these minorities should be protected and
given importance.
c. We can start instilling national pride by nurturing community pride first. This can be done
by setting up community museums where materials reflecting of local history are displayed:
old folk re-telling our town or community history in public gatherings; reviving local cultural
groups; tracing family trees; having family reunions, etc.
3. Languages. We ought to use Filipino in our cultural and intellectual life. Some of our universities
and other institutions have started doing this; the practice should be continued and expanded.
4. Education.
a. We must push for the Filipinization of the entire educational system.
b. We must have value formation in the school curriculum and teach pride in being a
Filipino.
c. Literature should be used to instill national pride.
5. Trade and Industry. We should support the "Buy Filipino" movement by:
a. Identifying and making known the centers of product excellence in the Philippines; and
dispersing economic activities based on local product expertise and indigenous materials
(i.e., industries should be developed in the respective regions where the required skills and
resources already abound).
b. Having a big brother-small brother relationship between companies, where big companies
could help related companies improve the quality of their products. The government could
also act as a big brother helping these small companies improve the quality of their output.
c. Having an "order-regalo" or "order-pasalubong" (gift) project which targets Filipinos
abroad. This could be initiated by both the government and businessmen.
d. Promoting a "Sariling Atin" day when everybody would wear and use Filipino clothes and
products only.
6. Media/Advertising.
a. We can coordinate with KBP, PANA and other media agencies in such projects as the
following:
- Giving awards or other incentives to advertisements that promote national pride and
patriotism. Conversely, giving "kalabasa" awards or denying incentives to advertisements
that promote colonial mentality.
- Prohibiting the use of foreign models in advertisements.
 b. We can organize contests (i.e., oratorical, story, drama, essay, etc.) about love for
country, and about what Filipinos like about their country or their countrymen. These stories,
dramas, essays, and the like can then be made into teaching materials for our schools.
c. We need to use media programs (such as comics and programs in the various dialects)
that will reach with the masa or great majority of people. For instance, R. Constantino's,
"How to Decolonize the Filipino Mind", could be written in comics form in the various
dialects.

7. Government.
a. The leadership in the executive, legislative and judicial branches of the government
should be models of positive Filipino traits.
b. In order to promote national unity and national integration, the government must attempt a
long-range strategy for democratic transformation in Philippine politics.
c. The government must continue and even increase its present efforts to have a more
independent economic strategy: it must diversify its sources of assistance and not merely
rely on the U.S. or on any other foreign nation.
B. Developing a Sense of the Common Good:
1. Government.
a. The government needs to decentralize its power and give more voice and greater
participation to people at the grassroots.
b. Government must widen democratic space, establish political pluralism, and protect and
support the forces working for change (e.g., change agents from cause-oriented groups,
non-governmental organizations and people's organizations) instead of repressing them.
c. The government should bring basic services to the depressed areas in a participatory
manner, giving the local people a more active role in administering and enhancing such
services.
2. Non-governmental organizations.
a. The role of our cause-oriented groups or non-governmental organizations should be both
crusading or consciousness-raising and problem solving. Our community groups or people's
organizations can conduct their own projects with the support of non-governmental
organizations, religious groups and the government, and empower themselves in the
process.
b. Our social institutions need to be mobilized towards a common purpose and shared
priorities with the government and the Philippine society as a whole.
c. Our community groups, people's organizations and non-governmental organizations could
promote public forums and discussions wherein pressing national concerns like land reform,
graft and corruption, unemployment, etc., can be discussed. The government should
participate in these fora and religious should be encouraged to do the same.
 d. We can form small study groups in our schools, work places or communities. Through
these groups, we can study the various ways by which we can initiate change in our spheres
of influence and encourage each other to become role models for our family, peers, and
community.
3. Religious Organizations/Movements.
a. Religious family movements, like Marriage Encounter or the Christian Family Movement,
can be encouraged to reach out to the poor who are the least prepared for family life.
Programs for the poor should be coordinated with the government and religious institutions.
b. The charismatic, cursillo, and born-again movements should be encouraged to concretize
spiritual doctrines by reaching out to the poor and contributing to nation-building.
4. Education.
a. Communization of our schools should be developed to give a common experience to
students and to foster greater equality in society.
b. Social orientation courses in our schools should be not only for socialization activities, but
also for socially-oriented and socially-relevant activities.
C. For Developing Integrity and Accountability:
1. Government Leadership Structure/Systems
a. Our top government officials should serve as models for other workers in the lower
echelons of the bureaucracy.
b. Since our leaders are too insulated from what is actually happening at the bottom, they
need to be exposed to the realities of social life.
c. The government needs to implement comprehensive, concrete and operational measures
to minimize graft and corruption. These measures must be given teeth by establishing
groups or institutions vested with police power.
d. There is a need for a more efficient bureaucracy, with a minimum of red tape. The
government should systematize information dissemination. For instance, the public should
be informed how a government agency administers its services. This and other similar
strategies could minimize "fixers" and lessen graft and corruption.
e. A system of reinforcing desirable behavior must be formulated by the government
bureaucracy. For example, honest policemen and industrious Metro Aides can be given
appropriate recognition, awards, or other incentives.
2. Education/Training.
a. The career executive program given to government officials should be extended, that is, a
similar program should be drawn up for all government employees. The program can be a
training package called "Public Service".
b. Our government employees should be given value clarification seminars.
D. For Developing Discipline and Hard Work
1. In both government and private institutions, we need to:
a. provide positive controls; keep performance records; and maintain reward and recognition
systems; and
b. get rid of useless, meaningless rules.
2. We ought to reward excellence in whatever Filipinos do by:
a. identifying and making known centers of excellence in the Philippines;
b. looking for, documenting and publicizing success or excellence stories (e.g., local
entrepreneurs who have succeeded) using various media;
c. recognizing and encouraging advertisements that convey the value of excellence and
depict positive Filipino values; and
d. using media (such as comics, radio programs in the various dialects), that will
communicate to the masa in order to depict positive Filipino values, and giving awards to
radio, TV programs, and movies that convey these values.

E. For Developing Self-reflection and Analysis

1. Religion/Religious Movements. The teaching of religion or catechism should be concrete,
integrated to daily life, and socially relevant. Our religious movements should not only engage in
"spiritual" activities but should specifically reach out to the poor and needy.
2. Small Groups/NGO's.
a. We can start a movement of small groups (e.g., community groups, work groups, and
parish groups) where people can begin to reflect on their situation and that of the country.
b. Some big companies are already inculcating the habit of observation-action-reflection
through training programs that use experiential methods. These efforts should be expanded.
Specifically, the training programs could be re-designed for use in other contexts, such as in
the small groups mentioned in the preceding paragraph.
3. Government Leadership.
a. We should encourage "conversion" at the top level, as manifested in public "repentance"
or confession.
b. The Department of Education, Culture and Sports (DECS) and private learning institutions
should inculcate the value and habit of self-reflection starting from childhood. Educational
methods should not focus on rote learning, but should emphasize reflection and analysis.
c. We can conduct a "national reflection weekend" for officials and employees in all levels
and branches of the government. During this weekend, government personnel can repeat
the process of the Moral Recovery project, that is, reflect on Filipino traits, then contemplate
goals for strengthening the positive traits and changing the negative traits; or a commission
or similar unit can go to regional and provincial levels to help the regional and provincial
government officials and employees in their reflection.
 d. We can strengthen the research arms of government agencies by linking them with
universities and non-governmental organizations.

SUMMATIVE ASSESSMENT

Summative assessment can be accessed through MS Teams LMS as scheduled by the

college.

SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS

 https://oregonstate.edu/instruct/ed416/PP2.html
 https://www.britannica.com/topic/philosophy-of-education
 https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.3102/00346543028001005?journalCode=rera
 http://factsanddetails.com/southeast-asia/Philippines/sub5_6c/entry-3867.html
UNIT 2
Objectives:
At the end of the lesson, you will be able to:
1. Identify concepts according to code of ethics for teachers;
2. Enumerate the global issues and elaborate the solutions to mitigate its impact;
3. Explain possible reasons for each decision relative to code of ethics for teachers; and
4. Give specific remarks on situations relative to organizational leadership.

Input 1

Global Issues that Concern Schools and Society

Top Ten Global Issue and How They Can be Addressed

Climate Change
Addressing climate change
Source: https://www.epa.ie/climate/communicatingclimatescience/whatisclimatechange/
addresssingclimatechange/#:~:text=Addressing%20climate%20change%20requires
%20two,climatic%20stimuli%20or%20their%20effects

Addressing climate change requires two types of responses: mitigation (defined as an

anthropogenic intervention to reduce anthropogenic forcing of the climate system (IPCC, 2007))
and adaptation (defined as: the “adjustment in natural or human systems in response to actual or
expected climatic stimuli or their effects that moderates harm or exploits beneficial opportunities”
(IPCC, 2007).

The European Union’s (EU) agreed objective is to limit global temperature increase to less
than 2°C compared with pre-industrial levels – beyond this threshold irreversible changes, such as
the breakdown of the Greenland and/or West Antarctic ice sheets, become more likely. Ireland is
committed to reducing its greenhouse gas emissions under the Kyoto Protocol. This is an
international agreement designed to reduce greenhouse gas emissions in developed countries by
achieving national emission targets. Further information on emission targets can be found here.

Even if the world succeeds in limiting and then reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions,
our planet will take time to recover from the greenhouse gases already in the atmosphere. Thus we
will be faced with the impact of climate change for at least the next 50 years. We need therefore to
take measures to adapt. The UNFCCC stipulates that every effort must be made to adopt national
or regional adaptation strategies and has established processes under the Buenos Aires Plan of
Action and the Nairobi Work Programme to advance work in this area.

The EU White Paper (CEC, 2009) on adapting to climate change sets out a framework to
reduce the EU’s vulnerability to the impacts of climate change. The Department of the Environment,
Heritage and Local Government (DEHLG) is committed to developing a National Adaptation
Strategy (NAS). The Strategy will provide a framework for the integration of adaptation issues and
options into decision-making at national and local levels. The EPAs Reseach Programme consists
of three key pillars; Climate, Water and Sustainability. The Research Programme has enabled the
provision of research in support of adaptation planning see Climate Change Research Reports.

Neither adaptation to new climate conditions nor the reduction of emissions alone can
ensure that major negative climate change impacts can be avoided over the coming decades.
Addressing climate change will therefore require planning for sustainable development and
measures to tackle the oncoming impacts of climate change.

Investments over the next two to three decades will have a large impact on opportunities to
achieve required GHG emissions reductions targets and will also reduce the risks of future climate
impacts.

If we hope to combat climate change, concerted efforts will need to be made locally and
internationally by governments, public agencies, businesses, industries, communities and
individuals. Achieving major reductions in the use of fossil fuels is essential if Ireland is to secure
the major cuts being sought in GHG emissions. In addition, improvements in energy efficiency,
coupled with widespread use of alternative energy sources, will also be needed. Sustainable
transport and agricultural practices aimed at reducing emissions are also urgently needed.
Possibilities for development and deployment of low carbon technologies and new technologies
such as carbon capture and storage and management systems will also arise.

Ireland will also need to play its part globally assisting developing countries to address the
impacts of climate change and to establish a sustainable pathway for their development. The EPA
is actively engaged in national and international processes to address climate change.

Pollution
Source: https://www.britannica.com/explore/savingearth/pollution-overview

Pollution, also called environmental pollution, the addition of any substance (solid, liquid,
or gas) or any form of energy (such as heat, sound, or radioactivity) to the environment at a rate
faster than it can be dispersed, diluted, decomposed, recycled, or stored in some harmless form.
The major kinds of pollution, usually classified by environment, are air pollution, water pollution,
and land pollution. Modern society is also concerned about specific types of pollutants, such
as noise pollution, light pollution, and plastic pollution. Pollution of all kinds can have negative
effects on the environment and wildlife and often impacts human health and well-being.
History of pollution
Although environmental pollution can be caused by natural events such as forest fires and
active volcanoes, use of the word pollution generally implies that the contaminants have an
anthropogenic source—that is, a source created by human activities. Pollution has accompanied
humankind ever since groups of people first congregated and remained for a long time in any one
place. Indeed, ancient human settlements are frequently recognized by their wastes—shell
mounds and rubble heaps, for instance. Pollution was not a serious problem as long as there was
enough space available for each individual or group. However, with the establishment of permanent
settlements by great numbers of people, pollution became a problem, and it has remained one ever
since.

By the middle of the 20th century, an awareness of the need to protect air, water, and land
environments from pollution had developed among the general public.

Cities of ancient times were often noxious places, fouled by human wastes and debris.
Beginning about 1000 CE, the use of coal for fuel caused considerable air pollution, and the
conversion of coal to coke for iron smelting beginning in the 17th century exacerbated the problem.
In Europe, from the Middle Ages well into the early modern era, unsanitary urban conditions
favoured the outbreak of population-decimating epidemics of disease,
from plague to cholera and typhoid fever. Through the 19th century, water and air pollution and the
accumulation of solid wastes were largely problems of congested urban areas. But, with the rapid
spread of industrialization and the growth of the human population to unprecedented levels,
pollution became a universal problem.

By the middle of the 20th century, an awareness of the need to protect air, water, and land
environments from pollution had developed among the general public. In particular, the publication
in 1962 of Rachel Carson’s book Silent Spring focused attention on environmental damage caused
by improper use of pesticides such as DDT and other persistent chemicals that accumulate in
the food chain and disrupt the natural balance of ecosystems on a wide scale. In response, major
pieces of environmental legislation, such as the Clean Air Act (1970) and the Clean Water
Act (1972; United States), were passed in many countries to control and mitigate environmental
pollution.
Pollution control

The presence of environmental pollution raises the issue of pollution control. Great efforts
are made to limit the release of harmful substances into the environment through air pollution
control, wastewater treatment, solid-waste management, hazardous-waste management,
and recycling. Unfortunately, attempts at pollution control are often surpassed by the scale of the
problem, especially in less-developed countries. Noxious levels of air pollution are common in many
large cities, where particulates and gases from transportation, heating,
and manufacturing accumulate and linger. The problem of plastic pollution on land and in the
oceans has only grown as the use of single-use plastics has burgeoned worldwide. In
addition, greenhouse gas emissions, such as methane and carbon dioxide, continue to drive global
warming and pose a great threat to biodiversity and public health.

Violence
Source: https://www.saferspaces.org.za/understand/entry/what-is-violence#:~:text=By%20looking
%20more%20closely%20at,Psychological%20violence
Introduction
Violence is a global phenomenon resulting in the deaths of more than 1.6 million people
each year, making it one of the leading causes of death worldwide. While no country is untouched
by violence, the vast majority of its resultant deaths occur in low- to middle-income countries, many
of which are stricken with internal conflicts. However, it should be kept in mind that violent deaths
cannot simply be attributed to war, and more than 80% of such deaths occur outside of armed
conflicts.

Violence has also shown to be an incredibly costly issue, and in 2015 alone the total impact
of violence to the world economy was estimated at $13.6 trillion – a figure which is equivalent to
13.3% of world GDP.

Violence has become increasingly interpersonal and tied in with criminal activity, particularly
in urban areas. According to the UN's Global Study on Homicide, intentional homicide was the
cause of the deaths of almost half a million people across the world in 2012. It is also important to
note that deaths only constitute a part of the health and social burden which can be attributed to
violence, which also results in non-fatal, sexual and psychological abuse. In addition, violence
places a heavy burden on health and justice systems, social welfare services, and the economy of
communities.

A Societal Challenge
High levels of violence and crime in regions such as Southern Africa are often the symptoms
of underlying social, economic and political challenges such as social inequality, rapid urbanisation,
poverty, unemployment and institutional shortcomings.

The adverse effects of violence on a country are harmful not only to its citizens, but the
wellbeing of the community and country as a whole. In many countries, the impact of violence has
significantly and directly reduced economic growth, and poses an obstacle in reducing poverty,
while violence also causes profound psychological and physical trauma, reducing the quality of life
for all of society.

Although violence is often seen and responded to as an inevitable part of the human
condition, such assumptions are shifting, focus is broadening, and an increased emphasis is being
placed on prevention of violent behaviour and consequences.

In order for prevention efforts to be successful, there needs to be an increase in our

understanding of this complex phenomenon. Moral codes may vary vastly throughout the wold,
making it more of a challenge to address the often sensitive topic of violence, its causes and its
consequences, however some form of shared understanding needs to be reached in order to
protect human life and dignity effectively.

Defining violence
As a result of violence being such a complex phenomenon, there is no clear definition for it.
Therefore, it is often understood differently by different people in different contexts - such as those
from different countries, cultures, or belief systems. While no standard definition of violence has
been established, it is important, when developing effective prevention strategies, to have a clear
understanding of violence and the context in which it occurs. In its 2002 World Report on Violence
and Health, the World Health Organisation (WHO) proposes a definition of violence that has since
become a working term for many international and South African organisations working in the field:
WHO definition of violence
“The intentional use of physical force or power, threatened or actual, against oneself,
another person, or against a group or community, that either results in or has a high likelihood of
resulting in injury, death, psychological harm, maldevelopment or deprivation.”

Categories and Types of Violence

On the basis of the WHO’s definition of violence, an elaborate “typology of violence” has
been developed that characterises different categories and types of violence, as well as the links
between them (allowing for a holistic approach to intervention). It divides violence into three
broad categories according to who the perpetrators and victims are of violent acts:
Self-directed violence refers to violent acts a person inflicts upon him- or herself, and includes self-
abuse (such as self-mutilation) and suicidal behaviour (including suicidal thoughts, as well as
attempted and completed suicide). By looking more closely at the nature of acts of violence, these
three categories can be further divided into four, more specific, types of violence:

Physical violence is the intentional use of physical force, used with the potential for causing
harm, injury, disability or death. This includes, but is not limited to: scratching, pushing, shoving,
grabbing, biting, choking, shaking, slapping, punching, hitting, burning, use of a weapon, and use of
restraint or one’s body against another person.

This type of violence does not only lead to physical harm, but can also have severe negative
psychological effects – for example, if a child is frequently a victim of physical violence at home, he
or she can suffer from mental health problems and be traumatised as a consequence of this
victimisation.

These four types of violence can occur in each of the previously mentioned broad
categories, and their subcategories (except for self-directed violence). The graphic below illustrates
these links between types of violence and the nature of violent acts. Horizontally the graphic shows
who is affected, while vertically it describes how they are potentially affected.
 This typology of violence provides a useful framework for understanding the complex
patterns of violence in the lives of individuals, families and communities. It captures the nature of
violent acts, the relevance of the setting, the relationship between the perpetrator and the victim,
and – in the case of collective violence – possible motivations for the violence. One should keep in
mind that this is just a model and in reality the dividing lines between the types or nature of violence
are not always this clear - they can easily overlap, and influence or reinforce each other.

Direct and indirect (structural) violence

The typology of violence clearly distinguishes between perpetrators of violence across
different levels. There are situations, however, when violence cannot be attributed to a specific
actor but rather to structures put in place that exert violence (in any of its forms) on individuals or
communities. The system of apartheid and its overt discrimination against a large part of the South
African population is one example.

In this context, Norwegian sociologist Johan Galtung provides a useful distinction:

 Direct violence – this is where an actor or perpetrator can clearly be identified. All forms of
self-directed violence and interpersonal violence, as well as many forms of collective
violence, can also be understood as direct violence
 Indirect or structural violence – this is where no direct actor exists. Violence is rather built
into the structures, appearing as unequal power relations and, consequently, as unequal
opportunities.

Structural violence exists when certain groups, classes, genders or nationalities have
privileged access to goods, resources and opportunities over others, and when this unequal
advantage is built into the social, political and economic systems that govern their lives.

Structural violence requires both political and social change in order to transform the
existing, discriminatory structures and patterns that govern the lives of citizens.

Violence and crime: Drawing a distinction

The terms “violence” and “crime” are often closely linked and used interchangeably. They
should, however, not be confused. Some types of crime are violent as per definition (such as armed
crime or contact crimes, including murder, assault and rape), while other crimes involve no direct
violence at all (such as tax evasion or illicit drug use). Similarly, not all types of violence are
criminal, such as the previously mentioned structural violence, or many forms of psychological
violence.

In other words, not every case of violence is a crime, and not every crime is violent.
Therefore, it is important to distinguish between violence and crime as two different terms that can
overlap each other (and often do), but need not necessarily do so.

Example
Smacking a woman or child is a violent act. However, whether acts of corporal punishment
are seen as a criminal offence varies according to a country's law and social attitudes towards
women and children.

In some countries, laws classify corporal punishment as a criminal act. While in many other
countries, it is not a crime and justified as a necessary disciplinary measure. Whether an act is
classified as a crime or not depends on the laws of a country. Crime can therefore be defined as a
violation of the law and an act of deviance from established rules, or a non-commission of an action
that is required by law.

Violence, on the other hand, is an act of physical aggression that in most cases results in
harm. Whether a violent act is considered a crime changes from country to country, and it might
change over time, as countries adapt their laws due to changing political systems and social values.
Understanding the difference between these two concepts is important in responding appropriately
and adopting effective prevention strategies.

Security and Well Being

WELL-BEING IS SAFETY
Source: http://sharedsafety.us/wellbeing-is-safety/

The strongest communities are the safest communities. When a community is well, it can be
a powerful, resilient force against crime. Well-being means people are living in conditions that
promote mental and physical health, connectedness and resilience. They have dignity and the
resources to reach their full potential and thrive. Measuring safety with crime data alone misses the
opportunity to measure the most important public health strategy available: improving well-being. By
defining well-being and recognizing the barriers to achieving it, we can invest in prevention scaled
to the community need and foster the conditions needed to truly achieve safety.

SHARED SAFETYWELL-BEING IS SAFETY

1. SAFETY
Define Well-Being for Your Community
There can be no public safety without community well-being. But what does it mean for a
community to be well?
Why do we need it?

Public safety strategies that focus primarily on responding to crime fail to address the many
other, often unreported, factors that make communities unsafe and unwell, such as exposure to
chronic violence and early childhood trauma.
How does it help?

Defining community well-being offers a baseline for measuring the impact of safety
strategies. When the entire community is engaged in defining well-being, the result is more likely to
be inclusive and accountable to the realities, disparities and priorities of day-to-day life. A definition
of well-being may include access to healthcare, affordable housing, stable employment, education
and parental supports.

2. SAFETY
Identify Gaps in Community Well-Being
Only when we know where the holes and barriers are to well-being, can we begin to address
them.

Why do we need it?

If we fail to analyze gaps in our local infrastructure, we will not know where to prioritize our
attention and we run the risk of expending resources on the wrong things.
How does it help?
 By mapping the local system, we can identify underserved people or groups, or conversely,
those who are receiving services disproportionate to their needs. This analysis can help prioritize
and coordinate limited resources and identify the most cost-efficient approaches, especially for
populations that are more likely to fall between the cracks, such as immigrants, young people of
color and victims of domestic or other forms of intimate partner or family violence.

Measure Safety Through Well-Being Indicators

Crime rates alone won’t tell you whether your community is safe. A better yardstick is finding
ways to gauge your community’s overall well-being.

Why do we need it?

Defining safety as having low crime rates fails to account for myriad ways individuals and
communities are vulnerable to harm that have more to do with well-being. Well-being indicators
measure the extent to which a community has access to supports that protect them from harm,
such as preventive healthcare, affordable housing, employment and quality education.

How does it help?

There is a saying that “what gets measured, gets done.” A community’s well-being is the
best measure of safety because it takes into account the major drivers of crime as well as the
forces and conditions that help communities build resilience.

Lack of Education

Lack of Education: Causes, Effects & Solutions

by: Andreas
https://environmental-conscience.com/lack-of-education-causes-effects-solutions/

“Lack of education, old age, bad health or discrimination – these are causes of poverty, and
the way to attack it is to go to the root.” Robert Kennedy, Politician

A lack of education can be defined as a state where people have a below-average level of
common knowledge about basic things that they would urgently need in their daily life.mFor
instance, this could include basic knowledge in math, writing, spelling, etc. Especially in poor
developing countries, educational inequality is quite prevalent. A lack of education can have severe
adverse effects. In this article, the causes, effects and solutions for a lack of education are
examined in detail.

Poverty
Poverty can be regarded as a big cause of a lack of education and for educational
inequality. Children from poor families often do not have access to proper education since it is
simply too expensive for their families to send them to school.
Moreover, these children also often have to work instead of attending school since they
have to contribute to the family income in order to support their family members financially.

Orphanism
 Orphans are at greater risk to suffer from a lack of education compared to “normal” kids
since they often have no one who takes care of them. This could lead to financial trouble since it is
quite hard to earn enough money to cover your expenses while you are still a kid.

In turn, this may result in a state where these children have to work quite a lot to earn
enough money to survive. Thus, these orphans will have no time to attend school since they need
all their time to work.

Homelessness
If you grow up in a family with homeless parents, chances are that you will not get proper
education since your parents will not have sufficient money to send you to school and they might
not even care too much since they often have other problems like drug addiction and you may
therefore be at great risk to be neglected. Thus, growing up in a family with homeless parents may
also contribute to educational inequality.

Parenting

Parenting is a big factor when it comes to a lack of education. The more your parents care
about you, the less likely it is that you end up with a low level of education. However, in some
cases, parents just do not know better.

They may themselves have a low level of education and think that this education level is
enough for a happy life. Therefore, they may lead you on the same education path which may lead
to a lack of education for you.

Substance abuse
The abuse of substances of all sorts can also contribute to a lack of education. If you
consume drugs on a regular basis, chances are that you become unreliable and you may also
refrain from attending school too often.

Thus, substance abuse at a young age may also increase educational inequality since
children who consume drugs will often prioritize substance consumption over school and their
education levels are likely to suffer due to that.

Bad company
If you hang out with family members or friends who are doing drugs or other illegal stuff,
chances are that you get influenced by these people and they may eventually drag you down in life.
You may also start to consume substances or skip school which may translate into a lack of
education in later stages.

Laziness
Laziness may also be a factor when it comes to educational inequality. Some people have a
higher motivation to learn and develop themselves than others.

People who are not gifted with this drive to learn and progress may have a hard time in
school since they may have no motivation to get good grades in order to be able to attend university
later.
This may also lead to a serious lack of education if the will to learn is extremely limited.

Cultural factors
 In some cultures, it is also quite common that people often only get quite basic education.
These cultures often rely on certain beliefs and may not value advanced education enough to send
their children to university or other educational institutions.

Religion
Religion can also play a big role in the level of education. Religious families often live quite
conservative, which often makes it hard for children to get proper education since the religious
beliefs of parents may not be in line with the education goal.

This may be especially true for girls since they are often supposed to stay at home and to
cook and do the household instead of getting proper education and start a career.

Conflicts
Conflicts can also be a big cause of a lack of education. In regions where conflicts are
common, people simply feel that the protection of their life is more important than sending their kids
to school.

Moreover, due to conflicts, many people have to leave their homes and migrate to other
countries to save their life. Thus, children who are suffering from these adverse conditions are likely
not be able to get proper education due to conflicts.

Natural disasters
Natural disasters may also play a role when it comes to a lack of education. When regions
get hit by natural disasters like tsunamis or other catastrophes, people living in these regions will
suffer from vast destruction of public infrastructure.

They may also suffer from serious health issues due to these natural disasters. Under these
horrible conditions, it will be quite hard for children to get proper education since schools and other
educational facilities may have been destroyed.

Insufficient social aid

In many countries, there is a lack of or only insufficient social aid and welfare. If people
become unemployed, they may not get any financial subsidies from the government.

Imagine you have children and lose your job. Now, you will likely not be able to afford the
tuition fees for your kids anymore which may lead to a lack of education for your children.

Insufficient educational infrastructure

In some regions, the overall educational infrastructure is quite bad. This is especially true for
rural areas. People who live in these regions often have to bring their children to the next school.

However, many poor people do not even have a car. This will likely lead to a lack of
education for their children since these children may not be able to attend school simply due to the
long distance.

Teacher gaps
Some regions may also suffer from a shortage of teachers. In those regions, classes are
often quite big and teachers will not be able to respond to every school kid individually.
 This may in turn lead to educational inequality since some children learn faster than others.
Children who learn quite slow may be left behind and their overall education level may significantly
suffer due to that.

Low qualification levels of teachers

Another issue related to a lack of education may be an insufficient qualification of teachers.
If teachers have no high level of education, chances are that school kids will also have a low level
of education when they finish school since their teachers have simply not been able to teach them
on a high level.

Lack of learning materials

Especially in poor developing countries, children also often suffer from a lack of learning
materials. If children do not have the appropriate books or other facilities to learn, chances are that
their level of education will suffer.

Gender discrimination
Although the tolerance towards women and girls who want to attend school has increased
over the past decades, there are still many countries in which women are meant to stay at home
and do the household instead of getting proper education and to work in a normal job.

This gender discrimination will lead to a lack of education for many girls since their families
may not want them to attend school.

Disabilities
Children who suffer from disabilities, especially in poor countries, are likely to get only
insufficient education since parents will often not have enough money to send all of their kids to
school.

These parents will often choose a family member who has the best chances to succeed in
school in order to secure the family income. Thus, children with disabilities will rather stay at home
instead of attending school.

Effects of Educational Inequality

Poverty
Many studies have shown that poverty and a lack of education are strongly positively
correlated. Since poor families may not be able to send their kids to school, these children may
suffer from significant educational inequality.

However, not only is poverty a cause for a low level of education, it can also be an effect of
insufficient education since a bad education will often translate into an increased probability for
unemployment and low salaries.

Unemployment
A low level of education increases the risk of unemployment dramatically. If you apply for a
job, chances are that your education level will be screened by companies. If you do not have a
sufficiently high level of education, you will likely not get the job.

Moreover, if you have a low education level and become unemployed, you will also have a
hard time to find another suitable job.
Drugs
A low level of education may also increase the probability of drug addiction. These people
may not be aware of the consequences of drug abuse and may only recognize them when it is
already too late.

Moreover, due to unemployment or other adverse events in their life, people with low levels
of education may be at greater risk to consume drugs since they simply see no bright future for
themselves and want to mask their bad feelings with the high of drugs.

Homelessness
Homelessness can also be a cause due to a lack of education. If people lose their job and
are not able to pay for their rent anymore, they may be at risk of becoming homeless. Since the
chances for unemployment increases with a low level of education, so does the probability of
homelessness.

Illegal activities
If people are not able to find a job due to their low level of education, chances are that these
people are willing to engage in criminal actions in order to make their living.

Imagine you try hard to find a job but it simply doesn’t work out and you have to supply for
your children. It would be quite attractive to earn substantial money by engaging in criminal actions,
wouldn’t it?

Jail
Since the probability to engage in criminal activities increases due to a low level of
education, so does the chance to go to jail. If you engage in illegal things, you will be caught sooner
or later and may end up in prison. Thus, educational inequality may also increase the chances to go
to jail, especially for poor people.

Social isolation
A lack of education may also lead to social isolation since people who only have low levels
of education may not be able to follow conversations or to take part in mentally demanding
activities.

Therefore, they may lose social contacts and may end up in social isolation. Moreover, since
a lack of education may also translate into poverty, these people may also not be able to afford
social activities which in turn may lead to social isolation.

Low salary
Low levels of education also often imply a low salary since the wage for a job is often
determined by demand and supply of skills. If workers only have low skill levels, they are easily
exploitable by companies which want to maximize profits and therefore will pay their workers only a
quite low salary.

Bad working conditions

Since people with a low level of education often do not have many other job options, they
may be exploited by firms and may suffer from quite bad working conditions. This may include
working quite long hours or working under insecure conditions.

Insufficient health insurance

 A lack of education and the resulting low income may also often lead to insufficient health
insurance. Many people will simply not be able to afford health insurance due to their low salary.

In case of severe health issues, they may suffer from serious long-term consequential
effects since they are often not able to afford proper medical treatment due to their lack of health
insurance.

Dependence
Educational inequality can also lead to significant dependence of all sorts. If you only have a
low level of education, chances are that you will be dependent on financial or other support in order
to be able to carry out important tasks in your daily life.

Dependence in any form will in most cases not turn out favorable for the dependent person
in life since they give away the leverage to other people which may have the power to treat the
dependent persons quite bad.

Radicalization
People who only have low levels of education may also be easier to recruit for radical
movements. This is due to the fact that these people may not be able to identify the arguments
made by fundamentalists as flawed and may therefore be willing to join these organizations, even if
these arguments do not make sense at all from an objective perspective.

Poor housing conditions

A lack of education may also contribute to poor housing conditions since it increases the risk
of poverty. Poor people may not be able to afford rent in a nice neighborhood and may live in bad
neighborhoods which may lead to low quality of life and insecurity for these people.

Solutions for a Lack of Education

Better educational infrastructure

Governments and municipalities should try to provide better educational infrastructure so
that it is easier for the local population to attend school.

This means that it has to be assured that the next school is not many miles away but rather
within walking distance so that also children of poor families who do not own a car can attend
school on a regular basis.

Moreover, building an online course infrastructure may be another great way to improve the
overall education levels of the general public.

Financial support for poor families

It is also crucial to support poor families with financial subsidies so that their kids are able to
attend school. This is quite important to fight a lack of education since

poverty is a main cause why children are not able to go to school. By supporting poor families,
educational inequality could be fought to a certain extent.

Raise awareness on the importance of education

 Many people might not even be aware of what a lack of education really means for their
children. Parents may believe that a basic education taught at home is sufficient to succeed in life
since they do not know better.

However, with our technological progress, it is likely that education will be more important
than ever to succeed in our nowadays job market.

More tolerance regarding education

It is also crucial that we change the mind of people in a way that they regard education as a
valuable thing. In some cultures, education is not regarded as important at all and some parents
even do not want their kids to become educated since they fear that their kids will leave them if they
give them too many options in life.

Minimum wages
An indirect way to fight low education levels may be by setting or even increasing minimum
wages. The introduction of minimum wages may likely decrease the level of poverty, which may in
turn translate into better chances for children to be able to attend school.

Increase in quality regarding social security

Better social security schemes are also crucial to fight a lack of education. It has to be
assured that everyone gets basic aid in case he or she becomes unemployed. This should also
include financial support for children to send them to school, even if their parents are unemployed.

By setting up more sophisticated social security schemes, the access of children to proper
education could be improved.

Improvements in health insurance

Educational inequality could also be fought by introducing better health insurance schemes.
People who lack proper health insurance may be at great risk to suffer from severe long-term
damages related to the absence of medical treatment in case of illness.

This in turn may lead to a lack of education for their children since these persons may not be
able to work anymore and will therefore likely not be able to pay for the tuition fees for their children.

Support for children from difficult family conditions

Children who experience violence at home may also be at greater risk to suffer from
significant lacks of education since they may become mentally sick which may distract them to learn
and progress.

Moreover, their parents may not even care at all about their children’s education which may
further exacerbate the issue.

Improve quality of teachers

In order to improve the overall education levels, we also have to make sure that the quality
of the teachers is sufficient. If the education of teachers is quite low, chances are that also the
education levels of school kids will suffer since these teachers will not be able to teach sufficiently
advanced things.

Close teacher gaps

 In regions where teacher gaps are an issue, local authorities should try to recruit more
teachers so that children get a better individual education which may improve their overall
education level and therefore may mitigate the problem of educational inequality.

Improve access to education for girls and women

In countries and regions where girls and women are still discriminated against due to their
gender, it is crucial to raise the awareness that girls are equally important compared to boys when it
comes to the supply with proper education.

By doing so, the value systems in these regions may change and girls may get better
access to educational facilities.

Unemployment

Unemployment Solutions and What's Most Cost-Effective

BY KIMBERLY AMADEO Updated March 25, 2020
Source

The solution for unemployment is, of course, to create new jobs. In 2016, 50,000 to 110,00
jobs per month needed to be created to prevent the unemployment level from rising. When
unemployment creeps above 6% to 7% and stays there, it means the economy can't create enough
new jobs. That's when the government steps in.2

For historical data on U.S. unemployment trends, the Bureau of Labor Statistics publishes
the unemployment rate by year.3 It reports the annual percentage of the unemployed in the labor
force, as far back as 1949. It also indicates the success or failure
of the fiscal and monetary policies through the years, since they affect the rate of unemployment.

Monetary Policy
The first solution is expansionary monetary policy from the Federal Reserve. It's powerful,
quick, and effective. Lower interest rates make it easier for families to borrow what they need. That
includes expensive items like cars, homes, and consumer electronics. It stimulates enough demand
to put the economy back on track. Low interest rates also allow businesses to borrow for less. That
gives them the financial capital to hire enough workers to meet rising demand.5

Fiscal Policy
If the recession is really severe, then monetary policy might not be enough on its own.
That's when fiscal policy is needed. The government must either cut taxes or increase spending to
stimulate the economy. An expansionary fiscal policy is slower than monetary policy to get started.
It takes time for Congress and the president to agree on the next steps. But it can be more effective
once executed. It also provides much-needed confidence that the government will turn things
around. Confidence is crucial for convincing people to spend now for a better future.6

Cutting taxes works like lowering interest rates. Both give businesses and consumers more
money to spend. That increases demand. It gives businesses more cash to invest and hire more
workers.
 Government spending can take the form of jobs programs. The government hires
employees directly. It also contracts with companies to build things and provide services.7 It
provides consumers with the cash they need to buy more products.8

The Most Cost-Effective Solution

Dollar for dollar, what's the best investment that creates the most jobs? A University of
Massachusetts Amherst study found that building mass transit is the most cost-effective solution.
One billion dollars spent on public transportation creates 19,795 construction jobs.9

The next is unemployment benefits. According to the Center for American Progress,
unemployment insurance led to the creation of 1.6 million jobs on average each quarter from 2008
to 2010.10 The unemployed are most likely to spend every dime they get. They buy basics like
groceries, clothing, and housing. As a result, every dollar spent on unemployment benefits
stimulates $1.64 in demand.11

How can $1 create $1.64? It does it through the ripple effect. For example, a dollar spent at
the grocery store pays for the food. It also helps pay the clerk's salary, the truckers who haul the
food, and even the farmers who grow it. The clerks, truckers, and farmers then buy groceries. This
ripple effect keeps demand strong, creating added benefit. Stores keep their employees to supply
the goods and services the unemployed need. Without these benefits, demand would drop. Then
retailers would need to lay off their workers, increasing unemployment rates.

Unemployment benefits work fast. The government writes a check that goes directly into the
economy. Public works projects take longer to get implemented. The plans must be updated,
workers hired, and supplies delivered.

The third-best unemployment solution is funding education. One billion dollars spent hiring
teachers adds $1.3 billion to the economy. Better-educated people can get higher-paying jobs.
They can buy more things with the higher wages they earn. Each billion also creates 17,687 jobs.
That's much better than defense spending. It only creates 8,555 jobs for the same investment.
Defense is more capital-intensive. Modern defense relies more on drones, F-35s, and aircraft
carriers than soldiers.

The most popular fiscal stimulus is across-the-board income tax cuts. That's not the most
cost-effective, according to the UMass/Amherst study. One billion dollars in cuts creates 10,779
jobs. Workers only spend half the money, which in this case is only $505 million.

As a result, reductions in the tax rate damage the economy. Most people don't realize they
are getting a break until tax time. The tax cut means they pay less in taxes, but they still have to
pay. Psychologically, they are less likely to spend anything extra. It just doesn't feel like a bonus. As
a result, people are more liable to save anything they get or use it to pay down other debts.1213
A more effective tax cut is in businesses' payroll taxes. The best place to give business tax
relief is with small businesses. They produce 65% of all new jobs.14

Fiscal Policy Risks

The downside of fiscal policy is it adds to the budget deficit. That creates more government
debt. As debt approaches 100% of the economy's total output, it slows economic growth. Investors
could lose the desire for that government's debt. This makes interest rates rise, increasing the cost
of borrowing.15
 Advocates of supply-side economics say that, over time, tax cuts boost the economy
enough to replace any lost tax revenue. But according to the Laffer Curve, that's only true if taxes
are over a certain threshold to start with.16

Government Corruption
How do we define corruption?
Source: http://www1.worldbank.org/publicsector/anticorrupt/corruptn/cor02.htm

The term corruption covers a broad range of human actions. To understand its effect on an
economy or a political system, it helps to unbundle the term by identifying specific types of activities
or transactions that might fall within it. In considering its strategy the Bank sought a usable definition
of corruption and then developed a taxonomy of the different forms corruption could take consistent
with that definition. We settled on a straightforward definition—the abuse of public office for private
gain.1 Public office is abused for private gain when an official accepts, solicits, or extorts a bribe. It
is also abused when private agents actively offer bribes to circumvent public policies and processes
for competitive advantage and profit. Public office can also be abused for personal benefit even if
no bribery occurs, through patronage and nepotism, the theft of state assets, or the diversion of
state revenues. This definition is both simple and sufficiently broad to cover most of the corruption
that the Bank encounters, and it is widely used in the literature. Bribery occurs in the private sector,
but bribery in the public sector, offered or extracted, should be the Bank's main concern, since the
Bank lends primarily to governments and supports government policies, programs, and projects.

Bribery. Bribes are one of the main tools of corruption. They can be used by private parties
to "buy" many things provided by central or local governments, or officials may seek bribes in
supplying those things.

Government contracts. Bribes can influence the government's choice of firms to supply
goods, services, and works, as well as the terms of their contracts. Firms may bribe to win a
contract or to ensure that contractual breaches are tolerated.

Government benefits. Bribes can influence the allocation of government benefits, whether
monetary benefits (such as subsidies to enterprises or individuals or access to pensions or
unemployment insurance) or in-kind benefits (such as access to certain schools, medical care, or
stakes in enterprises being privatized).

Lower taxes. Bribes can be used to reduce the amount of taxes or other fees collected by
the government from private parties. Such bribes may be proposed by the tax collector or the
taxpayer. In many countries the tax bill is negotiable.

Licenses. Bribes may be demanded or offered for the issuance of a license that conveys an
exclusive right, such as a land development concession or the exploitation of a natural resource.
Sometimes politicians and bureaucrats deliberately put in place policies that create control rights
which they profit from by selling.

Time. Bribes may be offered to speed up the government's granting of permission to carry
out legal activities, such as company registration or construction permits. Bribes can also be
extorted by the threat of inaction or delay.
 Legal outcomes. Bribes can change the outcome of the legal process as it applies to private
parties, by inducing the government either to ignore illegal activities (such as drug dealing or
pollution) or to favor one party over another in court cases or other legal proceedings.
The government benefits purchased with bribes vary by type and size. Contracts and other benefits
can be enormous (grand or wholesale corruption) or very small (petty or retail corruption), and the
impact of misinterpretation of laws can be dramatic or minor. Grand corruption is often associated
with international business transactions and usually involves politicians as well as bureaucrats. The
bribery transaction may take place entirely outside the country. Petty corruption may be pervasive
throughout the public sector if firms and individuals regularly experience it when they seek a license
or a service from government. The bribes may be retained by individual recipients or pooled in an
elaborate sharing arrangement. The sums involved in grand corruption may make newspaper
headlines around the world, but the aggregate costs of petty corruption, in terms of both money and
economic distortions, may be as great if not greater.

Theft. Theft of state assets by officials charged with their stewardship is also corruption. An
extreme form is the large-scale "spontaneous" privatization of state assets by enterprise managers
and other officials in some transition economies. At the other end of the scale is petty theft of items
such as office equipment and stationery, vehicles, and fuel. The perpetrators of petty theft are
usually middle- and lower-level officials, compensating, in some cases, for inadequate salaries.
Asset control systems are typically weak or nonexistent, as is the institutional capacity to identify
and punish wrongdoers.

Theft of government financial resources is another form of corruption. Officials may pocket
tax revenues or fees (often with the collusion of the payer, in effect combining theft with bribery),
steal cash from treasuries, extend advances to themselves that are never repaid, or draw pay for
fictitious "ghost" workers, a pattern well documented in the reports of audit authorities. In such
cases financial control systems typically have broken down or are neglected by managers.

Political and bureaucratic corruption. Corruption within government can take place at both
the political and the bureaucratic levels. The first may be independent of the second, or there may
be collusion. At one level, controlling political corruption involves election laws, campaign finance
regulations, and conflict of interest rules for parliamentarians. These types of laws and regulations
lie beyond the mandate and expertise of the Bank but nevertheless are part of what a country
needs to control corruption.2 At another level corruption may be intrinsic to the way power is
exercised and may be impossible to reduce through lawmaking alone. In the extreme case state
institutions may be infiltrated by criminal elements and turned into instruments of individual
enrichment.

Isolated and systemic corruption. Corruption in a society can be rare or widespread. If it is

rare, consisting of a few individual acts, it is straightforward (though seldom easy) to detect and
punish. In such cases noncorrupt behavior is the norm, and institutions in both the public and
private sectors support integrity in public life. Such institutions, both formal and informal, are
sufficiently strong to return the system to a noncorrupt equilibrium. In contrast, corruption is
systemic (pervasive or entrenched) where bribery, on a large or small scale, is routine in dealings
between the public sector and firms or individuals. Where systemic corruption exists, formal and
informal rules are at odds with one another; bribery may be illegal but is understood by everyone to
be routine in transactions with the government. Another kind of equilibrium prevails, a systemic
corruption "trap" in which the incentives are strong for firms, individuals, and officials to comply with
and not fight the system. And there may be different degrees of coordination between those taking
bribes, ranging from uncontrolled extortion by multiple officials to highly organized bribe collection
and distribution systems. Antibribery laws notwithstanding, there are many countries in which
bribery characterizes the rules of the game in private-public interactions. Systemic corruption may
occur uniformly across the public sector, or it may be confined to certain agencies—such as
customs or tax authorities, public works or other ministries, or particular levels of government.3

Corruption in the private sector. Fraud and bribery can and do take place in the private
sector, often with costly results. Unregulated financial systems permeated with fraud can undermine
savings and deter foreign investment. They also make a country vulnerable to financial crises and
macroeconomic instability. Entire banks or savings and loan institutions may be taken over by
criminals for the purpose of wholesale fraud. Popular support for privatization or the deepening of
financial markets can be eroded if poor regulation leads to small shareholders or savers
withdrawing when confronted by insider dealings and the enrichment of managers. And a strong
corporate focus on profitability may not prevent individual employees soliciting bribes from
suppliers. Furthermore, when corruption is systemic in the public sector, firms that do business with
government agencies can seldom escape participating in bribery.

While noting the existence of fraud and corruption in the private sector and the importance
of controlling it, this report is concerned with corruption in the public sector. Public sector corruption
is arguably a more serious problem in developing countries, and controlling it may be a prerequisite
for controlling private sector corruption.4 Still, Bank activities can also promote the control of bribery
and fraud in the private sector by helping countries strengthen the legal framework to support a
market economy and by encouraging the growth of professional bodies that set standards in areas
like accounting and auditing. In the long run, controlling corruption in the private sector may require
improvements in business culture and ethics.

What are the causes of corruption?

The causes of corruption are always contextual, rooted in a country's policies, bureaucratic
traditions, political development, and social history. Still, corruption tends to flourish when
institutions are weak and government policies generate economic rents. Some characteristics of
developing and transition settings make corruption particularly difficult to control. The normal
motivation of public sector employees to work productively may be undermined by many factors,
including low and declining civil service salaries and promotion unconnected to performance.
Dysfunctional government budgets, inadequate supplies and equipment, delays in the release of
budget funds (including pay), and a loss of organizational purpose also may demoralize staff. The
motivation to remain honest may be further weakened if senior officials and political leaders use
public office for private gain or if those who resist corruption lack protection. Or the public service
may have long been dominated by patron-client relationships, in which the sharing of bribes and
favors has become entrenched. In some countries pay levels may always have been low, with the
informal understanding that staff will find their own ways to supplement inadequate pay. Sometimes
these conditions are exacerbated by closed political systems dominated by narrow vested interests
and by international sources of corruption associated with major projects or equipment purchases.

The dynamics of corruption in the public sector can be depicted in a simple model. The
opportunity for corruption is a function of the size of the rents under a public official's control, the
discretion that official has in allocating those rents, and the accountability that official faces for his or
her decisions.5 Monopoly rents can be large in highly regulated economies and, as noted above,
corruption breeds demand for more regulation. In transition economies economic rents can be
enormous because of the amount of formerly state-owned property essentially "up for grabs." The
discretion of many public officials may also be large in developing and transition economies,
exacerbated by poorly defined, ever-changing, and inadequately disseminated rules and
regulations. Finally, accountability is typically weak in these settings. The ethical values of a well-
performing bureaucracy may have been eroded or never established. Rules on conduct and conflict
of interest may be unenforced, financial management systems (which normally record and control
the collection of revenues and the expenditure of budgeted resources) may have broken down, and
there may be no formal mechanism to hold public officials accountable for results. The watchdog
institutions that should scrutinize government performance, such as ombudsmen, external auditors,
and the press, may be ineffectual. And special anticorruption bodies may have been turned into
partisan instruments whose real purpose is not to detect fraud and corruption but to harass political
opponents.

A defining characteristic of the environment in which corruption occurs is a divergence

between the formal and the informal rules governing behavior in the public sector. The Bank is
unaware of any country that does not have rules against corruption, although not all countries have
all the rules that may be necessary. These range from laws making it a criminal offense to bribe a
public official to public service regulations dealing with the expected behavior of public officials,
conflicts of interest, the acceptance of gifts, and the duty to report fraud. Government agencies—
police and army, tax and customs departments, local governments, and public enterprises—may
have their own regulations and codes of behavior. Organic laws, often embedded in constitutions,
cover budgeting, accounting, and auditing, supported by laws and regulations on public
procurement and the safeguarding of public assets. In addition, there are laws on the conduct of
elections and the appointment of judges, and codes governing the conduct of legislators. Some of
these laws are a colonial inheritance, some have been adapted from countries with a similar legal
tradition, and some are additions to existing laws (for example, providing for special anticorruption
commissions and other watchdog bodies).

Where corruption is systemic, the formal rules remain in place, but they are superseded by
informal rules.6 It may be a crime to bribe a public official, but in practice the law is not enforced or
is applied in a partisan way, and informal rules prevail. Government tender boards may continue to
operate even though the criteria by which contracts are awarded have changed. Seen in this light,
strengthening institutions to control corruption is about shifting the emphasis back to the formal
rules. This implies acknowledging that a strong legal framework to control corruption requires more
than having the right legal rules in place. It means addressing the sources of informality, first by
understanding why the informal rules are at odds with the formal rules and then by tackling the
causes of divergence. In some countries the primary reason for divergence may be political, a
manifestation of the way power is exercised and retained. This limits what the Bank can do to help
outside the framework of its projects. In other countries the reason may be weak public
management systems and inappropriate policies, which the Bank can help improve.

Combating Corruption
Source: https://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/governance/brief/anti-corruption

The World Bank Group considers corruption a major challenge to its twin goals of ending
extreme poverty by 2030 and boosting shared prosperity for the poorest 40 percent of people in
developing countries. In addition, reducing corruption is at the heart of the Sustainable
Development Goals and achieving the ambitious targets set for Financing for Development.

Corruption has a disproportionate impact on the poor and most vulnerable, increasing costs
and reducing access to services, including health, education and justice. Think, for example, of the
effect of counterfeit drugs or vaccinations on the health outcomes of children and the life-long
impacts that may have on them.

Empirical studies have shown that the poor pay the highest percentage of their income in
bribes. For example, in Paraguay, the poor pay 12.6 percent of their income to bribes while high-
income households pay 6.4 percent. The comparable numbers in Sierra Leone are 13 percent and
3.8 percent respectively. Every stolen dollar, euro, peso, yuan, rupee, or ruble robs the poor of an
equal opportunity in life and prevents governments from investing in their human capital.

Corruption erodes trust in government and undermines the social contract. This is cause for
concern across the globe, but particularly in contexts of fragility and violence, as corruption fuels
and perpetuates the inequalities and discontent that lead to fragility, violent extremism, and conflict.

Corruption impedes investment, with consequent effects on growth and jobs. Countries
capable of confronting corruption use their human and financial resources more efficiently, attract
more investment, and grow more rapidly.

The Bank Group recognizes that corruption comes in different forms. It might impact service
delivery, such as when police officers ask for bribes to perform routine services. Corruption might
unfairly determine the winners of government contracts, with awards favoring friends or relatives of
government officials. Or it might affect more fundamental issues of capture, such as how institutions
work and who controls them, a form of corruption that is often the costliest in terms of overall
economic impact. Each type of corruption is important and tackling all of them is critical to achieving
progress and sustainable change.

Successful anti-corruption efforts are often led by a 'coalition of concerned' – politicians and
senior government officials, the private sector, and by citizens, communities, and civil society
organizations. Increasingly, successfully addressing corruption will require the concerted attention
of both governments and businesses, as well as the use of the latest advanced technologies to
capture, analyze, and share data to prevent, detect, and deter corrupt behavior.

The Bank Group leverages innovative technologies to strengthen public sector performance
and productivity, confront corruption and to help foster greater trust and accountability, particularly
in more fragile and conflict environments.

Much of the world's costliest forms of corruption could not happen without institutions in
wealthy nations: the private sector firms that give large bribes, the financial institutions that accept
corrupt proceeds, and the lawyers and accountants who facilitate corrupt transactions. Data on
international financial flows shows that money is moving from poor to wealthy countries in ways that
fundamentally undermine development.

Malnourishment
Source: https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/malnutrition

Malnutrition refers to deficiencies, excesses, or imbalances in a person’s intake of energy

and/or nutrients. The term malnutrition addresses 3 broad groups of conditions:

 undernutrition, which includes wasting (low weight-for-height), stunting (low height-for-age)

and underweight (low weight-for-age);
 micronutrient-related malnutrition, which includes micronutrient deficiencies (a lack of
important vitamins and minerals) or micronutrient excess; and
 overweight, obesity and diet-related noncommunicable diseases (such as heart disease,
stroke, diabetes and some cancers).
Various Forms of Malnutrition

Undernutrition

There are 4 broad sub-forms of undernutrition: wasting, stunting, underweight, and

deficiencies in vitamins and minerals. Undernutrition makes children in particular much more
vulnerable to disease and death.

Low weight-for-height is known as wasting. It usually indicates recent and severe weight
loss, because a person has not had enough food to eat and/or they have had an infectious disease,
such as diarrhoea, which has caused them to lose weight. A young child who is moderately or
severely wasted has an increased risk of death, but treatment is possible.

Low height-for-age is known as stunting. It is the result of chronic or recurrent undernutrition,

usually associated with poor socioeconomic conditions, poor maternal health and nutrition, frequent
illness, and/or inappropriate infant and young child feeding and care in early life. Stunting holds
children back from reaching their physical and cognitive potential.

Children with low weight-for-age are known as underweight. A child who is underweight may
be stunted, wasted, or both.

Micronutrient-related malnutrition

Inadequacies in intake of vitamins and minerals often referred to as micronutrients, can also
be grouped together. Micronutrients enable the body to produce enzymes, hormones, and other
substances that are essential for proper growth and development.

Iodine, vitamin A, and iron are the most important in global public health terms; their
deficiency represents a major threat to the health and development of populations worldwide,
particularly children and pregnant women in low-income countries.

Overweight and obesity

Overweight and obesity is when a person is too heavy for his or her height. Abnormal or
excessive fat accumulation can impair health. Body mass index (BMI) is an index of weight-for-
height commonly used to classify overweight and obesity. It is defined as a person’s weight in
kilograms divided by the square of his/her height in meters (kg/m²). In adults, overweight is defined
as a BMI of 25 or more, whereas obesity is a BMI of 30 or more.

Overweight and obesity result from an imbalance between energy consumed (too much)
and energy expended (too little). Globally, people are consuming foods and drinks that are more
energy-dense (high in sugars and fats), and engaging in less physical activity.

Diet-related noncommunicable diseases

Diet-related noncommunicable diseases (NCDs) include cardiovascular diseases (such as

heart attacks and stroke, and often linked with high blood pressure), certain cancers, and diabetes.
Unhealthy diets and poor nutrition are among the top risk factors for these diseases globally.
Scope of the problem

In 2014, approximately 462 million adults worldwide were underweight, while 1.9 billion were
either overweight or obese.

In 2016, an estimated 155 million children under the age of 5 years were suffering from
stunting, while 41 million were overweight or obese.

Around 45% of deaths among children under 5 years of age are linked to undernutrition.
These mostly occur in low- and middle-income countries. At the same time, in these same
countries, rates of childhood overweight and obesity are rising.

Who is at risk?

Every country in the world is affected by one or more forms of malnutrition. Combating
malnutrition in all its forms is one of the greatest global health challenges.

Women, infants, children, and adolescents are at particular risk of malnutrition. Optimizing
nutrition early in life—including the 1000 days from conception to a child’s second birthday—
ensures the best possible start in life, with long-term benefits.

Poverty amplifies the risk of, and risks from, malnutrition. People who are poor are more
likely to be affected by different forms of malnutrition. Also, malnutrition increases health care costs,
reduces productivity, and slows economic growth, which can perpetuate a cycle of poverty and ill-
health.

The United Nations Decade of Action on Nutrition

On 1 April 2016, the United Nations (UN) General Assembly proclaimed 2016–2025 the
United Nations Decade of Action on Nutrition. The Decade is an unprecedented opportunity for
addressing all forms of malnutrition. It sets a concrete timeline for implementation of the
commitments made at the Second International Conference on Nutrition (ICN2) to meet a set of
global nutrition targets and diet-related NCD targets by 2025, as well as relevant targets in
the Agenda for Sustainable Development by 2030—in particular, Sustainable Development Goal
(SDG) 2 (end hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition and promote sustainable
agriculture) and SDG 3 (ensure healthy lives and promote wellbeing for all at all ages).

Led by WHO and the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), the
UN Decade of Action on Nutrition calls for policy action across 6 key areas:

 creating sustainable, resilient food systems for healthy diets;

 providing social protection and nutrition-related education for all;
 aligning health systems to nutrition needs, and providing universal coverage of essential
nutrition interventions;
 ensuring that trade and investment policies improve nutrition;
 building safe and supportive environments for nutrition at all ages; and
 strengthening and promoting nutrition governance and accountability, everywhere.
WHO response

WHO aims for a world free of all forms of malnutrition, where all people achieve health and
wellbeing. According to the 2016–2025 nutrition strategy, WHO works with Member States and
partners towards universal access to effective nutrition interventions and to healthy diets from
sustainable and resilient food systems. WHO uses its convening power to help set, align and
advocate for priorities and policies that move nutrition forward globally; develops evidence-informed
guidance based on robust scientific and ethical frameworks; supports the adoption of guidance and
implementation of effective nutrition actions; and monitors and evaluates policy and programme
implementation and nutrition outcomes.

This work is framed by the Comprehensive implementation plan on maternal, infant, and
young child nutrition, adopted by Member States through a World Health Assembly resolution in
2012. Actions to end malnutrition are also vital for achieving the diet-related targets of the Global
action plan for the prevention and control of noncommunicable diseases 2013–2020, the Global
strategy for women’s, children’s, and adolescent’s health 2016–2030, and the 2030 Agenda for
sustainable development.

Terrorism
How can I help prevent a terrorist attack?
https://www.government.nl/topics/counterterrorism-and-national-security/question-and-answer/
prevent-a-terrorist-attack

You can help reduce the chance of a terrorist attack by keeping an eye out for suspicious
situations, such as an unattended suitcase or someone with a conspicuous level of interest in the
security of a building.

Be vigilant in public areas

 Be extra vigilant in places with large numbers of people, for example metro and train
stations, festivals and concert venues, and shopping centres.
 Check the location of the emergency exits in every building you enter.
 Don't leave your belongings unattended.

Report suspicious situations

Whether or not a situation is suspicious depends very much on the context. For example, an
unattended suitcase on a train platform does not necessarily mean anything sinister. Still, the best
course of action is to notify a member of staff straight away. Or call the police.

The 17 SDGs (Sustainable Development Goals)

Source: https://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals.html
 What are the Sustainable Development Goals?

The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), also known as the

Global Goals, were adopted by all United Nations Member States in 2015 as
a universal call to action to end poverty, protect the planet and ensure that
all people enjoy peace and prosperity by 2030.

The 17 SDGs are integrated—that is, they recognize that action in one area will affect
outcomes in others, and that development must balance social, economic and environmental
sustainability.

Through the pledge to Leave No One Behind, countries have committed to fast-track
progress for those furthest behind first. That is why the SDGs are designed to bring the world to
several life-changing ‘zeros’, including zero poverty, hunger, AIDS and discrimination against
women and girls.

Everyone is needed to reach these ambitious targets. The creativity, knowhow,

technology and financial resources from all of society is necessary to achieve the SDGs in
every context.

What is UNDP's role?

As the lead UN development agency, UNDP is well-placed to help implement the Goals
through our work in some 170 countries and territories.

We support countries in achieving the SDGs through integrated solutions. Today’s

complex challenges—from stemming the spread of disease to preventing conflict—cannot be
tackled neatly in isolation. For UNDP, this means focusing on systems, root causes and
connections between challenges—not just thematic sectors—to build solutions that respond to
people’s daily realities.

Our track record working across the Goals provides us with a valuable experience and
proven policy expertise to ensure we all reach the targets set out in the SDGs by 2030. But we
cannot do this alone.

Achieving the SDGs requires the partnership of governments, private sector, civil society
and citizens alike to make sure we leave a better planet for future generations.

Global Issues, SDGs 2015-2030 and Education

Input 2

The Why and How of School and Community Partnership

Opportunities for School-Community Partnership

5 Steps to Better School/Community Collaboration

Simple ideas for creating a stronger network
By Brendan O'Keefe
October 19, 2011
Source: https://www.edutopia.org/blog/school-community-collaboration-brendan-okeefe
As the old African proverb says, "It takes a village to raise a child." One could imagine then
that it would take a community to raise a school. We can't rely on local, state, or federal
governments to take ownership of the issues we face locally. We need to work as a community to
nurture our schools for our particular community needs.

I believe the answer to real education/school transformation is strong, authentic community

connections and actions. When families, community groups, business and schools band together to
support learning, young people achieve more in school, stay in school longer, and enjoy the
experience more.

Great examples of school/community partnerships are happening all over the world. We
need more of them, and we need to ensure they are healthy and relevant to the needs of 21st
century learners.

Throughout my journey setting up the Reinventing School Challenge , I did a significant

amount of research to ensure I had a thorough understanding of what existed already, what
worked, and what was possible.

The more I searched, the themes for successful school transformation emerged:
 Community/business school partnerships
 Parental collaboration
 Curriculum connected to real world experiences
  Student voice
 Cross generation learning
 Locals designing solutions to local problems

Whole Community Engagement Is Key

To lift up and raise our schools to a place that suits all 21st century learners, help needs to
come from many parts of the community. The leading roles should be alternated according to the
need and focus of the particular aspect of the transformation project.

If we respect each other and acknowledge our unique contribution, we can move forward
quickly in a positive environment where we can all be teachers and learners.
I'm approaching this post from an inclusive, design-focused view, and I put to you ideas that
target and engage the four main players I believe can make all the difference in transforming our
schools and curriculum today: students, parents, seniors/grandparents and local businesses.

Step 1: Expand Your Vision of School to Include Community

Ryan Bretag writes, "Educators shouldn't be the only ones contributing. The community
should be creating questions, puzzles, quotes, mind benders, trivia, philosophical and ethical
challenges, thought provoking videos, "graffiti walls," brainstorming spaces, and play areas."
There are so many opportunities for experiential learning to happen out in the community
surrounding the school. We just need to find ways to connect core curriculum beyond the classroom
by attracting the right people and asking the right questions.

Step 2: Reach Out to All Stakeholders

One of the best ways to connect and create an authentic bond is to go to the people who
matter most, and meet them on their own turf. A series of community walks are a great way to start.
Get your teachers, some local businesses on board and go and knock on people's doors, visit local
businesses and senior homes and talk with them. Try the same approach with groups of students.
This time let the students communicate what they hope and wish for their school and encourage
them to ask for mentoring and support.

Share your dreams for enhanced community-school partnerships, ask people what matters
to them, ask them how they might help, and show them your passion. Deliver them an open
invitation to reconnect, collaborate and share their experience, skills and time to make a difference.

Step 3: Create a Community Resource Map

A visual representation of your community and the various skills people have to offer is a
super way to understand what community resources are available. If you build one, also point out
the materials people can supply at cost or for free, the time they can invest in projects, and how
they can connect to curriculum, and classroom activities. Include the networks they can utilize to
raise awareness of the needs of local children and families, and always promote and foster
resource-sharing and collaboration.

Use libraries to advocate for school-community partnerships and student learning. Libraries
are important hubs and can provide meaningful connection points outside the school gates.

A community resource map can come in the form of a hand-drawn map (use a graphic
facilitator), Google Map, Mind Map or even a spreadsheet with some visual outputs.

Step 4: Connect with Curriculum

 Much of what we learn as children and adults happens outside the classroom through real
world experiences and from our peers, mentors or on the job.

How might we connect today's core curriculum with the real world? That is an important
question that is in urgent need of answers. Kids today are asking far to often for relevance in what
they are learning. "Why am I learning this? I'll never use this!" is a response far too often heard form
the mouths of young people today.

Step 5: A Design Challenge for the Community

Here is an example of a community challenge to reinvent the school experience. I created the
Reinventing School Challenge earlier this year to encourage discussion, empower youth, teachers
and communities to design and facilitate change locally.
Reinventing school can mean lots of things such as redesigning classrooms, creating a community
garden, creating an open and shared learning space, designing a course, changing the way
students participate in decision making, you name it!
Using Stanford's K12 lab Design Thinking for Educators a methodology, or process leading
product and service designers use everyday, participants collaborate to come up with ideas and
learning experiences and then share them online for all to benefit from

How Schools Can Benefit from Community Partnerships

By Taylor Kremer (2017)

Schools experience many benefits by working with community organizations to accomplish

projects and programs that support students. Here are ways community partnerships benefit both
schools and communities.

Increase Impact

By partnering with a community organization you can combine your resources to have a
greater impact at a lower cost. Partnerships can broaden your reach beyond your students to other
children in the community. Pooling resources, such as staff, volunteers, time, supplies, and space,
can help reduce the costs of your programs.

Eliminate Competition
Schools and community organizations with similar goals and programs may be competing
with each other for the same grants and funding. By reaching out to community organizations that
share your goals, you can partner to write grants. Not only does this increase your odds of funding
by eliminating a potential competitor, it also strengthens your grant proposals. Funders favor
proposals where collaboration extends the reach and impact of the grant. If a school does not have
tax-exempt status, using a community organization as a fiscal agent can widen the school’s
eligibility for grants.

Share Strengths and Expertise

Partnerships allow each organization to take the lead on aspects of the project where they
have expertise. For example, a school could partner with a community organization to start an after-
school program for students. The school may provide a space to hold the program and identify
students who would benefit from attending the program, while the community organization reaches
out to community members and coordinates volunteers.
Schools that partner with community organizations can also reach out for other needs their school
faces. For example, community organizations are useful resources for teachers who want to invite
professionals from a particular field to their classrooms to engage students in experiential learning.

Involve Your Community

Outside of school, students are interacting with their community on a daily basis. Making
connections in the community gives community members a sense of responsibility and ownership
over students’ learning, which leads individuals in taking a more active role in supporting their local
schools. It also encourages the entire community to become teachers by contributing their
knowledge and expertise to students.

Community partnerships ultimately bring benefits to both the school and the community.
Partnering with a community organization increases a program’s impact, strengthens grant
proposals, and involves the community in students’ education.

Legal Bases for Parents and Community Involvement

The Development and Implementation of Parent and Community Involvement Programs

https://www2.ed.gov/pubs/SER/ParentComm/chap3.html

While parents, family, and community members may assume specific roles as they become
involved in the education of children, for example as volunteers in the classroom (see Epstein and
Connors' typology, 1993), a synthesis of the literature reveals three overarching roles that are
created in the development and implementation of parent and community involvement programs
(Lyons, Robbins and Smith, l983; Lynn, l994). Each of these roles is actualized in very different
ways in relationships in classrooms, schools, and school districts:

 Parents as the primary resource in the education of their children is best exemplified
in home learning. Home learning is the activity, or set of activities, that parents and family
members may engage in to help their children succeed academically. This partnership role
between parents and/or family members and schools may have the greatest impact on
achievement.
 Parents and community members as supporters and advocates for the education of
their children is facilitated through site-based school restructuring. Restructuring schools
to create parent and community partnerships with schools focuses on organizational
structure. Changing activities; creating new relationships between parents, families,
communities, and schools; and implementing innovative strategies are ways that schools
can restructure to facilitate parent and community involvement in this role.
 Parents and community members as participants in the education of all
children incorporates a broader vision in the partnership between schools and the
populations they serve. Districtwide programs provide the vehicle for parents and
community members to be involved in roles that reach beyond the immediate impact of an
individual child to the impact on all children in the district.

There are key program elements and strategies that are specific to those programs that are
designed and implemented to enhance the partnership roles of parents, families, communities, and
schools. Successful initiatives consider these program elements and strategies in design,
development, and implementation.
  The key program elements specific to home learning are: well-developed local practices; a
willingness of teachers to build on parent strengths; ongoing recruitment using multiple
methods; effective strategies that promote home learning; and the home learning
environment.
 School restructuring activities focus on the following key program elements: an emphasis
on quality education; family participation; and site-based management.
 Key program elements for districtwide programs include: development and
implementation of policy; embracing the diversity of families and communities; and a focus
on the linkages with the community and other agencies.

This literature reveals that several key program elements cut across all levels of
the education system:

 Communication is a primary building block that takes into account the equal participation
by all the partners.
 Key players including students, parents, families, and community members are the primary
focus in the development and implementation of parent and community involvement
programs. Other key players may be teachers and administrators.
 Resources such as funding, personnel, etc. are essential in the development and
implementation of parent and community involvement programs.

The roles of parents, families, and communities and the partnerships that are created with
schools speak to programs that are designed, developed, and implemented at any grade level.
Research literature on middle grade parent involvement will be highlighted.
Input 3

The Teacher and the Community: Teacher’s Ethical and Professional Behavior

Code of Ethics for Professional Teachers, Article III

https://depedtambayan.net/the-code-of-ethics-for-professional-teachers/

Pursuant to the provisions of paragraph (e). Article 11, of R. A.. No. 7836. otherwise known as the
Philippines Professionalization Act of 1994 and Paragraph (a), section 6. P.D. No. 223. as
amended, the Board for Professional Teachers hereby adopt the Code of Ethics for Professional
Teachers.

PREAMBLE
Teachers are duly licensed professionals who possesses dignity and reputation with high moral
values as well as technical and professional competence in the practice of their noble profession,
they strictly adhere to. observe, and practice this set of ethical and moral principles, standards, and
values.

ARTICLE I – SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS

Section 1. The Philippine Constitution provides that all educational institution shall offer quality
education for all competent teachers committed of it’s full realization The provision of this Code
shall apply, therefore, to all teachers in schools in the Philippines.

Section 2. This Code covers all public and private school teachers in all educational institutions at
the preschool, primary, elementary. and secondary levels whether academic, vocational, special,
technical, or non-formal. The term “teacher” shall include industrial arts or vocational teachers and
all other persons performing supervisory and /or administrative functions in all school at the
aforesaid levels, whether on full time or part-time basis.

ARTICLE II – THE TEACHER AND THE STATE

Section 1. The schools are the nurseries of the future citizens of the state: each teacher is a trustee
of the cultural and educational heritage of the nation and is under obligation to transmit to learners
such heritage as well as to elevate national morality, promote national pride, cultivate love of
country, instill allegiance to the constitution and for all duly constituted authorities, and promote
obedience to the laws of the state.

Section 2. Every teacher or school official shall actively help carryout the declared policies of the
state, and shall take an oath to this effect.

Section 3. In the interest of the State and of the Filipino people as much as of his own. every
teacher shall be physically, mentally and morally fit.

Section 4. Every teacher shall possess and actualize a full commitment and devotion to duty.
Section 5. A teacher shall not engage in the promotion of any political, religious, or other partisan
interest, and shall not. directly or indirectly, solicit, require, collect, or receive any money or service
or other valuable material from any person or entity for such purposes

Section 6. Every teacher shall vote and shall exercise all other constitutional rights and
responsibility.

Section 7. A teacher shall not use his position or facial authority or influence to coerce any other
person to follow any political course of action.

Section 8. Every teacher shall enjoy academic freedom and shall have privilege of expounding the
product of his researches and investigations: provided that, if the results are inimical to the declared
policies of the State, they shall be brought to the proper authorities for appropriate remedial action.

ARTICLE III – THE TEACHER AND THE COMMUNITY

Section 1. A teacher is a facilitator of learning and of the development of the youth: he shall,
therefore, render the best service by providing an environment conducive to such learning and
growth.

Section 2. Every teacher shall provide leadership and initiative to actively participate in community
movements for moral, social, educational, economic and civic betterment.

Section 3. Every teacher shall merit reasonable social recognition for which purpose he shall
behave with honor and dignity at all times and refrain for such activities as gambling, smoking,
drunkenness, and other excesses, much less illicit relations.

Section 4. Every teacher shall live for and with the community and shall, therefore, study and
understand local customs and traditions in order to have sympathetic attitude, therefore, refrain
from disparaging the community.

Section 5. Every teacher shall help the school keep the people in the community informed about
the school’s work and accomplishments as well as its needs and problems.

Section 6. Every teacher is intellectual leader in the community, especially in the barangay. and
shall welcome the opportunity to provide such leadership when needed, to extend counseling
services, as appropriate, and to actively be involved in matters affecting the welfare of the people.

Section 7. Every teacher shall maintain harmonious and pleasant personal and official relations
with other professionals, with government officials, and with the people, individually or collectively.

Section 8. A teacher posses freedom to attend church and worships as appropriate, but shall not
use his positions and influence to proselyte others.

ARTICLE IV – A TEACHER AND THE PROFESSION

Section 1. Every teacher shall actively insure that teaching is the noblest profession, and shall
manifest genuine enthusiasm and pride in teaching as a noble calling.
Section 2. Every teacher shall uphold the highest possible standards of quality education, shall
make the best preparations for the career of teaching, and shall be at his best at all times and in the
practice of his profession.

Section 3. Every teacher shall participate in the Continuing Professional Education (CPE) program
of the Professional Regulation Commission, and shall pursue such other studies as will improve his
efficiency, enhance the prestige of the profession, and strengthen his competence, virtues, and
productivity in order to be nationally and internationally competitive.

Section 4. Every teacher shall help, if duly authorized, to seek support from the school, but shall
not make improper misrepresentations through personal advertisements and other questionable
means.

Section 5. Every teacher shall use the teaching profession in a manner that makes it dignified
means for earning a descent living.

ARTICLE V – THE TEACHERS AND THE PROFESSION

Section 1. Teacher shall, at all times, be imbued with the spirit of professional loyalty, mutual
confidence, and faith in one another, self sacrifice for the common good, and full cooperation with
colleagues. When the best interest of the learners, the school, or the profession is at stake in any
controversy, teacher shall support one another.

Section 2. A teacher is not entitled to claim credit or work not of his own. and shall give due credit
for the work of others which he may use.

Section 3. Before leaving his position, a teacher shall organize for whoever assumes the position
such records and other data as are necessary to carry on the work.

Section 4. A teacher shall hold inviolate all confidential information concerning associates and the
school, and shall not divulge to anyone documents which has not been officially released, or
remove records from the files without permission.

Section 5. It shall be the responsibility of every teacher to seek correctives for what he may appear
to be an unprofessional and unethical conduct of any associates. However, this may be done only if
there is incontrovertible evidence for such conduct.

Section 6. A teacher may submit to the proper authorities any justifiable criticism against an
associate, preferably in writing, without violating the right of the individual concerned.

Section 7. A teacher may apply for a vacant position for which he is qualified: provided that he
respects the system of selection on the basis of merit and competence: provided, further, that all
qualified candidates are given the opportunity to be considered.

ARTICLE VI – THE TEACHER AND HIGHER AUTHORITIES IN THE PROFESSIONS

Section 1. Every teacher shall make it his duties to make an honest effort to understand and
support the legitimate policies of the school and the administration regardless of personal feeling or
private opinion and shall faithfully carry them out.
Section 2. A teacher shall not make any false accusations or charges against superiors, especially
under anonymity. However, if there are valid charges, he should present such under oath to
competent authority.

Section 3. A teacher shall transact all official business through channels except when special
conditions warrant a different procedure, such as when special conditions are advocated but are
opposed by immediate superiors, in which case, the teacher shall appeal directly to the appropriate
higher authority..

Section 4. Every teacher, individually or as part of a group, has a right to seek redress against
injustice to the administration and to extent possible, shall raise grievances within acceptable
democratic possesses. In doing so. they shall avoid jeopardizing the interest and the welfare of
learners whose right to learn must be respected.

Section 5. Every teacher has a right to invoke the principle that appointments, promotions, and
transfer of teachers are made only on the basis of merit and needed in the interest of the service.

Section 6. A teacher who accepts a position assumes a contractual obligation to live up to his
contract, assuming full knowledge of employment terms and conditions.

ARTICLE VII – SCHOOL OFFICIALS TEACHERS AND OTHER PERSONNEL

Section 1. All school officials shall at all times show professional courtesy, helpfulness and
sympathy towards teachers and other personnel, such practices being standards of effective school
supervision, dignified administration, responsible leadership and enlighten directions.

Section 2. School officials, teachers, and other school personnel shall consider it their cooperative
responsibility to formulate policies or introduce important changes in the system at all levels.

Section 3. School officials shall encourage and attend the professional growth of all teachers under
them such as recommending them for promotion, giving them due recognition for meritorious
performance, and allowing them to participate in conferences in training programs.

Section 4. No school officials shall dismiss or recommend for dismissal a teacher or other
subordinates except for cause.

Section 5. School authorities concern shall ensure that public school teachers are employed in
accordance with pertinent civil service rules, and private school teachers are issued contracts
specifying the terms and conditions of their work: provided that they are given, if qualified,
subsequent permanent tenure, in accordance with existing laws.

ARTICLE VIII – THE TEACHERS AND LEARNERS

Section 1. A teacher has a right and duty to determine the academic marks and the promotions of
learners in the subject or grades he handles, such determination shall be in accordance with
generally accepted procedures of evaluation and measurement. In case of any complaint, teachers
concerned shall immediately take appropriate actions, of serving due process.

Section 2. A teacher shall recognize that the interest and welfare of learners are of first and
foremost concerns, and shall deal justifiably and impartially with each of them.
Section 3. Under no circumstance shall a teacher be prejudiced nor discriminated against by the
learner.

Section 4. A teacher shall not accept favors or gifts from learners, their parents or others in their
behalf in exchange for requested concessions, especially if undeserved.

Section 5. A teacher shall not accept, directly or indirectly, any remuneration from tutorials other
what is authorized for such service.

Section 6. A teacher shall base the evaluation of the learner’s work only in merit and quality of
academic performance.

Section 7. In a situation where mutual attraction and subsequent love develop between teacher
and learner, the teacher shall exercise utmost professional discretion to avoid scandal, gossip and
preferential treatment of the learner.

Section 8. A teacher shall not inflict corporal punishment on offending learners nor make
deductions from their scholastic ratings as a punishment for acts which are clearly not manifestation
of poor scholarship.

Section 9. A teacher shall ensure that conditions contribute to the maximum development of
learners are adequate, and shall extend needed assistance in preventing or solving learner’s
problems and difficulties.

ARTICLE IX – THE TEACHERS AND PARENTS

Section 1. Every teacher shall establish and maintain cordial relations with parents, and shall
conduct himself to merit their confidence and respect.

Section 2. Every teacher shall inform parents, through proper authorities, of the progress and
deficiencies of learner under him. exercising utmost candor and tact in pointing out learners
deficiencies and in seeking parent’s cooperation for the proper guidance and improvement of the
learners.

Section 3. A teacher shall hear parent’s complaints with sympathy and understanding, and shall
discourage unfair criticism.

ARTICLE X – THE TEACHER AND BUSINESS

Section 1. A teacher has the right to engage, directly or indirectly, in legitimate income generation:
provided that it does not relate to or adversely affect his work as a teacher.

Section 2. A teacher shall maintain a good reputation with respect to the financial matters such as
in the settlement of his debts and loans in arranging satisfactorily his private financial affairs.

Section 3. No teacher shall act, directly or indirectly, as agent of, or be financially interested in. any
commercial venture which furnish textbooks and other school commodities in the purchase and
disposal of which he can exercise official influence, except only when his assignment is inherently,
related to such purchase and disposal: provided they shall be in accordance with the existing
regulations: provided, further, that members of duly recognized teachers cooperatives may
participate in the distribution and sale of such commodities.

ARTICLE XI – THE TEACHER AS A PERSON

Section 1. A teacher is, above all. a human being endowed with life for which it is the highest
obligation to live with dignity at all times whether in school, in the home, or elsewhere.

Section 2. A teacher shall place premium upon self-discipline as the primary principles of personal
behavior in all relationships with others and in all situations.

Section 3. A teacher shall maintain at all times a dignified personality which could serve as a model
worthy of emulation by learners, peers and all others.

Section 4. A teacher shall always recognize the Almighty God as guide of his own destiny and of
the destinies of men and nations.

ARTICLE XII – DISCIPLINARY ACTIONS

Section 1. Any violation of any provisions of this code shall be sufficient ground for the imposition
against the erring teacher of the disciplinary action consisting of revocation of his Certification of
Registration and License as a Professional Teacher, suspension from the practice of teaching
profession, reprimand or cancellation of his temporary/special permit under causes specified in Sec.
23. Article HI or R.A. No. 7836. and under Rule 31. Article VIII. of the Rules and Regulations
Implementing R.A. 7836.

ARTICLE XIII – EFFECTIVITY

Section 1. This Code shall take effect upon approval by the Professional Regulation Commission
and after sixty (60) days following it’s publication in the official Gazette or any newspaper of general
circulation, whichever is earlier.

 Teacher as Facilitator of Learning

The teacher as a facilitator and resource person

David Tout (2016)
©Shutterstock/oliveromg
Source: https://www.teachermagazine.com.au/articles/the-teacher-as-a-facilitator-and-resource-
person#:~:text=In%20an%20applied%20learning%20or,teacher%20plays%20a%20critical
%20role.&text=The%20teacher's%20main%20role%20is,teaching%20of%20skills%20when
%20necessary.

In the final instalment of his 10-part series on real-world maths , Dave Tout looks at the
role of the teacher as a facilitator and resource person.

This final article in the series looks at the critical role of the teacher as a facilitator and
resource person and their responsibilities in relation to teaching the mathematics and problem-
solving underpinning a context-based teaching approach.

Of course, the ultimate purpose of all this planning is that the students undertake the
investigation and learn and apply a range of knowledge and skills.
 In order for students to successfully achieve the learning and outcomes expected it is vital
that the teacher monitors their progress and intervenes when necessary to teach any identified
mathematics and problem-solving skills that are necessary or missing for the task being tackled.

These can be introduced in a number of ways, depending on the skills and experience of the
students. This could happen through: whole class activities and explanations prior to or during the
investigation as questions arise from the students’ work; small group activities based on
explanations, worksheets or tasks provided by the teacher; and, individual skills and practice
sessions, including worksheets and extracts from textbooks, computers and the internet.

The relationships between the skills, knowledge, practice and context-based problem-
solving is illustrated in this diagram.

The purpose of using a context-based approach to teaching and learning is that you will
start with the context work – the project, task or investigation. So, the cycle might start at the top of
the diagram but all the other components are critical and interrelated and are important components
of teaching in this way.

The teacher role

In an applied learning or project-based mathematics classroom the teacher plays a critical
role. The students need to be supported and guided in order to learn the necessary skills to achieve
the desired outcomes. Without this support and direction the investigation and associated learning
will not succeed.
The teacher’s main role is as a facilitator – there to offer
support and advice when needed, and to provide the
necessary scaffolding and teaching of skills when necessary.
It is vital that teachers remember to teach and instruct their
students in any particular skill or piece of mathematical
knowledge that is required for the task.
The mathematics skills to develop in students
In this style of teaching and learning, there is a range of
different skills that students need to learn. Teachers need to
develop students’ abilities to: identify and recognise how
mathematics can be used in real-life situations and contexts,
enabling them to make connections between mathematics and the real world (a new skill to many
students). This is vital to support students to be able to transfer their skills to new contexts;
undertake a range of mathematical operations, applications and processes including measuring,
counting, estimating, calculating, drawing, modelling and discussing (the underlying mathematical
skills and knowledge required to undertake the required investigations or tasks); reflect and think
about the mathematics they have been using; that is, interpret the results and outcomes of the
investigation they have undertaken, including how appropriately and accurately the results fit the
situation (another new skill to many students); and, represent, communicate and discuss the results
and outcomes of the use and application of mathematics in terms of their chosen investigation. This
includes both written and oral skills and should incorporate the use of appropriate technologies.

Classroom activities
Depending on the requirements of the task, the teacher will use the motivation of the
investigation to have a number of classroom activities ready and available. These will include:
the work on the investigation/project itself – the initial and ongoing main aim of the activity;
choosing appropriate intervention times – the teaching and instruction of particular knowledge and
skills; what is required to get the job done (for example, if the task requires measurements to be
made, then an understanding of measurements and the metric system is fundamental knowledge to
be taught); and both whole group, small group and individual work on skills and practice on the
underlying mathematics skills.

This was illustrated in the above diagram.

Independent vs dependent learners

One important issue that relates to how a teacher might construct the investigation and the
classroom activities relates to how independent and capable the students are. Some students may
be quite dependent learners with neither independent learning skills nor little learning-to-learn skills.
A teacher needs to take this into account and help students move from being dependent to
becoming more independent learners.

What this means in the classroom is that lessons and activities need to progress from
structured to less structured; from more directed and closed activities to more open ones; from
modelled to less modelled; from supported activities to less supported.

The teacher role therefore moves from being a supervisor to being more of a facilitator,
scaffolding the learning for the students. Activities and tasks may progress from being provided as
small chunks and tasks to being given as larger tasks and projects.

Within the same classroom, some students may undertake the task based simply on the
starting open-ended question, whilst others who are less independent or who are lacking specific
content knowledge or problem-solving skills may be provided with structured questions, tasks and
information that would enable them to still solve the problem. This supports all students, no matter
what their level of skill, to be successfully involved in the same investigation and content as other
students. The more capable students may go way above and beyond what the teacher wants or
expected, but this is one of the positive benefits of teaching this way.

Another way of working with such mixed ability groups in a context-based teaching
classroom is to get students to work in small mixed ability groups, where the more capable students
help and assist the less capable students. Often this means that all students benefit: the students
doing the teaching come to a better understanding of the skills or knowledge being imparted and
the learner may understand the content better because it is being explained in the language of their
peers.

Teacher leadership and Initiative for Community Participation

https://www.teacher.org/daily/improve-participation-professional-community/

1 - How Well Does the School "Team," and How Can a Teacher Take "Teaming" to a Higher Level?
The ability to work well with our colleagues can be quite easy, or it can be nauseatingly
difficult. It is interesting how it mirrors the work we do with students in a classroom. Think about
what the needs are of the students seated in front of you. How can you support these needs in
order for them to get along with each other? A principal has the same task of creating a
professional community where the ability to team is not only expected, but it is cultivated daily. A
teacher has a role in this cultivation. They can chose to make or break a learning opportunity for
themselves and their colleagues.

Mutual respect and support comes from teachers who put time into relationships. They
believe, much like with students, that a relationship drives the learning. Cooperation comes when a
common goal and is created, discussed, and implemented as a team. All work goes back to the
achievement of these goals. Whether a grade level has a multiple teachers or one teacher, the
ability to team starts with someone starting the conversation. Basing conversations on "what is best
for students" supports the goals that are created by the teachers. When working with a grade level
team, one teacher may drive the teaming efforts to work cohesively when supporting student
growth. Another teaming model splits the leader role among all teachers on the grade level team.

Teachers at some point in their career may find it difficult to team with specific teachers. This
may be for a plethora of reasons, but keeping a positive attitude and a growth mindset, many of
these hurdles can be overcome. Using a rubric, such as the one provided in the article, The Best
Teaming Rubric Out There: How Would You Score Your Team?, supports teachers conversations
and goal setting. Teacher teams can evaluate where they are on the rubric, and create an action
plan with SMART goals in order to get to the next level in the rubric. Starting small is
recommended, but constant conversations and celebrations help make the transition more
enjoyable and long lasting.

2 - As Teachers Create a Sense of Urgency for Learning with Students, How Can They Model and
Maintain This Sense of Urgency for Learning Themselves?

Teachers are continually trying to create and maintain a sense of urgency with their
students. We only have students each year 180 days for roughly six hours of instruction. That
equates to around 1,080 hours a year. The entire year has over 7,000 hours. 1/8 of the entire year
is devoted to learning. When looking at these statistics, that is not much time! This is true for
teachers, as well.

Becoming stagnant in your teaching position can become toxic. You no longer want to take
professional development opportunities, or work with your colleagues, nor pick up a book. Closing
yourself off from the rest of the school and educational world can create a sense of insignificance
and can lead to quitting your job, and failing the students.

If we truly believe we are "lifelong learners," we must find new ways to get better. Exemplary
teachers are humble enough to know they have areas that can be improved upon, and they know
how to find the best ways to learn for ourselves. They engage in learning that supports our
weaknesses and makes them better teachers. All students go through school with one or several
subject areas that are academically lower, as well as specific soft skills that can be improved upon.
Likewise, teachers have stronger discipline areas and soft skills, as well as weaker ones. Through
honest self-reflection, teachers can devise a plan for further development and improvement. As
referenced in the recent article, 5 Questions to Tackle When Reflecting on Teaching, it is stated, by
the author,
"All teachers should establish metacognitive processes. The multitude of
benefits far outweigh educators skipping or not making sure this process occurs
every day. Funny as it may sound, many effective administrators find a secret hiding
place, take a walk, or may even take an extended bathroom visit, in order to reflect,
gather themselves, and tackle the next problem. Teachers must find time to reflect
as well. Master teachers put reflection into their day in several areas."

The sense of urgency created within teachers to become better should be visible and in
conversations with colleagues and administrators. Keeping teacher growth goals at the forefront
should be nurtured in daily observations, and similarly, there should be visible signs that the entire
school is working on professional development with corresponding growth goals. For example,
there may be district goals, school goals, grade level goals, and individual classroom teacher goals.
What makes this powerful is when these goals are created together, integrated into daily work, and
two-way feedback is encouraged and celebrated.

3 - As a Teacher Encourages Students to Serve the Community, How Can a Teacher Serve the
School?
The strongest schools in America create a sense of community not only on campus, but also
within the larger community. They create projects that teach students to give back to the community
and create a sense of service and pride. Much the same, teachers must model and do this at their
level within the school. They must continually think about how they can serve their school. An
environment with a positive school culture leads itself for more teachers "stepping up and leaning
in" to serve. The opportunities are boundless when working with a strong team of teachers and
leaders.

A crossing guard that is missing, to an absent food service worker, exemplary teachers find
areas to serve to support the greater good of the school. Without missing a beat, these teachers
think about their students' needs first, then they think about how they can volunteer to support when
someone is missing or something needs to be done. Their own students our flourishing and they
are able and have time to support others. One of the greatest gifts we can give is time. You can
hear these exemplary teachers stating, "I can do that today."

Teacher leaders step up and participate on school teams, district committees, and even
community organizations. They find ways they can support the community, the school of learners,
and their colleagues. They constantly base their decisions around "what's best for students." You
hear and see them communicating with colleagues, eliciting feedback, and are exquisite listeners.
They are trusted by their colleagues and peers, and even revered!

Exemplary teachers give back, and they are notorious for supporting the youngest
educators through mentorships, giving of resources and supplies, and over course, their time.
These teachers also support the professional development of their colleagues. They help push
ideologies, ask growth questions, remain humble, and support and provide for the greater good of
the school. You may see these teachers starting book clubs, participating or starting Twitter chats,
pushing social media to further the brand of their classroom, grade level, school, and district.

4 - How Can a Teacher Cultivate and Grow the Professional Community Through Supporting
School, District, and Even Community Projects or Initiatives?

A community, district, school, and even a classroom can have a "brand." This is an abstract
concept that drives the perception of a given entity. Hearts and minds are affected by this brand. A
brand can be either positive or negative for a person…it is all based on experience. For example,
what do you think of when you hear the words from these common businesses: McDonald's, Nike,
Coke, Ford, etc. Thoughts may rush your head and they are usually associated with positive or
negative experiences, some may be from commercials or ads, while others may be from trying the
product, or waiting in a line, or the service they provide.

A school's brand can be self-created or created over time by the community. Most recently,
schools are finding that if they are not continually promoting their product (students) and telling their
story, they are not in control of the brand that is being created. We have to ask ourselves, "Who
would you rather have tell your story; other people or you?" A teacher can have a significant role in
creating, sustaining, and promoting the brand of the school, district, and community. Exemplary
teachers celebrate the accomplishments of their students, colleagues, and community members.
They understand that by celebrating the positives, reframing all negative events as growth
opportunities, they are more successful in tackling the educational hurdles that lay in front of them.
 A great story from the article, 6 Questions to Tackle When Communicating with Families,
connects a metaphorical "brand" to a cattle brand and states how this word has been transformed
to mean so much more,
"During the time of the "Wild West," cowhands, a cowboy hired to manage and take care of cattle,
were hired by large cattle companies. Cattle were worth a lot of money and stealing them from
other cattle companies occurred routinely. In order to put a stop to this thievery, cattle companies
started putting a brand, a hot iron burned into the cow's hide leaving a special mark. Anyone caught
with a cow that did not have their brand, was prosecuted either by a circuit rider judge or vigilante
justice. These cowhands were not paid a lot of money and cattle thievery became a booming
business. Reliable cowhands were hard to find. When a cattle company found such a person, they
treated them well. In return, a cowhand put their lives on the line to manage the cows and keep
them safe and secure. They had pride in their work and they "rode for the brand." This means that
took pride in the cattle company they worked for, and they worked hard to keep their precious
commodity safe!"

In 2017, a school district in Montana chose their yearly focus to be on trauma-informed

classroom strategies. The administration chose some common activities that all school
administrators would participate, and subsequent schools would implement within in the district.
Speaker presentations and powerful professional development were required for all teachers.
Individual schools then devised PLC's around this theme, as well as specific professional
development offerings for staff members. Many schools led book studies, invited other speakers
into their schools, connected with community service providers, and even involved the students in
this education. One school used a PLC to create grade level trauma-informed lessons (K-6) that
empowered the students and created a sense of empathy, kindness, as well as building tolerance.
Exemplary teachers stepped up and leaned in to support the administration's goals, and even
shared their learning experiences across the school. Great example of "Riding for the Brand."

5 - How Can a Teacher Become a True Teacher Leader?

Teacher leaders are hard to find, but they are out there. They support a unique niche within
a school community. Without teacher leaders, a school maybe stagnant or the principal may be
stuck doing the majority of leadership work in a school. When jobs are shared and leadership
opportunities are cultivated, a school can thrive.

Teacher leaders can support the school through various activities. Here is a list of the most
common characteristics of a teacher leader from a 2007 article, The Many Faces of Leadership, by
Charlotte Danielson.

Excellent Communicator
Speaking and more importantly, listening
Able to collaborate with colleagues, respected and even revered
Initiate regular meet times to confer with colleagues students
Develop procedures to share assessment data make plans for individual
Lead a school wide or district wide initiative (homework, grading, etc…)

Teaching and Learning

A master of the content, curriculum, and instructional strategies
Serve on district curriculum committees
Help design mentoring programs
Makes presentations at state or local conferences
Organizes a lesson study to examine a teaching team's or department's approach
School-wide Policies and Programs
Serve as building liaison to student teachers
Lead school task forces
Represent the school in districtwide or statewide programs for schools
Teacher leaders start with a strong administration that sees a need to cultivate and grow
their employees. Through this growth process, new administrators are developed. A school's
ability to predict success by furthering their mission and vision are multiplied by having
several leaders within a school district. These are strong examples of successful
professional learning communities.

The Parents-Teachers Association

Revised Guidelines Governing Parents-Teachers Associations (PTAs) at the School Level
Source: https://www.deped.gov.ph/2009/06/01/do-54-s-2009-revised-guidelines-governing-parents-
teachers-associations-ptas-at-the-school-level/

Every elementary and secondary school shall organize a Parents-Teachers Association

(PTA) for the purpose of providing a forum for the discussion of issues and their solutions related to
the total school program and to ensure the full cooperation of parents in the efficient implementation
of such program.Every PTA shall provide mechanisms to ensure proper coordination with the
members of the community, provide an avenue for discussing relevant concerns and provide
assistance and support to the school for the promotion of their common interest. Standing
committees may be created within the PTA organization to coordinate with community members.
Regular fora may be conducted with local government units, civic organizations and other
stakeholders to foster unity and cooperation.

As an organization operating in the school, the PTA shall adhere to all existing policies and
implementing guidelines issued or hereinafter may be issued by the Department of Education.The
PTA shall serve as support group and as a significant partner of the school whose relationship shall
be defined by cooperative and open dialogue to promote the welfare of the students.

Organization of PTAs at the School Level

Membership in a PTA is limited to parents, or in their absence the guardian, of duly enrolled
students, and teachers in a given school.For this purpose, a guardian is hereby defined as any of
the following: a) an individual authorized by the biological parent/s to whom the care and custody of
the student has been entrusted; b) a relative of the student within the fourth degree of consanguinity
or affinity provided that said relative has the care and custody over the child; c) an individual
appointed by a competent court as the legal guardian of the student; or d) in case of an orphan, the
individual/institution who has the care and custody of the student.A teacher-member refers to
homeroom advisers, subject teachers, and non-teaching personnel.

Within fifteen (15) days from the start of the school year the Homeroom Adviser and the
Parents/Guardians shall organize the Homeroom PTA with the approval of the School Head.
The elected presidents of the Homeroom PTAs and their respective Homeroom Advisers shall elect
the Board of Directors within thirty (30) days from the start of the school year. The Board of
Directors shall immediately elect from among themselves the executive officers of the PTA on the
same day of their election to the Board.

The official name of the PTA shall bear the name of the school (example: Parents-Teachers
Association of Rizal High School or Rizal High School Parents-Teachers Association).
For representation in the Local School Board and other purposes, the schools’ PTAs within a
municipality or city or province shall federate and select from among the elected Presidents their
respective officers. The president-elect shall sit as representative of the Federation to the said Local
School Board.

General Assembly
The General Assembly shall be composed of all parents of enrolled students of the school,
Board of Directors and Officers of the PTA, School Head, Homeroom Advisers, Subject-Teachers,
and Non-Teaching Personnel.

The General Assembly shall be convened by the PTA Board of Directors immediately after
the PTA has been organized. The General Assembly shall be convened as may be necessary but
in no case less than twice a year. The Board shall coordinate with the School Head as to time,
venue and other details of the General Assembly.

The General Assembly shall be a venue for presentation and discussion of the PTA’s
programs, projects, financial statements, reports and other matters.
The General Assembly may invite or consult with other members of the community such as local
government officials and civic organizations to solicit their support or active participation in school
activities.

Board of Directors and Officers

The administration of the affairs and management of activities of the PTA is vested with the
Board of Directors and its officers in accordance with these guidelines or their respective
Constitution and By-Laws, if any, which shall adhere to the following:
The Board of Directors shall be composed of fifteen (15) members who shall elect from
among themselves the association’s executive officers; namely: President, Vice-President,
Secretary, Treasurer, Auditor, or other equivalent positions, who shall oversee the day-to-day
activities of the associations;
Parent-members shall comprise two-thirds (2/3) and teacher-members one-third (1/3) of the
Board of Directors;
A teacher-member cannot hold any position in the PTA except as a member of the Board of
Directors or as Secretary;
The School Head shall not serve as a member of the Board of Directors but as adviser to
the PTA;
The term of office of the Board of Directors and its Officers shall be one (1) year from the
date of election. In no case shall a PTA Board Director serve for more than two (2) consecutive
terms;

In case of vacancy in the Board of Directors as a result of expulsion, resignation or death,

the vacancy shall be filled, for the unexpired term of the office, by a majority vote of the Board of
Directors from among the Presidents of Homeroom PTAs in a special meeting called for such
purpose.

Among the committees that may be formed to handle specific activities of the PTAs are: a)
Committee on Finance; b) Committee on Programs and Projects; c)
Audit Committee; d) Election Committee; e) Grievance Committee; f) Ways and Means Committee;
g) Committee on External and Community Affairs;

The heads of the committees shall preferably come from the Board of Directors, Homeroom
Presidents and Homeroom Advisers; and
 The PTA may or may not be incorporated with the Securities and Exchange Commission
(SEC). If incorporated, the registered entity shall, as far as practicable, be used in the organization
of the PTA by the elected Board of Directors. In any event, the formal notification by the elected
Board of Directors outlined below and the issuance of the Certificate of Recognition by the School
Head shall be the operative act to recognize the PTA.
Recognition and Monitoring of PTAs

There shall be only one PTA that will operate in a school which shall be recognized by the
School Head upon formal notification in writing by the elected Board of Directors. The recognition
shall be valid for one year from the date of election.

Together with the formal notification in writing, the elected Board of Directors shall submit
Oaths of Office of the Board of Directors and Officers (Enclosure No. 1) including a list of directors
and officers.

A Division PTA Affairs Committee shall be created in the Division Office to be composed of the
following: Chairperson – Schools Division Superintendent
Members – Assistant Schools Division Superintendent Division Administrative Officer
Division Education Supervisor (In-Charge of PTA)
Division PESPA President (Elementary)
or Division NAPSSHI President (Secondary) President of the Division Federation of PTA
President of the Division Federation of SSG

The Division PTA Affairs Committee shall monitor the activities of the PTAs and their
compliance with reports and other requirements, arbitrate disputes and settle matters that may be
submitted to it for resolution especially on PTA representation issue.

Privileges of Recognized PTAs

A PTA is authorized to collect voluntary contributions from parents/guardian-members once
it has been duly recognized and given a Certificate of Recognition by the School Head (Enclosure
No. 2). Such collections, however, shall be subject to pertinent issuances of the DepED and/or
existing pertinent ordinances of the local government unit concerned, if any.

In addition, a duly recognized PTA shall have the following privileges:The DepED may allow
the PTA to construct a building or structure within the school premises for its office, provided
however, that the PTA shall donate such building or structure and other permanent fixtures to the
school. Any improvement made on such building, structure or fixture that cannot be removed from
such building or structure without causing damage thereto shall be deemed the property of the
school. A written agreement shall be executed before the improvement or construction. A Deed of
Donation shall also be executed by and between the PTA and the school immediately after the
completion of the improvement or construction;

The use of any available space within the school premises as its office or headquarters,
provided, that costs pertinent to electricity, water and other utilities shall be for the account of the
PTA; provided however, that should the school need such space, the PTA shall so vacate the
space immediately. The maintenance and improvement of the office shall be in accordance with the
School Improvement Plan;

Representation in the School Governing Council;

Authorization to undertake fund-raising activities to support the school’s academic and co-
curricular programs, projects and activities subject to pertinent DepED guidelines;
Participation in the school’s inspection and acceptance committee and as an observer in the
school’s procurement activities subject to the provisions of R.A. No. 9184; and
Collaboration in relevant school activities.

Activities
All PTA activities within the school premises or which involve the school, its personnel or
students shall be with prior consultation and approval of the School Head.

Financial Matters
Such collections shall be made by the PTA subject to the following conditions: If collection of
the School Publications Fee, Supreme Student Government (SSG) Developmental Fund and other
club membership fees and contributions is coursed through the PTA as requested by the concerned
organization, the amount collected shall be remitted immediately to the school, SSG or other
student organizations concerned on the day it was collected. The pertinent organization shall
deposit the funds with a reputable bank on the next banking day under the organization’s account.
No service fee shall be charged against any student organization by the PTA.

Non-compliance or any violation of the aforementioned conditions shall be a ground for the
cancellation of the PTA’s recognition and/or the filing of appropriate charges as the case may be.

Policy on Collection of Contributions

Cognizant of the need of an organization for adequate funds to sustain its operations, a duly
recognized PTA may collect voluntary financial contributions from members and outside sources to
enable it to fund and sustain its operation and the implementation of its programs and projects
exclusively for the benefit of the students and the school where it operates. The PTA’s programs
and projects shall be in line with the School Improvement Plan (SIP).

The contributions should be a reasonable amount as may be determined by the PTA Board
of Directors;

Non-payment of the contributions by the parent-member shall not be a basis for non-
admission or non-issuance of clearance(s) to the child by the school concerned;

The contributions shall be collected by the PTA Treasurer on a per parent-member basis
regardless of the number of their children in school;

No collection of PTA contributions shall be done during the enrollment period; and

No teacher or any school personnel shall be involved in such collection activities.

Safekeeping of Funds
All collections of contributions or proceeds of fundraising activities shall be deposited in a
reputable banking institution as determined by the Board of Directors. The PTA’s Treasurer or a
duly authorized representative shall undertake the collection and shall issue official
receipts/acknowledgement receipts.In no case shall any school official or personnel be entrusted
with the safekeeping and disbursement of collections made by the PTA. All disbursements of funds
shall be in accordance with generally accepted accounting and auditing rules and regulations.

All disbursements shall be accompanied by appropriate resolutions indicating thereof the

purposes for which such disbursements are made.
 No cash advances shall be allowed without valid liquidation of previous cash advances.

Financial Statement Report

The books of accounts and other financial records of the PTA shall be made available for
inspection by the School Head and/or the Division PTA Affairs Committee at any time.An Annual
Financial Statement signed jointly by the PTA President, Treasurer and Auditor shall be submitted
to the School Head not later than thirty (30) days after the last day of classes. Such financial
statement shall be audited by an external and independent auditor, posted in the PTA Bulletin
Board, and presented to the General Assembly during the next school year.

The PTA shall also submit to the School Head not later than November 30, a mid-school
year financial statement report ending October 30 duly audited and signed by the members of the
PTA’s audit committee.

Failure to submit such financial statement report shall be a ground for the cancellation of the
recognition of the PTA by the Division PTA Affairs Committee upon the recommendation of the
School Head.

Transparency and Accountability

For purposes of transparency and accountability, all documents pertaining to the operations
of the PTA shall be open to public examination.PTA are required to install a PTA Bulletin Board
outside of its office where announcements, approved resolutions, required reports and financial
statements shall be posted.

Prohibited Activities and Sanctions

PTAs are prohibited from:

Interfering in the academic and administrative management and operations of the
school, and of the DepED, in general;

Engaging in any partisan political activity within school premises;

Operating a canteen/school supplies store, or being a concessionaire thereof inside

the school or nearby premises, or offering these services to the school as its client either
directly or indirectly;

Selling insurance, pre-need plans or similar schemes or programs to students and/or

their parents; and

Such other acts or circumstances analogous to the foregoing.

PTA Officers and members of the Board of Directors are prohibited from collecting
salaries, honoraria, emoluments or other forms of compensation from any of the funds
collected or received by the PTA.

PTAs shall have no right to disburse, or charge any fees as service fees or
percentages against the amount collected pertinent to the School Publication Fee, Supreme
Student Government (SSG) Developmental Fund and other club membership fees and
contributions.

In no case shall a PTA or any of its officers or members of the Board of Directors call
 upon students and teachers for purposes of investigation or disciplinary action.

The recognition of any PTA shall be cancelled by the Division PTA Affairs Committee
upon the recommendation of the School Head concerned for any violation of the above-
mentioned prohibited activities and these Guidelines.Thereafter, the School Head may call
for a special election to replace the Board of Directors of the PTA whose recognition was
cancelled. Criminal, civil and/or administrative actions may be taken against any member or
officer of the Board of the PTA who may appear responsible for failure to submit the
necessary annual financial statements or for failure to account the funds of the PTA.

Transitory Provision
Existing and duly recognized PTCAs and its Federations shall no longer be given
recognition effective School Year 2009-2010. They shall cease operation at the end of School Year
2008-2009 and given until June 30, 2009 to dissolve, wind up their activities, submit their financial
reports and turn-over all documents to the School Heads and Schools Division Superintendents,
respectively.

Repealing Clause
All existing DepED Memoranda, Orders and other administrative issuances of similar nature
which are inconsistent with this Order are hereby deemed repealed and superseded
accordingly.Strict implementation of this Order is directed.
Encls.: As stated
Reference: DepED Order: No. 23, s. 2003 Allotment: 1- -(D.O. 50-97)
The School Governing Council
Read the powerpoint presentation found athttps://www.slideshare.net/hola2xhola/deped-school-
governing-council-sgc-orientation

The Professional Teacher Does

TEACHING PROFESSION: BEYOND COMPARE
Source: https://www.deped.gov.ph/2016/09/27/84632/
“Listen to Understand, Speak to be Understood, Educate to Improve, Touch to Create a Beautiful
Tomorrow”

Teachers are considered modernized heroes considering their countless efforts in the
transmission of knowledge and transformation of character in every learner for a hopeful
environment. In the simplest term, a teacher is someone who educates beyond limits, risks without
taking chances and opportunities, encourages in down moments, promises even if it is hopeless,
smiles in difficulties, and who loves without compromise.

Teachers are highly – empowered individuals. They constantly educate using their own
story of experiences. They read a lot, attend trainings to acquire new skills, learn and discover, and
continually expand their competence and serve others. Likewise, radiate positive energy by being
enthusiastic, hopeful, believing, and optimistic. Their actions and attitudes are in consonance to the
real situations by being balanced, temperate, moderate, and wise. On the other hand, teachers are
flexible and can adjust to different situations. They can easily navigate to the different stakeholders
in the community for the improvement of the school. Teachers are also smart considering that they
are very productive in working with the co – teachers in school. Truly, they produce outputs in new
and creative ways.

Teachers indeed are modernized heroes. Their function is the most critical and challenging
responsibility in the society – to teach and transform. Most of the time, their functions are being
extended at homes, sleeping late at night in preparing quality learning packages for the learners.
There are also some teachers who initiated a good practice in school which is “Adopt – A –
Learner” through feeding the malnourished children, providing pencils, papers and notebooks and
even free lunch just to encourage the learners to stay in the four walls of the room. One can’t ignore
the obvious fact that a teacher’s role is very necessary and important, not just as being considered
second parents but more so as heroes and keeper of everybody’s dream. No other government
employees can surpass the sacrifices of the teachers just to produce functional doctors, engineers,
leaders, nurses, lawyers, and even teachers working now in our society. Of course these
extraordinary professionals are also considered heroes but teachers serve as the living vehicle in
the transmission of knowledge and transforming character that geared towards the fulfilment of that
dream.

Lastly, no doubt teachers make a big difference in the life of every learner. These teachers
who are front liners in bringing out dreams and keeping those dreams come true are amazing
things, yet, seldom have been seen, recognized, and realized by most people in the society
nowadays.

Supplemental Materials
https://www.slideshare.net/AlReuben/parents-involvement-in-school-69182866
http://www.nea.org/assets/docs/PB11_ParentInvolvement08.pdf
https://www.teacherph.com/legal-bases-of-philippine-educational-system/
https://www.slideshare.net/AnneCastro10/the-code-of-ethics-for-professional-teachers-
89796153#:~:text=15.,excesses%2C%20much%20less%20illicit%20relations.
http://teachercodes.iiep.unesco.org/teachercodes/codes/Asia/Philippines.pdf
https://www.oecd.org/berlin/43541655.pdf
https://www.slideshare.net/jyotikathju/the-professional-teacher-61670106

Input 4

Organizational Leadership

Organizational Leadership: Nurturing Leadership in Your School

Source: http://www.ascd.org/publications/books/104150/chapters/Organizational-Leadership@-
Nurturing-Leadership-in-Your-School.aspx

For nearly a century, schools have functioned in the autocratic style of the line-staff model:
principals are managers and teachers are their employees, often voiceless and powerless to
influence their superiors' quest to improve student achievement. But with the growing emphasis on
high-stakes testing and the advent of No Child Left Behind, many school leaders are seeking more
effective organizational behavior by drawing on the leadership potential of all stakeholders,
especially teachers.

Schools making this change are creating and expanding teachers' roles as leaders. For
principals, this trend is a shift from “relying on the power of the system” to “seeking to empower
others”—or, more specifically, a shift from “seeking to be in control” to “letting go of control and
building a community of relationships that tends to be self-organizing” (Caine & Caine, 2000, p. 8).
Lending support to the need for transformation, Buchen (2000) argues that “the only leadership that
will make a difference is that of teachers. They alone are positioned where all the fulcrums are for
change. They alone know what the day-to-day problems are and what it takes to solve them. They,
not the principals, should be the ones to hire new teachers. They know what is needed.”

A task force report from the School Leadership for the 21st Century Initiative (2001) echoes
these sentiments. It states: “Mischaracterized though they often are as incompetent know-nothings,
teachers are, paradoxically, also widely viewed as . . . indispensable but unappreciated leaders in
the truest meaning of the word. . . . It would be difficult to find a more authentic but unacknowledged
example of leadership in modern life” (p. 1). The report claims that teachers are essential to reform
and that they possess a body of knowledge yet to be exploited.

But we already knew that. That's common sense.

We educators also knew that the role ripest for this kind of metamorphosis is that of the
department chair in high schools or the team leader in elementary and middle schools.
Department chairs and team leaders walk a fine line: they are neither teacher nor administrator.
They nurture colleagues and teach alongside them, but they also must retain allegiance to their
administrators. They lack line authority. Considering how essential teacher leaders are to improving
achievement, this is perhaps the most curious aspect of their roles. They are constantly reminded,
by both administrators and teachers, of all they cannot do—regardless of their potential for positive
change, which is often greater than that of all other leaders in a school because of their broad
sphere of influence.

Teacher leaders possess a semblance of authority but no formal power—only the illusion of
power. For example, a department chair cannot complete teacher evaluations. She cannot place a
memo or letter in someone's personnel file, nor can she dismiss a teacher. As a result, she must
find other ways to motivate, mobilize, and lead teachers. She must rely on intrinsic leadership
abilities, knowledge of group dynamics, influence, respect, and leadership by example to boost the
productivity of her department.

In myopic schools, the role of department chair is limited to that of a paper pusher. These
schools view the teacher leader as someone who will complete the master schedule, order
supplies, maintain inventory, and pass along administrative directives to the department. These
schools either don't know how else to capitalize on the strengths of their teacher leaders or are
uncomfortable doing so. True, these traditional responsibilities are critical to maintaining the
wellness of a school, but in terms of improving the health of an organization, forward-thinking
schools have moved beyond this.

In schools where transformational leadership is present, administrators recognize that the

leadership of a department chair or team leader can make a significant difference to the climate and
culture of the school. They are not threatened by a teacher's influence or exercise of leadership, nor
by giving up some control. These administrators strive to encourage and cultivate leadership and
“make better use of the unique strengths and contributions [that] department heads can bring to
school management and improvement” (Weller, 2001, p. 80). At these schools, teacher leaders act
as coaches and mentors, observe classrooms so that instruction can be refined and best practices
implemented, and attempt to realize a vision or to “reculture” the environment. With the pressure of
high-stakes testing and the need to meet state and federal benchmarks, administrators rely on
these leaders to improve achievement and even defer to them in certain instances.

Roles for Teacher Leaders

Although the traditional teacher leader is still important in a school, other leadership
positions can have as much influence in ensuring student achievement. These roles offer teachers
a greater voice in shaping programs, supporting the mission, and guiding a team toward its goal,
which will ultimately help the students and the school achieve.

Not all leadership positions are formal in nature. Every school has teacher leaders who do
not serve—and may never have served—as official leaders, which is one of the most unique
components of teacher leadership. In any kind of organization, informal leaders command a great
deal of respect; they have much say and sway in determining a team's climate or the chances of a
proposal's adoption, and they are often sought after for advice.

Similarly, not all leadership roles are fixed—meaning assigned, specific positions. Someone
might act as a mentor one week and then assume the role of innovator with a unique proposal the
following week. These fluid and spontaneous roles are just as essential as the leader to the
success of the team. Ideally, these people are the supporters whom the leader can trust and turn to
for help in a variety of matters.

It is also expected that leadership roles will change, shift, and evolve over time. If someone
was a team leader for the past five years, it does not guarantee him that role for a sixth year.
Leadership roles should not be determined by seniority. Therefore, if standardized results are
marginal or a teacher's leadership is questionable, a change is warranted. Don't be afraid to make
changes; change, along with its potential for struggle and conflict, is often an essential ingredient of
success.

If you are a department chair or team leader, you probably have already realized how
difficult it is to accomplish everything that your job entails. Effective teacher leaders are usually
given more responsibility, whether they want it or not, so you need to learn how not to overburden
your teachers and how to say no (and that there is nothing wrong in doing so) to avoid burnout.
Although the following leadership positions can enhance teachers' professional self-worth, these
roles are equally significant to you: delegating (not avoiding) responsibility is critical if you hope to
succeed as a leader.

Moreover, these roles can be vehicles for grooming future leaders. Aside from becoming a
department chair, counselor, or administrator, a teacher has very little opportunity for career
advancement within a school building. Not only can the leadership possibilities below benefit a
school or a program, they can also spark interest in pursuing a position at the central office or
collegiate level, where teachers can have an even greater influence on education.

Grade Level/Subject Area Leader

The grade level leader coordinates specific organizational needs (whether the 5th grade will
take its annual class trip to Philadelphia, what supplies to order, and so on), and he runs meetings
that address concerns and strategies regarding specific students.

This leadership position is often further broken down by content area or instructional
concerns. Through horizontal alignment, the subject area specialist coordinates curriculum across
the grade level, providing instructional leadership and support to teachers of a common subject. For
instance, the subject leader might call a meeting to discuss why some 6th graders are having more
success than others in comprehending photosynthesis, and which strategies have been effective in
conveying the concept.

Monitoring the instruction and assessments of the teachers on the grade level is paramount
since every student in each subject area is expected to possess the same set of skills and body of
knowledge at the end of the year. These leaders initiate curriculum mapping and scrutinize the
assessments used. Analyzing data also plays a large role in improving student achievement, so
leaders should be aware of the most recent data about the team and its progress toward certain
benchmarks. Finally, these leaders create staff development opportunities for their teams, because
they best know the challenges that the teams face.

Vertical Leader
This role is similar to the above, except that the leader is in charge of seeing that curriculum
is aligned up and down the grade levels. For example, the 6th grade vertical team leader ensures
that students have acquired the knowledge and skills in their previous math classes that they need
for success at the benchmark level. If not, leaders find ways to tighten the instruction and the
curriculum. They also promote collaboration and share pertinent content literature.

Backup Leader
Train future leaders by rotating teachers as the backup to your position. Invest time to sit
down with them and explain the nature of your job, or to discuss situations that arise during the
course of your day. You might have them proofread one of your e-mail messages so they can learn
about the issues you deal with (plus, it is always a good idea to have an extra set of eyes look over
something you wrote).

Let them join you in interviews. Afterward, meet with them immediately to explain your line of
questioning or to see what characteristics of the applicant they picked up on. Send them in your
place to meetings where they will learn how time-consuming, and at times frustrating, a leadership
position can be and how to cope with that. Have them assume your responsibilities when you are
absent.

Basically, let them experience your experience, similar to an informal internship where they
can get an overview of your position and its nuances. While you are equipping them with essential
skills and knowledge, you may be creating your successor for when you move on. Even if you don't
leave in the near future, your backup will have been trained to take a leadership position elsewhere.
As one of my administrators used to preach, begin the cycle anew and help reform education from
within.

Mentor
This person takes on the responsibility of coaching and advising novice teachers and
teachers who are new to the school system. With more and more novice teachers leaving the field
within the first few years of teaching, the mentor is not only concerned with instructional and
organizational needs; he also lends emotional and moral support to alleviate the stress that the job
creates.

A mentor need not always be the strongest instructional leader, but he should have a solid
grounding in best practices and his content area. He should be able to suggest ideas and strategies
to assist in classroom instruction. And he must be astute enough to read people (that is, he must be
perceptive and have a high emotional intelligence). Because of the importance of retaining
teachers, new employees should be carefully placed and matched with mentors, either by a lead
mentor, who oversees mentors in the entire building, or by the team or department leader. (See
Resource 1.)

Peer Coach
Not a new concept, peer coaching has received much attention in recent years and is
embraced and advanced in some school districts. A peer coach is similar to a mentor except that
with this pair, both teachers—not necessarily novices—function as mentor and as protégé. In this
relationship, the word “peer” is key. Because peer denotes equality, these teachers' classroom
visits are nonthreatening. They are not evaluative and prescriptive; they are diagnostic and
constructive, allowing teachers to experiment and take risks without fear of judgment.

After each has observed the other in class, peer coaches discuss observed instructional
behaviors, actions, and practices, which can include giving feedback on plans, lessons, instruction,
classroom presence, and classroom management. There is a safe environment among these
volunteers that enables them to converse in a candid manner and learn from each other. This
ultimately benefits the teachers' growth, the team's growth, and the students' growth.

Note-Taker/Recorder
It is imperative to keep a record of every meeting because we tend to have selective
memories, especially when we are passionate about an issue. An accurate record of what was
discussed and what was decided can be helpful in case of future disagreement, as well as in
bringing people who missed the meeting up to speed.
Minutes should document who was present, who was absent, and who was late. Working
from an agenda, the note-taker keeps a record of issues and questions raised and the resulting
dialogue, outcomes, and resolutions. In circumstances where there may be rancor over what the
minutes reflect, it might be prudent to have two people record them and compare notes to ensure
their accuracy.

Although it might be interpreted that the note-taker is in cahoots with you if she sits next to
you, proximity can be helpful. It enables her to look over your shoulder at your own notes in case
she misses something and to stay on top of every issue. It is also a good idea to keep the minutes
in a central place so all teachers, regardless of what team they are serving on, have access to
them.

Parliamentarian/Timekeeper
This person alleviates the team leader's responsibilities by keeping the group on task with
the agenda. After a stressful day of work, it is natural for a meeting to degenerate into a complaint
session or, in worse cases, a complete digression into the social lives of the group's members. This
leader keeps the group plowing ahead and reminds members when they are nearing the cutoff or
have exceeded the time limit for a topic. Meetings should be productive, and the main reason they
often are not is that someone has been allowed to derail the group and pursue his own topics of
discussion while everyone waits for someone else to intervene.

Presenter
Too often schools are obsessed with spending money to send teachers to conferences
outside the system when the answers, knowledge, and resources are right there within their own
walls. Both weak and strong school systems tend to underuse the extraordinary wealth of talent
they possess.

Target one of your teacher's strengths and ask him to give a presentation. Or ask someone,
or a team, to read a professional article and report back to the group on it. This role is by no means
fixed. For example, the team leader can begin by selecting someone to present. Then the role
should rotate through the team, perhaps in a “popcorn” fashion (often used during reading
activities), where the last person to present picks the next person to present. This kind of staff
development should be the focus for most of your team meetings.

Conference Attendee
 After you have exhausted your team's resources, try to send your teachers to seminars,
depending on your budget. They should also attend local, state, and national conferences.
However, this should not be a free vacation. The attendee should clearly understand that she is
responsible for bringing information back to the team at the next meeting. This sharing can lead to
further meeting topics and action research.

Speaker/Writer
Have your teachers identify something that they do extremely well and encourage them to
polish, organize, and market it by submitting proposals to present at conferences. Or encourage
them to share their experiences and successes by writing articles for various educational journals.
These are great opportunities for them to grow professionally and to network—and it brings your
school good publicity. Moreover, if they impress someone with their presentation or article, then that
could turn into a speaking engagement—a chance to make a few extra dollars with little additional
preparation. As one colleague explained, a strong presentation is like an annuity because it keeps
on paying.

School Plan Chair

Contrary to how it is viewed and used (or not used) in some schools, the school plan is a
vital, fluid document that should guide your team toward improving student achievement. The role
of school plan chair usually does not rotate because consistency and continuity are extremely
important. The school plan chair has an integral position in coordinating and guiding the school
toward achieving its vision.

People should not feel penalized for holding this position in spite of the work it might entail. If
your school functions in a collegial and cooperative manner, a team leader or department chair will
not have to bear the brunt of this responsibility. The school plan chair should be charismatic,
compassionate, and organized. She will be working with all the teachers in the building; a group
effort is needed to create or enhance this document.

Faculty Representative
Some school systems have faculty councils where teacher leaders bring team, department,
and faculty issues to the administration. If teachers are concerned that a tardy policy is not being
enforced, for example, then the faculty representative would bring this issue to the council. Other
school systems have a council where teachers can bring issues directly to the superintendent. If
teachers are concerned about the number of inservice days that the county is mandating, this would
be the forum to bring such a concern. And, finally, some schools have instructional councils that
teachers sit on, where leaders discuss issues pertaining to classroom and buildingwide instruction.

A faculty representative seeks out the questions, concerns, and issues of his colleagues and
brings them, verbatim when possible, to a more powerful body. He could set up a drop-box in the
building or, with the aid of the building's technology specialist, establish an e-mail account that
would protect the anonymity of teachers posting or sending messages. This leader brings back
minutes to the team or school so people know what has been decided and can confirm that their
concerns have been accurately represented.

A union representative is a similar position. A strong teacher advocate, the union rep listens
to faculty concerns and works closely with the administration and external bodies. This leader, who
in many ways is a watchdog, protects and ensures teacher interests, advises teachers who believe
their rights have been infringed, and, in some states, plays a role in negotiating contracts.

Host Teacher
 A host teacher is someone who is willing to sponsor a practicum student or a student
teacher from the local college or university. Finding the right match is crucial; you want the visiting
student to have the best and most realistic experience possible. Some host teachers might view this
role as a vacation because someone else will be responsible for teaching their classes. It should be
stressed that hosting a student teacher involves much time and can even be quite burdensome,
especially if the person is not as well prepared as he should be.

This leader models exemplary instructional practices, techniques, and strategies for the
student teacher to observe during his stay. After the student teacher has observed the host
teacher's classes for a couple of weeks, the bulk of the teaching load is turned over to him. The
host teacher assists with unit and lesson planning and helps him create assessments. Although it
would seem that the host teacher has fewer responsibilities because she is teaching fewer classes,
she has the responsibility of coaching and mentoring the aspiring teacher. She observes classes,
provides timely and meaningful feedback and constructive criticism to her student teacher, and
conferences with both him and the college supervisor regarding his progress.

If a team leader or department chair isn't the host teacher, he should meet with the student
teacher to provide an overview of the program and its policies. Meeting again at the end of the
student's stay to answer lingering questions will provide closure to the experience.

Instructional Audit Leader

Every public school must go through some kind of an accreditation cycle. This leader serves
on the school's accreditation committee by gathering evidence to demonstrate that the school is
meeting certain standards; he meets with the visiting committee, and then reports its
recommendations to the school or relevant team and assists in making any necessary changes. A
variation of this role is for a teacher to serve on the committee that visits schools on the cycle. In
doing so, the leader can learn more about the functioning of the total school and its programs and
can bring back information about successful programs and ideas.

Search Committee Panelist

In schools where administrative applicants must interview with a panel—a team usually
consisting of the principal or her designee, teachers, and, in some cases, even parents and
students—a teacher might enjoy having a hand in finding the best fit for the school and community
by sitting on such a panel. Although he might not have a voice in creating the panel questions, he
can, with the principal's permission, canvass the school to determine the characteristics and
qualities the faculty is looking for in their new administrator. If he has the principal's trust, he might
even be the one to organize and coordinate the panel; he could review résumés or tap other
teachers to serve with him on the team.

Community Leader
All teachers should be involved in their communities not just because of the obvious reasons
but also because of the political ramifications. At a time when budgets are slashed because
community members do not have children attending the local school and are loath to pass a tax
increase, and when a significant portion of the public believes that teachers work only “9:00 to 3:00
and have summers free,” PR work is needed to demonstrate the many services that a school
provides and the good things that occur there.

Teachers can reach out to the surrounding community by volunteering to teach courses in
their areas of specialty, by attending community functions to show their support, or by attending
community meetings to keep abreast of concerns. Attending PTSA meetings or serving as a liaison
between the PTSA and the faculty is another way to build connections.
Teachers can also exhibit leadership by actively engaging the community. A leader I know initiated
a “community and texts” program, a kind of book club where every student, parent, and community
member was invited to read the same book and meet at the school for book talks. This leader had
incredible success in uniting property owners and businesses and showcasing the innovative things
the school was doing.

Other kinds of community outreach can be targeted solely at parents. I hosted two events,
one on the SAT and one on our AP program, so parents could become better informed. Securing
guest speakers, sending letters home in multiple languages, and using the PTSA to promote the
events drew some of the largest audiences the school had seen and did wonders in involving
parents in their children's education.

Student Activities Coordinator

Often an administrator is the one to oversee the placement of sponsors and coaches to the
groups needing sponsorship. But a teacher might be able to forge a tighter bond between students
and organization sponsors by finding the best match. A good match could have a direct influence
on student achievement because, as some literature suggests, extracurriculars and achievement
are related. In addition to overseeing student groups, this leader might encourage teachers to
become sponsors or encourage groups to plan joint events.

Technology Leader
This person does not initially need to be the technology guru of the team. She should have
an interest in technology, but she can be trained in this area. The leader coordinates the team's
technological needs and serves as a troubleshooter when glitches arise. If your building has a
technology committee, she serves as a liaison to that group and assists in making buildingwide
decisions concerning technology.

Web Page Curator

This position is best suited for a technophile. Many teachers love technology and crave the
opportunity to demonstrate their knowledge of it—and will jump at the chance to use it. Tap these
feelings and abilities by making someone responsible for creating or monitoring a department or
team Web page. This can be a vital resource for parents and students in addition to being a great
PR vehicle. This person might create links to other helpful Web sites, post bios of your teachers,
write an online newsletter, or work on anything else that would be beneficial to the learning
community.

Supplies Coordinator
A supplies coordinator may not be necessary on all grade levels or in all subject areas. For
example, a high school history department may be concerned only with books and traditional
supplies, but a 7th grade science team might need someone to coordinate the use, inventory, and
ordering of lab equipment and supplies. This leader's responsibility is to determine what the team
needs and ensure it has the materials for success.

Leadership Qualities
Although the options for leadership are varied, there are a number of qualities that leaders
have in common. Many of these characteristics are seen in effective teachers, which might be why
people gravitate toward them and why they seek leadership positions. Look for the following traits in
the teachers in your department and in your school, and steer your potential teacher leaders toward
growth opportunities.

Principled
 One of the problems with U.S. politics today is that few representatives are willing to take a
stand and fight for what they truly believe in. It's not surprising that people are apathetic and voter
turnout is consistently low. People want someone to believe in, someone who will “fight the good
fight” and risk the consequences of doing so, and teachers are no different.
It would seem that tenured teachers have little to lose because they have job security, but
repercussions can take the form of having their schedules changed, being forced to “float” between
rooms, not receiving administrative support, or being unable to advance in their careers. A teacher
who weighs these risks and still wants his voice heard over the din is a leader whom people want to
work with and to follow. These teachers are student centered and not motivated by stipends or how
being a leader makes them feel.

A principled person is also trustworthy. Earning the trust of colleagues is no small feat, and
maintaining confidentiality can be difficult sometimes. Those who confide in you expect you to keep
information to yourself, and if you do, you can be rewarded in a variety of ways.

Honest and Ethical

By choice or not, people will generally follow their leaders. If a leader is honest and ethical,
however, he will be respected, which is more important. An elementary school team leader was
asked not to tell one of his teachers that she would be inheriting a very disruptive student midway
through the marking period. If he withheld this information and was later asked if he had previous
knowledge of it, he would either have to lie, which he was uncomfortable doing, or admit the truth,
which he believed would diminish his leadership.

The day he learned of the news, he decided it was best to tell the teacher after school what
was going to happen the next day. Consequently, the teacher respected him for being forthright and
treating her as a professional. He was able to prevent her emotional outburst, which would have
occurred the following day when the disruptive student walked into her classroom—and which
would have affected the teacher, her students, the leader, the guidance department, and the
administration. And his leadership was strengthened as a result.

Organized
A disorganized teacher leader would be hard-pressed to handle all her responsibilities inside
and outside of the classroom while holding a leadership position. Organized, though, does not
mean that every paper is tucked neatly away in a manila folder or that a workstation is spotless.
Being organized means having some kind of system in place, however foreign it may appear to
others, to stay focused and on track, which facilitates being able to handle the myriad
responsibilities necessary for teaching and leading.

Perceptive
Nowadays, too few people listen carefully to what others are saying, and too many ignore
facial expressions, gestures, and other clues. Being sensitive to people's needs and concerns is
crucial. It is essential to be able to discern when your team is overwhelmed, when a meeting
ceases to be productive, and when your teachers need assistance or direction but are reluctant to
ask for it.

Sensing what people need and when they need it is a key leadership quality. Successful
leaders are able to read people. They mentally note people's reactions and remember certain
situations, and they are able to connect the dots along the way. They perceive differences between
what people say and what they do. They are observant, as they note the school politics, identify
potential threats, and adjust accordingly so that their actions are not damaging. Trusting their
instincts is another way that these leaders are effective: they know when to go with their gut.
Empathetic and Supportive
People are more inclined to follow someone who understands what they are going through.
It is not good enough for a leader to imagine what it is like to have a class of 35 freshmen; she
needs to have had such a large group herself. This is why administrators who had only a brief
tenure in the classroom, or who never taught, have a tough time leading: they are unable to
convince their constituency that they have “been there, done that.” A lack of direct experience
makes it difficult for them to provide viable and valuable suggestions to teachers, or for teachers to
trust and act on recommendations they receive.

An empathetic and supportive leader assists others emotionally, socially, and instructionally,
and forges connections with them. Without being judgmental, she finds ways to help people
recognize and learn from their mistakes. She is not intent on punishing people but instead on
helping them.

Altruistic
Much as a mother feeds her children first when there is not enough to go around, those who
put the needs of others ahead of their own have a solid understanding of what true leadership
entails. The sacrifice may involve waiting until everyone else receives supplies or taking on an
unappealing task. Leaders sacrifice their planning periods, their free time, and sometimes even
their personal lives for the benefit of others. A leader understands that the health of the family
depends on letting others eat before she does.

Accessible
The concept of having an “open-door policy” has lost almost all its cachet. Some profess it
but don't practice it, whereas some preach it but make others feel awkward for taking advantage of
it. We obviously should be accessible during contract hours. But because the nature of the job
demands that we often take our work home, we should be accessible after hours as well.

An administrator made himself accessible to me by giving me both his home phone number
and his cell phone number, and when I called, he never made me feel that I was intruding on his
time. He understood that for us to be successful, these kinds of sacrifices were necessary. In turn,
all my teachers have my contact information. When a new hire needed to reach me, he was
astonished when a colleague gave him my cell phone number, exclaiming, “You mean he doesn't
mind if you call him during the weekend?”
Of course, you need to set limits. I know a department chair who would receive phone calls from
one of her teachers several times a week simply to talk about his day. This chair was going beyond
being accessible; she was unable to set and communicate boundaries.

Resourceful
Obstacles do not slow down a good leader; they are opportunities for him to flex his
problem-solving muscles. People are inspired to work with a leader who can circumvent roadblocks,
devise creative solutions, and use the network. For example, a resourceful teacher does not accept
a shortage of funds as the bottom line; he knows whose pockets to pick or finds people to subsidize
the team's needs.

Fair
Being professional means putting aside personal prejudices for the good of the students. A
fair leader hears all voices, does not play favorites (although she may have them), and is not self-
serving. Treating everyone fairly is more important than treating everyone equally, and a fair leader
is an impartial leader. She does not allow friendships or rivalries to impede the group's progress,
especially when moving toward improved achievement. She understands that she walks a fine line,
expresses that to her teachers, and practices fairness toward all whenever possible.

Accepting
Accepting people for who and what they are shows leadership. Although placing blame may
make a leader feel more secure, it is better for the group if he accepts people's flaws and
shortcomings and learns how to work with them (or around them). Also, rather than passing the
buck, accepting the blame for a problem demonstrates responsibility. Teachers respect and want to
work with leaders who are willing to be accountable, a rare quality indeed in our current age of
abdication of responsibility.
Vulnerable
Leaders who own up to mistakes or share their errors with their colleagues, with an
explanation of what they learned from the experience, are valued. Leaders who admit mistakes
show a willingness to grow. They are perceived as human, not as unapproachable academics in an
ivory tower or arrogant know-it-alls. Not afraid to admit when they do not know an answer, they are
willing to learn and ask others for the answers. And humility can be refreshingly disarming.

Forward-Thinking
Some people have a knack for anticipating what might happen next. Whether it is predicting
the outcome of a meeting or a situation or analyzing political and educational trends, the ability to
plan for what may be coming down the pike is a talent that not many possess. Successful athletes
demonstrate this on a regular basis by just seeming to know what is needed or where they are
needed. Successful teacher leaders are no different. Conducting a parametric analysis (where
education is, where it has been, and where it is headed) can put a team on the cutting edge.
Leaders can save their group time and growing pains by suggesting change and giving choices
rather than mandates, which are always less palatable.

Futurists are often risk-takers. The teacher in a previous scenario who had the dilemma of
whether or not to inform a colleague about a decision is a risk-taker of sorts. He was not foolhardy;
he did not rush into the situation but weighed the risks and the consequences and took action. As
General George S. Patton once remarked, taking calculated risks is quite different from being rash.
Examples of risks include piloting a new idea or strategy or supporting someone who is willing to do
so. Similarly, these people seize the initiative instead of waiting for others to act. They recognize the
far-reaching effects of a good idea and get the ball rolling.

Global
Seeing the bigger picture is a skill that facilitates problem solving. A teacher leader is not
always able to understand why decisions are made and how they affect the entire organizational
structure, but she does comprehend the ramifications on her team. She is able to see beyond her
classroom to at least her hallway. She doesn't deal in scraps; she deals in what is best for all
students and teachers.

Decisive and Incisive

Leadership demands an action-oriented, decisive person: those leaders who get things
done are the most appreciated. They take the initiative and make things happen. Penetrating to the
heart of an issue shows a keen and quick mind—and it can save time. In a profession where time is
limited and people spend an inordinate amount of time discussing, debating, and deliberating
issues, respect belongs to the person who, without making a rushed decision, can consider all
angles and cut to the chase.

Intelligent
 Intelligence as a key quality may sound obvious, but a leader I know was not respected
because he lacked depth in his content knowledge. Once teachers realized this, they ran academic
circles around him to hide what was really going on in their classrooms, and students used this to
their advantage to help them get what they wanted.
Similarly, teachers resent leaders who simply give an answer because they are expected to have
one. Students can sense when adults fake their way through an explanation, but adults can be
more perceptive and unforgiving. Even though it seems that anti-intellectualism is rampant in our
society, educators value intelligence and crave an intelligent leader.

The Leadership Choice

You already possess a powerful strategy for improving achievement: nurturing teacher
leadership. Most people want to feel that they are part of something significant, that what they do
matters, and that they are contributing members to a common goal that affects achievement.
Teacher leadership meets this need because it creates a greater sense of ownership, buy-in, and
community.
Although administrators hold influential positions in guiding a school toward its goals, it is
the teacher leader's interpretation, support, and implementation of decisions—his and the
administration's—that move an organization forward. He simultaneously deals with a myriad of
obstacles and runs interference so that an avalanche of issues does not deluge the main office.
If a teacher leader is effective, he will rarely need to disturb an administrator, and what
administrator would not appreciate more time to devote to her responsibilities? In fact, by taking on
more responsibility or solving problems creatively, he can build rapport with her. The teacher
leader, in turn, will be better supported by his administrator, which will ultimately increase his
effectiveness. Moreover, because of high-stakes testing, administrators are spending more time out
of the building at workshops, meetings, and training sessions or promoting the school, so the need
for teacher leadership has never been more obvious. Identify those teachers in your department
who are integral to its success and train them as teacher leaders.

There will be those who rise to the challenge and those who attempt to knock them down.
Leadership breeds envy, and we teachers can be very petty people sometimes. What is baffling is
that we're not envious of other teacher leaders because of what their positions bring. Most often, no
tangible rewards are associated with teacher leadership. Many department chairs and mentors
receive some kind of financial compensation, but dedicated leaders do not take on these roles for
remuneration (and it usually is nominal in relation to the hours they spend).

Most teachers accept leadership as a reward in itself: they derive a sense of self-worth from
having their voices heard, developing vision, or serving their students and colleagues. Desirable as
this satisfaction is, it should hardly evoke envy or (at worst) maliciousness. But it can. I'm not here
to explain human nature but to remind you that these kinds of feelings and behaviors exist.

To mollify those who are discontented, you or an administrator might be tempted to grant
them leadership positions. This tactic might work in some cases. Perhaps putting such people in the
spotlight will unleash their latent leadership abilities or force them to step up to the plate. This is not
always the case, however, and such a decision can backfire with horrendous consequences.
Remember that the business of educating children is not Little League baseball: everyone does not
get a chance to swing the bat. A score is kept, and there are winners and losers. To give everyone
a chance to play, regardless of ability, is damaging to students and can be even more damaging to
the game.

Our student athletes realize this. Students are not selected to start on the varsity team
simply because they are seniors. They know that it takes more than a desire and a commitment to
win: their abilities determine their roles. To use another analogy, a high-profile legal case is not
given to a lawyer simply because it is his turn in the firm to have one. That would not be serving a
defendant's interests. Lawyers receive such cases because they earn them. The same should hold
true for your teachers. If adolescents and other professionals can understand this concept, you
need to believe that your teachers will understand it also. If a teacher who lacks leadership qualities
and abilities feels it is unfair that she does not have a leadership position, find another way to make
her feel valued.

Leadership Versus Management

Source: https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/The-difference-between-educational-management-
and-Connolly-James/85d6cee32424554c2e8644246f9995ac169bd06e?p2df

Educational management and educational leadership are central concepts in understanding

organising in educational institutions but their meaning, the difference between them and their value
in educational organising remain the subject of debate. In this article, we analyse and contrast the
two concepts. We conclude that educational management entails carrying the responsibility for the
proper functioning of a system in an educational institution in which others participate. Carrying a
responsibility of this kind is a state of mind and does not necessitate actions, though it typically and
frequently does. In contrast, educational leadership is the act of influencing others in educational
settings to achieve goals and necessitates actions of some kind. When those carrying a delegated
responsibility act in relation to that responsibility, they influence and are therefore leading. Although
educational leadership is ideally undertaken responsibly, in practice it does not necessarily entail
carrying the responsibility for the functioning of the educational system in which the influence is
exercised. Through our analysis, the notion of responsibility, which is underplayed in considerations
of organising in educational institutions, comes to the fore. Educational responsibility is an important
notion and it should play a more prominent role in analyses of organising in educational institutions.

The Difference Between Leadership and Management

By Nikita DuggalLast updated on Jul 13, 202014503243
https://www.simplilearn.com/leadership-vs-management-difference-article

Many wonder about the differences between leadership and management. Are they
mutually exclusive? Do professionals have both qualities—or do they learn one or the other over a
long period of time? These questions are just the tip of the iceberg. In this article, we will take a look
at both.

What is Leadership? What is Management?

The words “leader” and “manager” are among the most commonly used words in business
and are often used interchangeably. But have you ever wondered what the terms actually mean?

What Do Managers Do?

A manager is the member of an organization with the responsibility of carrying out the four
important functions of management: planning, organizing, leading, and controlling. But are all
managers leaders?

Most managers also tend to be leaders, but only IF they also adequately carry out the
leadership responsibilities of management, which include communication, motivation, providing
inspiration and guidance, and encouraging employees to rise to a higher level of productivity.
Unfortunately, not all managers are leaders. Some managers have poor leadership qualities, and
employees follow orders from their managers because they are obligated to do so—not necessarily
because they are influenced or inspired by the leader.
 Managerial duties are usually a formal part of a job description; subordinates follow as a
result of the professional title or designation. A manager’s chief focus is to meet organizational
goals and objectives; they typically do not take much else into consideration. Managers are held
responsible for their actions, as well as for the actions of their subordinates. With the title comes the
authority and the privilege to promote, hire, fire, discipline, or reward employees based on their
performance and behavior.

What Do Leaders Do?

The primary difference between management and leadership is that leaders don’t
necessarily hold or occupy a management position. Simply put, a leader doesn’t have to be an
authority figure in the organization; a leader can be anyone.

Unlike managers, leaders are followed because of their personality, behavior, and beliefs. A
leader personally invests in tasks and projects and demonstrates a high level of passion for work.
Leaders take a great deal of interest in the success of their followers, enabling them to reach their
goals to satisfaction—these are not necessarily organizational goals.

There isn’t always tangible or formal power that a leader possesses over his followers.
Temporary power is awarded to a leader and can be conditional based on the ability of the leader to
continually inspire and motivate their followers.

Subordinates of a manager are required to obey orders while following is optional when it
comes to leadership. Leadership works on inspiration and trust among employees; those who do
wish to follow their leader may stop at any time. Generally, leaders are people who challenge the
status quo. Leadership is change-savvy, visionary, agile, creative, and adaptive.

What Are The Traits A Manager Possesses?

Below are four important traits of a manager:

The ability to execute a Vision

Managers build a strategic vision and break it down into a roadmap for their team to follow.
The ability to Direct
Managers are responsible for day-to-day efforts while reviewing necessary resources, and
anticipating needs to make changes along the way.

Process Management
Managers have the authority to establish work rules, processes, standards, and operating
procedures.

People Focused
Managers are known to look after and cater to the needs of the people they are responsible
for: listening to them, involving them in certain key decisions, and accommodating reasonable
requests for change to contribute to increased productivity.

What Are The Traits A Leader Possesses?

Below are five important traits of a leader:

Vision
A leader knows where they stand, where they want to go and tend to involve the team in charting a
future path and direction.

Honesty and Integrity

Leaders have people who believe them and walk by their side down the path the leader sets.

Inspiration
Leaders are usually inspirational—and help their team understand their own roles in a bigger
context.

Communication Skills
Leaders always keep their team informed about what’s happening, both present and the future—
along with any obstacles that stand in their way.

Ability to Challenge
Leaders are those that challenge the status quo. They have their style of doing things and problem-
solving and are usually the ones who think outside the box.

The Three Important Differences Between A Manager and A leader

Being a manager and a leader at the same time is a viable concept. But remember, just
because someone is a phenomenal leader, it does not necessarily guarantee that the person will be
an exceptional manager as well, and vice versa. So, what are the standout differences between the
two roles?

A leader invents or innovates while a manager organizes

The leader of the team comes up with new ideas and kickstarts the organization’s shift or
transition to a forward-thinking phase. A leader always has his or her eyes set on the horizon,
developing new techniques and strategies for the organization. A leader has immense knowledge of
all the current trends, advancements, and skillsets—and has a clarity of purpose and vision. By
contrast, a manager is someone who generally only maintains what is already established. A
manager needs to watch the bottom line while controlling employees and workflow in the
organization and preventing any chaos.

In his book, The Wall Street Journal Essential Guide to Management: Lasting Lessons from
the Best Leadership Minds of Our Time, Alan Murray cites that a manager is someone who
“establishes appropriate targets and yardsticks, and analyzes, appraises and interprets
performance.” Managers understand the people they work with and know which person is the best
fit for a specific task.

A manager relies on control, whereas a leader inspires trust:

A leader is a person who pushes employees to do their best and knows how to set an
appropriate pace and tempo for the rest of the group. Managers, on the other hand, are required by
their job description to establish control over employees, which, in turn, helps them develop their
assets to bring out their best. Thus, managers have to understand their subordinates well to do their
job effectively.

A leader asks the questions “what” and “why", whereas a manager leans more towards the
questions “how” and “when”:
To be able to do justice to their role as a leader, some may question and challenge authority
to modify or even reverse decisions that may not have the team’s best interests in mind. Good
leadership requires a great deal of good judgment, especially when it comes to the ability to stand
up to senior management over a point of concern or if there is an aspect in need of improvement. If
a company goes through a rough patch, a leader will be the one who will stand up and ask the
question: “What did we learn from this?”Managers, however, are not required to assess and
analyze failures. Their job description emphasizes asking the questions “how” and “when,” which
usually helps them make sure that plans are properly executed. They tend to accept the status quo
exactly the way it is and do not attempt a change.

The Three Tests

In the article Three Differences Between Managers And Leaders, Vineet Nayar discusses
three tests he devised to help managers decide if they have successfully made the shift from
managing people to leading them.
Counting Value vs. Creating Value:
Managers are the only ones who count value, he says. There are some who cut down on
the value by disabling or otherwise countering ideas and people who add value.
Leaders, however, focus instead on working to generate a certain value that is over and above that
which the team creates—and is as much a creator of value as their followers. Nayar goes on to say
that, “Leading by example and leading by enabling people are the hallmarks of action-based
leadership.”

Circles of Influence vs. Circles of Power:

As mentioned previously, managers have subordinates and leaders gain followers, which
implies that managers create a circle of power while leaders create a circle of influence. Nayar
offers advice on how to identify which circle you have around you. He says, “The quickest way to
figure out which of the two you’re doing is to count the number of people outside your reporting
hierarchy who come to you for advice. The more that do, the more likely it is that you are perceived
to be a leader.”

Leading People vs. Managing People:

One responsibility of a manager is controlling a group in order to accomplish a specific goal.
Leadership, on the other hand, is the ability of an individual to motivate, influence, and enable other
employees to make a contribution to the success of an organization. Inspiration and influence
separate leaders from managers—not control and power.

School Head Must be Both a Leader and a Manager

Principals as Leader-Managers
2016
https://www.educationworld.com/a_admin/admin/admin451.shtml

Principals often view leadership and management as two different roles, but the most
effective principals know how to blend the two. Included: Tips for combining leadership and
management skills to be a more effective administrator.

Successful principals learn to seamlessly blend their roles as managers and leaders and
understand the importance of both tasks, according to educators, authors, and consultants Dr.
Harvey Alvy and Dr. Pam Robbins. The pair, co-authors of The New Principal's Fieldbook:
Strategies for Success once led a session on this topic at the convention of the Association for
Supervision and Curriculum Development (ASCD).

"Principals are responsible for both leadership and management," said Dr. Alvy, a former
principal and professor in the department of education at Eastern Washington University. "A lot of
principals separate the two roles and do not realize how the roles go hand-in-hand."

Many leaders view management responsibilities at a lower level or lower "rank" because
they have little to do with vision, mission, culture building, and instructional supervision, according
to Dr. Alvy. But management goes hand-in-hand with leadership; many of the culture-building and
culture-shaping aspects of the job are accomplished through combining leadership and
management.

How to Lead and Manage

For example, when a principal is "monitoring" student dismissal at 3 p.m., that responsibility
should be viewed as both management and leadership, Dr. Alvy said, because the principal is
making sure students are safe as they are leaving school and taking the opportunity to talk with
students, teachers, and bus drivers about the day and important "One principal had a sign
educational issues -- such as, "Monica, I heard you did great on your that said 'Out Learning'
math test yesterday; well done!" that he would put on his
door when visiting
In assessing their skills as managers and leaders, classrooms. He had note
administrators should not separate the two roles, Dr. Alvy added. cards with every
teacher's name on them
"It is hard to determine [a principal's success in those roles] unless a and would mark the date
principal has a clear vision and mission of his or her job -- one that is he visited a classroom
focused on instructional leadership," he noted. "We cannot determine and what the teacher was
if we are successful unless we have a target or standard to judge our doing."
performance. The leadership vision needs to be about helping
students succeed academically and as citizens, and helping faculty and staff develop as
professionals with a common vision and mission about school and student success. Based on the
vision and mission the leader needs to set goals, and assess whether the goals have been
addressed during the year."

According to Dr. Alvy and Dr. Robbins, successful school leaders combine management and
leadership strategies effectively by maximizing quality instructional time.
using data.
managing their time effectively.
using faculty meetings to leverage professional learning.
reflecting.

"Also consider the emotional needs of the child," Dr. Robbins said. "You need to build heart
into the school plan. Remember heart in the equation of learning."

According to Robbins, one principal noticed a few months before graduation that certain kids
were at risk of not graduating. So the principal ordered graduation robes early and took pictures of
the kids in the robes, put them in frames, and gave them to the kids. "That inspired many of them to
complete school."

Managing Time, Data

A simple way to maximize learning time is by observing how effectively teachers use the first
five minutes of class time, Dr. Alvy said. "Look at how the first five minutes of class goes. If you lose
five minutes a day, that's 15 hours of instructional time a year." He also recommends principals pick
up examples of student work as they walk around the building.
"One of the most valuable management tools is data," Dr. Alvy added. "Make sure you make
decisions based on research. Consider what do on a daily basis to improve student achievement.
Remember to put data in context."

To successfully use data, combine leadership and management roles, Dr. Alvy continued.
"While managers are concerned with generating and collecting data sources, leaders go beyond
merely connecting, and scrutinize the most valuable data sources given contextual realities and
perceptions," he said. "Leaders then make decisions and act in the best interests of students,
faculty, and the school."

One new principal, for example, in reviewing student referrals, noticed that kids only were
referred to the office for negative reasons, said Dr. Robbins, an educational consultant who lives in
Virginia. The principal told the teachers that he wanted to change the policy so kids were referred
for good things as well. He papered the wall in his office with notes from kids who wrote about the
good things they did and signed their names.

"It changed the climate of the school," Dr. Robbins noted.

Principals also should take the time to walk through the school, a strategy Dr. Alvy and Dr.
Robbins call Leading and Learning by Wandering Around.

"One principal had a sign that said 'Out Learning' that he would put on his door when visiting
classrooms," Dr. Alvy noted. "He had note cards with every teacher's name on them and would
mark the date he visited a classroom and what the teacher was doing."
Another principal had blue cards, Dr. Alvy added. As he walked around the building, he jotted down
maintenance problems and gave them to his secretary, who called the custodian. The secretary
passed on the cards to the custodian. When the work was done, the custodian returned the card to
the principal, signed and dated.

"Ask yourself, 'What parts of the school should I be visiting but I'm not?'" Dr. Alvy said.
"Where you go in the building says a lot about you."

To help manage time, Drs. Alvy and Robbins recommended Covey's time management
matrix. This suggests dividing tasks into categories urgent and important, urgent and not important,
not urgent and important, not urgent and not important
"You need to organize and execute around priorities," Dr. Alvy added.
He also suggested administrators establish a Tickler File with information they will need for the
month, and for more long-term planning. "You also can put notes on
file for next year, such as 'shorten the graduation speech' or 'don't "One principal noticed a
invite someone back because of crude language'." few months before
graduation that certain
Faculty Meetings as Staff Development kids were at risk of not
Faculty meetings also should be treated as prime opportunities graduating. So the
for staff development. "They should not be times to review items that principal ordered
can be delivered via e-mail," Dr. Alvy said. "They should be planned graduation robes early
with the idea that every teacher can gain valuable information from the and took pictures of the
meeting." kids in the robes, put
them in frames, and gave
Use faculty meetings to leverage learning time, he said. To do them to the kids. That
that, use meetings for instructional curricular and assessment issues inspired many of them to
that foster student learning, such as analyzing data to make decisions complete school."
about needed interventions for students. Also, foster opportunities to
analyze student work and showcase students. Start the meeting with a student who received an
award or who plays an instrument; something inspirational.

One possibility is for teachers and administrators to read an article together and discuss it.

Principals also should provide opportunities to build trust, collaboration, and individual and
organizational capacity, as well as employ celebrations to call attention to treasured school values.

Many principals would say that reflecting on their job and what they do is a luxury they can't
afford, but Drs. Alvy and Robbins insist it is critical to being good leader-managers, because
reflection deepens learning perspectives.

As an example of the value of reflection, Dr. Robbins noted that one principal realized that
kids referred for fighting were being teased about body odor. The principal did some research and
learned that the students reported for fighting were receiving free or reduced-price lunches, and
thought the families might not be able to afford certain hygiene products. The principal asked
people who traveled to collect the soap and shampoo hotels leave in the rooms and donate them to
the school. The principal made it known to the students that the supplies were available. "No one
has abused the supplies, and the fights dropped to zero," Dr. Robbins said.

For principals who say they cannot find time to reflect, Dr. Alvy said he would sympathize
with their frustration and time management constraints. "I then would ask them to talk about their
typical day," he told Education World. "We would engage in a conversation about their vision,
mission, and goals for the year. If instructional leadership and supervision for student growth and
teacher success are not part of the mission and vision, I would suggest strongly refocusing their
priorities."

At the same time, Dr. Alvy noted, principals need to remember that there are days in which
the best plans go awry -- that is just part of the job. "The daily surprises are a reality, thus it is
essential to focus on the mission and vision," he said. "The mission and vision serve as a compass
to guide one over and around the hurdles that occur each day."

A School Principal as a Leader and a Manager

http://olga-schooleadership.blogspot.com/2011/01/principal-as-leader-and-manager.html

(From Sally Aguilar)

Every principal is a leader of a school, his decision is expected to be followed because it is for
everyone’s benefit and for the improvement of the school as a whole. He is the one guiding the
people in the school where to go. His role is not only limited in the field of education, but also in the
community where he resides. A principal is also a manager because he not only lead but manage
the whole organization so that whatever plans they have for the betterment of the school, the
stakeholders can attain it to reach the goals and visions sets with the support of every individual.

School leadership (Wikipedia) is a process of enlisting and guiding the talents and energies of
teachers, pupils, and parents toward achieving common educational aims. Administration and
management are terms that connote stability through the exercise of control and supervision. The
concept of leadership was favored because it conveys dynamism and pro-activity. The principal or
school head is commonly thought to be the school leader; however, school leadership may include
other persons, such as members of a formal leadership team and other persons who contribute
toward the aims of the school. Leadership arguably presents only a partial picture of the work of
school, division or district, and ministerial or state education agency personnel, not to mention the
areas of research explored by university faculty in departments concerned with the operations of
schools and educational institutions. For this reason, there may be grounds to question the merits
of the term as a catch-all for the field.

Leadership requires vision. It is a force that provides meaning and purpose to the work of an
organization. Leaders of change are visionary leaders, and vision is the basis of their work.
(Manasse, 1986, p. 151) "Associated with a vision has to be a plan, a way of reaching the goal".
The values and beliefs of individuals affect their behavior and in leaders they influence the vision
leaders hold of their school or district.

Values are principles an individual considers to be important or desirable, for example honest
communication; beliefs are ideas considered to be true and on which people are willing to act, for
example, believing that all children can learn. Manasse (1986). Leaders for change recognize that
the people in the organization are its greatest resource. "To lead change the leader must believe
without question that people are the most important asset of an organization" (Joiner, 1987 p. 2).
This characteristic has three dimensions. The first is the leaders' valuing the professional
contributions of the staff, while the second is the leaders' ability to relate to people. The third
dimension is fostering collaborative relationship.

I agree with the ideas mentioned that a Principal should be a leader who can

communicate to his people and listen also to their opinion, needs and wants. That he should be a
leader and a manager, and being one he must be good in his chosen profession and dedicated to
his work. That as a principal he should set example and be a model of his words and beliefs and
that he is also a very good listener.

Being a principal is not an easy task, this is what I realized upon enriching myself thru surfing the
net, and during the class discussion, because he is not only leading but also managing the school
and especially the individuals with unique personality. Where the school is going, it is the leader
leading them and the people who are working in that institution, the students he is catering and also
the community, the parents and everyone. Not only the authority, accountability but it is the leader’s
responsibility to guide to be a school of good standing or a performing school and a model school
for the learners to enroll to because their parents knew that their children be in good hands if they
send their offspring to this school. So principal should possess the good qualities in order to lead
and manage his school to have quality teaching and better curriculum implementation.

Types of Skills Demanded of Leaders

4 Essential Types of Skills that All Leaders Need

https://www.ccl.org/blog/4-essential-types-skills-leaders-need/
September 2, 2016

Ask any leadership coach or expert what’s needed to be an effective leader, and many of
them will provide a laundry list of skills to master.

Although it’s true that leaders need to be equipped with numerous skills, fortunately these
skills can be simplified and more easily understood by grouping them into a typology that consists
of 4 broad types or categories of skills.

This typology was discovered by Steve Scullen, a professor at Drake University, and
colleagues by factor analyzing leadership skill ratings collected
via two 360◦ assessments.

The 4 skill types include:

Technical skills – the specific methods and techniques related

to a leader’s functional area. They may include but are not
limited to:
Mastering vocabulary, work unit knowledge, and operating rules
in order to understand how a business works.
Understanding the technical knowledge that is needed to do
one’s job.
Mastering new job-related skills quickly.
Administrative skills – include areas such as planning, organizing, delegating, coordinating, and
staffing. More specific skills may include but are not limited to:
Setting direction for one’s work group.
Linking one’s work responsibilities to the organization’s overall mission.
Taking charge and/or action when needed.
Engaging in problem solving.
Delegating appropriate tasks to direct reports.
Hiring and building teams with talented people.
Adapting operational plans as needed.
Making good decisions in a timely manner.

Human skills – refer to a leader’s ability to work effectively with his or her work teams. More
specific skills may include but are not limited to:
Remaining calm and positive when things are not going well.
Being pleasant and having interpersonal warmth.
Showing interest in others’ needs and goals.
Investing in and developing others.
Inspiring others to be committed to their work.
Maintaining good working relationships with others.
Gaining the trust, cooperation, and respect of others.
Resolving conflict without alienating people.

Citizenship behaviors – capture other beneficial aspects of work behavior that are typically
voluntary in nature. They may include but are not limited to:
Helping direct reports and team members with non-work-related problems.
Displaying enjoyment and enthusiasm for working hard.
Volunteering to assume new job responsibilities when the organization is in need (without
extra compensation – at least in the short-term).
Being loyal or committed to one’s organization.

How do we know that these skills really matter?

A recent study at CCL and Davidson College expanded on the work by Steve Scullen and
colleagues and demonstrated empirically that all 4 skill types are related to leaders’ actual
effectiveness, or success, at work.

That is, leaders with more technical, administrative, and human skills, as well as higher
levels of citizenship behaviors, were perceived by their bosses to be more effective leaders as
compared to leaders who were not as adept at these skills.

Additionally, although leaders need all 4 skill types, some are more important than others.
Our study revealed that administrative and human skills are more critical to a leader’s perceived
effectiveness than are technical skills and citizenship behaviors.

Are these skills equally important regardless of gender and organizational level?
We found all 4 skill types to be equally important for both men and women leaders. Men and
women were also equally adept at utilizing human, administrative, and technical skills, but women
engaged in more citizenship behaviors than men.

Human skills, technical skills, and citizenship behaviors appear to be equally important to
the success of middle-level leaders and upper-level executives; however, while administrative skills
are important for middle-level leaders, they are even more critical to upper-level executives’
effectiveness at work.

Middle-level leaders and upper-level executives seem to be equally adept at utilizing human,
administrative, and technical skills, but upper-level executives engage in more citizenship behaviors
as compared to middle-level leaders.

Leadership Styles
https://www.americanexpress.com/en-us/business/trends-and-insights/articles/the-7-most-common-
leadership-styles-and-how-to-find-your-own/

The seven primary leadership styles are:

1. Autocratic Style
The phrase most illustrative of an autocratic leadership style is "Do as I say." Generally, an
autocratic leader believes that he or she is the smartest person at the table and knows more than
others. They make all the decisions with little input from team members.

This command-and-control approach is typical of leadership styles of the past, but it doesn't
hold much water with today's talent.

That's not to say that the style may not be appropriate in certain situations. For example,
you can dip into an autocratic leadership style when crucial decisions need to be made on the spot,
and you have the most knowledge about the situation, or when you're dealing with inexperienced
and new team members and there's no time to wait for team members to gain familiarity with their
role.

2. Authoritative Style
The phrase most indicative of this style of leadership (also known as "visionary") is "Follow
me." The authoritative leadership style is the mark of confident leaders who map the way and set
expectations, while engaging and energizing followers along the way.

In a climate of uncertainty, these leaders lift the fog for people. They help them see where
the company is going and what's going to happen when they get there.

Unlike autocratic leaders, authoritative leaders take the time to explain their thinking: They
don't just issue orders. Most of all, they allow people choice and latitude on how to achieve common
goals.

3. Pacesetting Style
"Do as I do!" is the phrase most indicative of leaders who utilize the pacesetting style. This
style describes a very driven leader who sets the pace as in racing. Pacesetters set the bar high
and push their team members to run hard and fast to the finish line.

While the pacesetter style of leadership is effective in getting things done and driving for
results, it's a style that can hurt team members. For one thing, even the most driven employees
may become stressed working under this style of leadership in the long run.

An agile leadership style may be the ultimate leadership style required for leading today's
talent.
 Should you avoid the pacesetting style altogether? Not so fast. If you're an energetic
entrepreneur working with a like-minded team on developing and announcing a new product or
service, this style may serve you well. However, this is not a style that can be kept up for the long
term. A pacesetting leader needs to let the air out of the tires once in a while to avoid causing team
burnout.

4. Democratic Style
Democratic leaders are more likely to ask "What do you think?" They share information with
employees about anything that affects their work responsibilities. They also seek employees'
opinions before approving a final decision.

There are numerous benefits to this participative leadership style. It can engender trust and
promote team spirit and cooperation from employees. It allows for creativity and helps employees
grow and develop. A democratic leadership style gets people to do what you want to be done but in
a way that they want to do it.

5. Coaching Style
When you having a coaching leadership style, you tend to have a "Consider this" approach.
A leader who coaches views people as a reservoir of talent to be developed. The leader who uses a
coach approach seeks to unlock people's potential.

Leaders who use a coaching style open their hearts and doors for people. They believe that
everyone has power within themselves. A coaching leader gives people a little direction to help
them tap into their ability to achieve all that they're capable of.

6. Affiliative Style
A phrase often used to describe this type of leadership is "People come first." Of all the
leadership styles, the affiliative leadership approach is one where the leader gets up close and
personal with people. A leader practicing this style pays attention to and supports the emotional
needs of team members. The leader strives to open up a pipeline that connects him or her to the
team.

Ultimately, this style is all about encouraging harmony and forming collaborative
relationships within teams. It's particularly useful, for example, in smoothing conflicts among team
members or reassuring people during times of stress.

7. Laissez-Faire Style
The laissez-faire leadership style is at the opposite end of the autocratic style. Of all the
leadership styles, this one involves the least amount of oversight. You could say that the autocratic
style leader stands as firm as a rock on issues, while the laissez-faire leader lets people swim with
the current.

On the surface, a laissez-faire leader may appear to trust people to know what to do, but
taken to the extreme, an uninvolved leader may end up appearing aloof. While it's beneficial to give
people opportunities to spread their wings, with a total lack of direction, people may unwittingly drift
in the wrong direction—away from the critical goals of the organization.

This style can work if you're leading highly skilled, experienced employees who are self-
starters and motivated. To be most effective with this style, monitor team performance and provide
regular feedback.
Choosing Leadership Styles
Knowing which of the leadership styles works best for you is part of being a good leader.
Developing a signature style with the ability to stretch into other styles as the situation warrants may
help enhance your leadership effectiveness.

1. Know yourself.
Start by raising your awareness of your dominant leadership style. You can do this by
asking trusted colleagues to describe the strengths of your leadership style. You can also take a
leadership style assessment.

2. Understand the different styles.

Get familiar with the repertoire of leadership styles that can work best for a given situation.
What new skills do you need to develop?

3. Practice makes a leader.

Be genuine with any approach you use. Moving from a dominant leadership style to a
different one may be challenging at first. Practice the new behaviors until they become natural. In
other words, don't use a different leadership style as a "point-and-click" approach. People can smell
a fake leadership style a mile away—authenticity rules.

4. Develop your leadership agility.

Traditional leadership styles are still relevant in today's workplace, but they may need to be
combined with new approaches in line with how leadership is defined for the 21st century.

Today's business environments are fraught with challenges due to the changing
demographics and the employee expectations of a diverse workforce. This may call for a new breed
of leader who is an amalgam of most of the leadership styles discussed here.
As the Chinese proverb goes, the wise adapt themselves to circumstances, as water molds itself to
the pitcher. An agile leadership style may be the ultimate leadership style required for leading
today's talent.

10 Common Leadership Styles

May 22, 2020
https://www.indeed.com/career-advice/career-development/10-common-leadership-styles

At some point in your career, you may take on a leadership role in some capacity. Whether
you’re leading a meeting, a project, a team or an entire department, you might consider identifying
with or adopting a defined leadership style.

Most professionals develop their own style of leadership based on factors like experience
and personality, as well as the unique needs of their company and its organizational culture. While
every leader is different, there are 10 leadership styles commonly used in the workplace.

Why are leadership styles important?

As you develop leadership skills, you’ll likely use different processes and methods to
achieve your employer’s objectives and meet the needs of the employees who report to you. To be
effective as a manager, you might use several different leadership styles at any given time.
By taking the time to familiarize yourself with each of these types of leadership, you might recognize
certain areas to improve upon or expand your own leadership style. You can also identify other
ways to lead that might better serve your current goals and understand how to work with managers
who follow a different style than your own.
Here are 10 common leadership styles:
1. Coach
A coaching leader is someone who can quickly recognize their team members’ strengths,
weaknesses and motivations to help each individual improve. This type of leader often assists team
members in setting smart goals and then provides regular feedback with challenging projects to
promote growth. They’re skilled in setting clear expectations and creating a positive, motivating
environment.

The coach leadership style is one of the most advantageous for employers as well as the
employees they manage. Unfortunately, it’s often also one of the most underutilized styles—largely
because it can be more time-intensive than other types of leadership.

Example: A sales manager gathers their team of account executives for a meeting to
discuss learnings from the previous quarter. They start the meeting by completing an assessment
together of strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats regarding the team’s performance.
The manager then recognizes specific team members for exceptional performance and goes over
the goals achieved by the team. Finally, the manager closes the meeting by announcing a contest
to start the next quarter, motivating the salespeople to reach their goals.

2. Visionary
Visionary leaders have a powerful ability to drive progress and usher in periods of change
by inspiring employees and earning trust for new ideas. A visionary leader is also able to establish a
strong organizational bond. They strive to foster confidence among direct reports and colleagues
alike.

This type of leadership is especially helpful for small, fast-growing organizations, or larger
organizations experiencing transformations or corporate restructuring.

Example: A teacher starts a group at work for colleagues who want to help resolve anxieties
and issues students have outside of school. The goal is to help students better focus on and
succeed at school. He has developed testing methods so they can find meaningful ways to help
students in a quick, efficient way.

3. Servant
Servant leaders live by a people-first mindset and believe that when team members feel
personally and professionally fulfilled, they’re more effective and more likely to produce great work
regularly. Because of their emphasis on employee satisfaction and collaboration, they tend to
achieve higher levels of respect.

A servant leader is an excellent leadership style for organizations of any industry and size
but is especially prevalent within nonprofits. These types of leaders are exceptionally skilled in
building employee morale and helping people re-engage with their work.

Example: A product manager hosts monthly one-on-one coffee meetings with everyone that
has concerns, questions or thoughts about improving or using the product. This time is meant for
her to address the needs of and help those who are using the product in any capacity.

4. Autocratic
Also called the authoritarian style of leadership, this type of leader is someone who is
focused almost entirely on results and efficiency. They often make decisions alone or with a small,
trusted group and expect employees to do exactly what they’re asked. It can be helpful to think of
these types of leaders as military commanders.

This leadership style can be useful in organizations with strict guidelines or compliance-
heavy industries. It can also be beneficial when used with employees who need a great deal of
supervision—such as those with little to no experience. However, this leadership style can stifle
creativity and make employees feel confined.

Example: Before an operation, the surgeon carefully recounts the rules and processes of the
operation room with every team member who will be helping during the surgery. She wants to
ensure everyone is clear on the expectations and follows each procedure carefully and exactly so
the surgery goes as smoothly as possible.

5. Laissez-faire or hands-off
This leadership style is the opposite of the autocratic leadership type, focusing mostly on
delegating many tasks to team members and providing little to no supervision. Because a laissez-
faire leader does not spend their time intensely managing employees, they often have more time to
dedicate to other projects.

Managers may adopt this leadership style when all team members are highly experienced,
well-trained and require little oversight. However, it can also cause a dip in productivity if employees
are confused about their leader’s expectations, or if some team members need consistent
motivation and boundaries to work well.

Example: When welcoming new employees, Keisha explains that her engineers can set and
maintain their own work schedules as long as they are tracking towards and hitting goals that they
set together as a team. They are also free to learn about and participate in projects outside of their
team they might be interested in.

6. Democratic
The democratic leadership style (also called the participative style) is a combination of the
autocratic and laissez-faire types of leaders. A democratic leader is someone who asks for input
and considers feedback from their team before making a decision. Because team members feel
their voice is heard and their contributions matter, a democratic leadership style is often credited
with fostering higher levels of employee engagement and workplace satisfaction.
Because this type of leadership drives discussion and participation, it’s an excellent style for
organizations focused on creativity and innovation—such as the technology industry.

Example: As a store manager, Jack has hired many brilliant and focused team members he
trusts. When deciding on storefronts and floor design, Jack acts only as the final moderator for his
team to move forward with their ideas. He is there to answer questions and present possible
improvements for his team to consider.

7. Pacesetter
The pacesetting leadership style is one of the most effective for driving fast results. These
leaders are primarily focused on performance. They often set high standards and hold their team
members accountable for hitting their goals.
While the pacesetting leadership style is motivational and helpful in fast-paced environments where
team members need to be energized, it’s not always the best option for team members who need
mentorship and feedback.
 Example: The leader of a weekly meeting recognized that an hour out of everyone’s
schedule once a week did not justify the purpose of the meeting. To increase efficiency, she
changed the meeting to a 15-minute standup with only those she had updates for.

8. Transformational
The transformational leadership style is similar to the coach style in that it focuses on clear
communication, goal-setting and employee motivation. However, instead of placing the majority of
the energy into each employee’s individual goals, the transformational leader is driven by a
commitment to organizational objectives.
Because these types of leaders spend much of their time on the big picture, this style of leading is
best for teams that can handle many delegated tasks without constant supervision.

Example: Reyna is hired to lead a marketing department. The CEO asks her to set new
goals and organize teams to reach those objectives. She spends the first months in her new role
getting to know the company and the marketing employees. She gains a strong understanding of
current trends and organizational strengths. After three months, she has set clear targets for each
of the teams that report to her and asked individuals to set goals for themselves that align with
those.

9. Transactional
A transactional leader is someone who is laser-focused on performance, similar to a
pacesetter. Under this leadership style, the manager establishes predetermined incentives—usually
in the form of monetary reward for success and disciplinary action for failure. Unlike the pacesetter
leadership style, though, transactional leaders are also focused on mentorship, instruction and
training to achieve goals and enjoy the rewards.

While this type of leader is great for organizations or teams tasked with hitting specific goals,
such as sales and revenue, it’s not the best leadership style for driving creativity.

Example: A bank branch manager meets with each member of the team bi-weekly to
discuss ways they can meet and exceed monthly company goals to get their bonus. Each of the top
10 performers in the district receives a monetary reward.

10. Bureaucratic
Bureaucratic leaders are similar to autocratic leaders in that they expect their team
members to follow the rules and procedures precisely as written.

The bureaucratic leadership style focuses on fixed duties within a hierarchy where each
employee has a set list of responsibilities, and there is little need for collaboration and creativity.
This leadership style is most effective in highly regulated industries or departments, such as
finance, healthcare or government.

Example: Managers at a Department of Motor Vehicles office instruct their employees to

work within a specific, defined framework. They must take many steps to complete a task with strict
order and rules.

Remember, most leaders borrow from a variety of styles to achieve various goals at different
times in their careers. While you may have excelled in a role using one type of leadership, another
position may require a different set of habits to ensure your team is operating most effectively.

By understanding each of these leadership types, and the outcomes they’re designed to
achieve, you can select the right leadership style for your current situation.

The Situational Leadership Model

https://online.stu.edu/articles/education/what-is-situational-leadership.aspx
Situational Leadership is an adaptive leadership style. This strategy encourages leaders to
take stock of their team members, weigh the many variables in their workplace and choose the
leadership style that best fits their goals and circumstances. In the words of leadership theorist Ken
Blanchard, “In the past a leader was a boss. Today’s leaders can no longer lead solely based on
positional power.”

Situational Leadership is the model of choice for organizations around the world that want to
do the following:

Develop people and workgroups

Establish rapport and to bring out the best in their people
Use a common leadership style across all units in an organization, be it local, national, or
international

Situational Leadership Defined

Situational Leadership is flexible. It adapts to the existing work environment and the needs
of the organization. Situational Leadership is not based on a specific skill of the leader; instead, he
or she modifies the style of management to suit the requirements of the organization.

One of the keys to Situational Leadership is adaptability. Leaders must be able to move
from one leadership style to another to meet the changing needs of an organization and its
employees. These leaders must have the insight to understand when to change their management
style and what leadership strategy fits each new paradigm.

There are two mainstream models of Situational Leadership®, one described by Daniel
Goleman and another by Ken Blanchard and Paul Hershey.

The Goleman Theory of Situational Leadership

Daniel Goleman, the author of Emotional Intelligence, defines six styles within Situational
Leadership

Coaching leaders, who work on an individual’s personal development as well as job-related skills.
This style works best with people who know their limitations and are open to change.
Pacesetting leaders, who set very high expectations for their followers. This style works best with
self-starters who are highly motivated. The leader leads by example. This style is used sparingly
since it can lead to follower burnout.

Democratic leaders, who give followers a vote in almost all decisions. When used in optimal
conditions, it can build flexibility and responsibility within the group. This style is, however, time
consuming and is not the best style if deadlines are looming.

Affiliative leaders, who put employees first. This style is used when morale is very low. The leader
uses praise and helpfulness to build up the team’s confidence. This style may risk poor
performance when team building is happening.

Authoritative leaders, who are very good at analyzing problems and identifying challenges. This
style is good in an organization that is drifting aimlessly. This leader will allow his or her followers to
help figure out how to solve a problem.

Coercive leaders, who tell their subordinates what to do. They have a very clear vision of the
endgame and how to reach it. This style is good in disasters or if an organization requires a total
overhaul.

Situational Leadership According to Blanchard and Hersey

The second model is based on the work done by Blanchard and Hersey. Their theory is
based on two concepts: leadership itself, and the developmental level of the follower. Blanchard
and Hersey developed a matrix consisting of four styles:

Telling leaders = S1 (specific guidance and close supervision): These leaders make
decisions and communicate them to others. They create the roles and objectives and expect others
to accept them. Communication is usually one way. This style is most effective in a disaster or
when repetitive results are required.

Selling = S2 (explaining and persuading): These leaders may create the roles and objectives
for others, but they are also open to suggestions and opinions. They “sell” their ideas to others in
order to gain cooperation.

Participating = S3 (sharing and facilitating): These leaders leave decisions to their followers.
Although they may participate in the decision-making process, the ultimate choice is left to
employees.

Delegating = S4 (letting others do it): These leaders are responsible for their teams, but
provide minimum guidance to workers or help to solve problems. They may be asked from time to
time to help with decision-making.

Here are some of the characteristics of the Situational Leadership® style:

Insight: The situational leader must be able to understand the needs of the followers, then
adjust his or her management style to meet those needs

Flexibility: Situational leaders must be able to move seamlessly from one type of leadership
style to another

Trust: The leader must be able gain his or her followers’ trust and confidence

Problem solving: The situational leader must be able to solve problems, such as how to get
a job done using the best leadership style available

Coach: The situational leader must be able to evaluate the maturity and competence of the
followers and then apply the right strategy to enhance the follower and their personal character.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Situational Leadership

Situational Leadership does not work well in all circumstances. Let’s look at the advantages
and disadvantages of the leadership style:

Situational Leadership pros:

Easy to use: When a leader has the right style, he or she knows it
 Simple: All the leader needs to do is evaluate the situation and apply the correct leadership
style
Intuitive appeal: With the right type of leader, this style is comfortable
Leaders have permission to change management styles as they see fit

Situational Leadership cons:

This North American style of leadership does not take into consideration priorities and
communication styles of other cultures
It ignores the differences between female and male managers
Situational leaders can divert attention away from long-term strategies and politics

Benefits of Situational Leadership

“What i s the best leadership style?” Hersey and Blanchard found it fruitless to provide one
answer to this question. Everything depends on the specific situation, which is why they
collaborated to develop the Situational Leadership® Model.
Situational Leadership® means “choosing the right leadership style for the right people,” according
to Blanchard and Hersey. It also depends on the competence and maturity of the followers. This is
a time in history when leaders look less like bosses and more like partners.

Servant Leadership
https://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/servant-leadership.htm

Servant Leadership
Putting Your Team First, and Yourself Second

A good objective of leadership is to help those who are doing poorly to do well and to help
those who are doing well to do even better.– Jim Rohn, American entrepreneur.

Everyone on Samit's team knows that he's "there for them." He checks in with them often to
see how they are, and he helps them develop the skills they need to advance their careers, even if
this means that they may move on.

Samit also makes an effort to see situations from others' perspectives. He makes decisions
with the team's best interests in mind, and ensures that everyone has the resources and knowledge
they need to meet their objectives.

As a result of this, his team is one of the most successful in the department, with low staff
turnover and high engagement.

Samit is an example of a "servant leader." In this article, we'll explore what servant
leadership is, and the advantages it can bring you as a leader. We'll also look at situations where it
isn't appropriate.
What Is Servant Leadership?

Robert K. Greenleaf first coined the phrase "servant leadership" in his 1970 essay, "The
Servant as a Leader." However, it's an approach that people have used for centuries.

As a servant leader, you're a "servant first" – you focus on the needs of others, especially
team members, before you consider your own. You acknowledge other people's perspectives, give
them the support they need to meet their work and personal goals, involve them in decisions where
appropriate, and build a sense of community within your team. This leads to higher engagement,
more trust, and stronger relationships with team members and other stakeholders. It can also lead
to increased innovation.

Servant leadership is not a leadership style or technique as such. Rather it's a way of
behaving that you adopt over the longer term. It complements democratic leadership styles, and it
has similarities with Transformational Leadership – which is often the most effective style to use in
business situations – and Level 5 Leadership – which is where leaders demonstrate humility in the
way they work.

However, servant leadership is problematic in hierarchical, autocratic cultures where

managers and leaders are expected to make all the decisions. Here, servant leaders may struggle
to earn respect.

Important:
Remember that servant leadership is about focusing on other people's needs – not their
feelings. Don't avoid making unpopular decisions or giving team members negative feedback when
this is needed.

Also, do not rely on it exclusively – use it alongside styles like Transformational Leadership,
where you develop an inspiring vision of the future, motivate people to deliver this, manage its
implementation, and build an ever-stronger team.

How to Become a Servant Leader

According to Larry C. Spears, former president of the Robert K. Greenleaf Center for
Servant Leadership, these are the 10 most important characteristics of servant leaders:
1. Listening.
2. Empathy.
3. Healing.
4. Awareness.
5. Persuasion.
6. Conceptualization.
7. Foresight.
8. Stewardship.
9. Commitment to the growth of people.
10. Building community.

Once you've decided to prioritize other people's needs over your own in the long term, you
can work on developing your skills in each area. Let's look at how you can do this.

1. Listening
You'll serve people better when you make a deep commitment to listening intently to them
and understanding what they're saying. To improve your listening skills, give people your full
attention, take notice of their body language, avoid interrupting them before they've finished
speaking, and give feedback on what they say.

2. Empathy
Servant leaders strive to understand other people's intentions and perspectives. You can be
more empathetic by putting aside your viewpoint temporarily, valuing others' perspectives, and
approaching situations with an open mind.

3. Healing
 This characteristic relates to the emotional health and "wholeness" of people, and involves
supporting them both physically and mentally.

First, make sure that your people have the knowledge, support and resources they need to
do their jobs effectively, and that they have a healthy workplace. Then take steps to help them be
happy and engaged in their roles.

You could also use a tool such as the Triple Bottom Line to think about how your
organization can make a positive impact on the people you lead and the customers you serve.

4. Self-Awareness
Self-awareness is the ability to look at yourself, think deeply about your emotions and
behavior, and consider how they affect the people around you and align with your values.

You can become more self-aware by knowing your strengths and weaknesses, and asking
for other people's feedback on them. Also, learn to manage your emotions, so that you consider
how your actions and behavior might affect others.

5. Persuasion
Servant leaders use persuasion – rather than their authority – to encourage people to take
action. They also aim to build consensus in groups, so that everyone supports decisions.

There are many tools and models that you can use to be more persuasive, without
damaging relationships or taking advantage of others. You should also build your expert power –
when people perceive you as an expert, they are more likely to listen to you when you want to
persuade or inspire them.

6. Conceptualization
This characteristic relates to your ability to "dream great dreams," so that you look beyond
day-to-day realities to the bigger picture.

If you're a senior leader in your company, work through and develop a robust organizational
strategy. Then, whatever level you're at, create mission and vision statements for your team, and
make it clear how people's roles tie in with your team's and organization's long-term objectives.
Also, develop long-term focus so that you stay motivated to achieve your more distant goals,
without getting distracted.

7. Foresight
Foresight is when you can predict what's likely to happen in the future by learning from past
experiences, identifying what's happening now, and understanding the consequences of your
decisions.

You can use tools such as SWOT Analysis and PEST Analysis to think about your current
situation and environment, while Scenario Analysis helps you understand how the future could play
out. Use the ORAPAPA checklist when you make a decision, to learn from experience and make
sure that you've considered all the angles.

Also, learn to trust your intuition – if your instinct is telling you that something is wrong, listen
to it!

8. Stewardship
 Stewardship is about taking responsibility for the actions and performance of your team, and
being accountable for the role team members play in your organization.

Whether you're a formal leader or not, you have a responsibility for the things that happen in
your company. Take time to think about your own values, as well as those of your organization, so
that you know what you will and won't stand for. Also, lead by example by demonstrating the values
and behaviors that you want to see in others, and have the confidence to stand up to people when
they act in a way that isn't aligned with them.

9. Commitment to the Growth of People

Servant leaders are committed to the personal and professional development of everyone
on their teams.

To develop your people, make sure that you use Training Needs Assessments to
understand their developmental needs and give them the skills they need to do their jobs
effectively. Also, find out what their personal goals are, and see if you can give them projects or
additional responsibilities that will help them achieve these.

10. Building Community

The last characteristic is to do with building a sense of community within your organization.

You can do this by providing opportunities for people to interact with one another across the
company. For instance, you could organize social events such as team lunches and barbecues,
design your workspace to encourage people to chat informally away from their desks, and dedicate
the first few minutes of meetings to non-work-related conversations.

Encourage people to take responsibility for their work, and remind them how what they do
contributes to the success and overall objectives of the organization.

You are a servant leader when you focus on the needs of others before you consider your
own. It's a longer-term approach to leadership, rather than a technique that you can adopt in
specific situations. Therefore, you can use it with other leadership styles such as Transformational
Leadership.

You can become a servant leader by working on these 10 characteristics:

1. Listening.
2. Empathy.
3. Healing.
4. Awareness.
5. Persuasion.
6. Conceptualization.
7. Foresight.
8. Stewardship.
9. Commitment to the growth of people.
10. Building community.

Servant leaders are likely to have more engaged employees and enjoy better relationships
with team members and other stakeholders than leaders who don't put the interests of others before
their own.
Transformational Leadership

A Closer Look at the Effects of Transformational Leadership

By: Kendra Cherry
https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-transformational-leadership-2795313

Have you ever been in a group where someone took control of the situation by conveying a
clear vision of the group's goals, a marked passion for the work, and an ability to make the rest of
the group feel recharged and energized? This person just might be what is called a transformational
leader.

Transformational leadership is a leadership style that can inspire positive changes in those
who follow. Transformational leaders are generally energetic, enthusiastic, and passionate. Not only
are these leaders concerned and involved in the process; they are also focused on helping every
member of the group succeed as well.

The concept of transformational leadership was initially introduced by leadership expert and
presidential biographer James MacGregor Burns. According to Burns,
transformational leadership can be seen when "leaders and followers make each other to advance
to a higher level of moral and motivation."1

Through the strength of their vision and personality, transformational leaders are able to
inspire followers to change expectations, perceptions, and motivations to work towards common
goals.

Later, researcher Bernard M. Bass expanded upon Burns's original ideas to develop what is
today referred to as Bass’s Transformational Leadership Theory. According to Bass,
transformational leadership can be defined based on the impact that it has on followers.
Transformational leaders, Bass suggested, garner trust, respect, and admiration from their
followers.

Bass also suggested that there were four different components of transformational
leadership.

Intellectual Stimulation: Transformational leaders not only challenge the status quo; they
also encourage creativity among followers. The leader encourages followers to explore new ways of
doing things and new opportunities to learn.

Individualized Consideration: Transformational leadership also involves offering support and

encouragement to individual followers. In order to foster supportive relationships, transformational
leaders keep lines of communication open so that followers feel free to share ideas and so that
leaders can offer direct recognition of the unique contributions of each follower.

Inspirational Motivation: Transformational leaders have a clear vision that they are able to
articulate to followers. These leaders are also able to help followers experience the same passion
and motivation to fulfill these goals.

Idealized Influence: The transformational leader serve as a role model for followers.
Because followers trust and respect the leader, they emulate this individual and internalize his or
her ideals.
 So what are some typical signs of a transformational leader? Groups led by this type of
leader tend to be both successful and loyal. They give a lot to the team and care deeply about the
group's ability to accomplish its goals. Turnover tends to be quite low as transformational leaders
are able to inspire a great deal of commitment in their followers.

ACTIVITY

Activity 1. Multiple Choice.

Directions: Choose the letter of the correct answer by encircling it.

1. Toward the end of the school year, the mother of one of the candidates for honors visits you to
ask about her child’s chances of graduating with honors. She brings a basket of fruits in season for
you. What should you do?
a. Reject the basket of fruits and tell her that you have enough at home.
b. Accept the fruits and assure the mother that the daughter will be given honor student.
c. Respectfully reject the offer and explain that you might be accused of bribery.
d. Explain the chance of the daughter objectively and graciously accept the offer.

2. Which of the following is NOT correct under the Code of Ethics for Teachers regarding teacher
and business?
a. No teacher shall act, directly or indirectly, as agent of, or be financially interested in any
commercial venture which furnishes textbooks and other school commodities.
b. A teacher has no right to engage, directly or indirectly, in legitimate income generation.
c. A teacher shall maintain a good reputation with respect to the financial matters such as in the
settlement of his debts and loans in arranging satisfactorily his private financial affairs.
d. None of the above.

3. Every teacher shall participate in the_____ program of the PRC and shall pursue other studies as
will improve his efficiency, prestige, and strengthen his or her competence.
a. Professional Enhancement
b. Maximizing Learning Competence
c. Continuing Educational Enhancement
d. Continuing Professional Education

4. During the distribution of the report card, which of the following must be the foremost concern of
a teacher?
a. Discuss the projects of the school.
b. Discuss the progress as well as the deficiencies of the students.
c. Discuss the unsettled bill of the students.
d. Discuss the complaints of other teachers and classmates of the students.

5. Miss Reyes is a new teacher like you. During her first few weeks in school, she felt like quitting
teaching. At the end of the day she is totally burned out. If you were in her place from whom will you
ask assistance?
a. from the principal
b. from the parents
c. from co-teachers
d. from pupils

Activity 2. Enumeration and Elaboration:

1. What are the Global Issues? Enumerate them and Give solution/solutions on how to address
them.
_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

2. Enumerate and Elaborate 17 SDGs.

_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

Activity 3. Explain thoroughly your answers to the following questions.

How do the different global concerns affect the education?

_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

How Schools Can Benefit from Community Partnerships

_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

Compare and contrast the different leadership styles.

_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

Why is it important for teachers to familiarize and apply the code of ethics?

_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

Activity 3. Choose the best option by putting a check on the space provided for each choice.
Explain your answer.

Situation no. 1
Being a person known for his integrity and credibility, Mr. Elbert R. Tolentino has been serving as
part of the Board of Election Canvassers for the past 10 years. However, in the coming elections,
his mother will be running as barangay captain. Because of this, he is asked to campaign for her. Is
it alright for him to campaign for his mother’s candidacy? Explain your answer.

_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

Situation no. 2
Mr. Mario Ocampo, who has been teaching for the last 25 years, refused to attend an important
conference in Mindanao. Every time he is asked by the principal to attend such an activity, he
always requests a new teacher to attend. As a professional teacher, is it right to express refusal in
attending conferences.
_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

Situation no. 3
Ms. Rose Q. Reyes posted two-piece swimwear picture of herself in her Facebook page. She
received negative comments from the community and stakeholders. Ms. Reyes justified that she
has the right to post anything on her Facebook account since it was her personal account. Is it right
for Mrs. Reyes to do such?
_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

Situation no. 4
During barangay fiesta, Mr. Ben Y. Maya was designated as the fiesta directorate chairman.
Because of his talent, he accepted the task willingly even without any honorarium. He facilitated
culture-based activities that made their barangay fiesta a significant one. Is it alright for Mr. Maya
not to receive any compensation for his services rendered since this will be a precedent for the
succeeding activity coordinator?
_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

Situation no. 5
Mrs. Dae P. Habalo, of Sibulan National High School refused to admit a student for not being a
resident of the said barangay where the school is located. Is it right for her to do so?
_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

Situation no. 6
Traditionally, a civic parade is held with school participating during Independence Day. All teachers
and students are required to attend. All of Mrs. Katherine Y. Sedillo’s students are excited to join
the said parade but she did not join them due to personal reason and only asked the president of
the class to check the attendants of his classmates. Is the decision of Mrs. Sedillo not answerable
for any untoward incident to happen to the students?
_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

Situation no. 7
Madam Estelita Ramos, a teacher III at Malunta Elementary School has a takehome pay of P
7,500.00 every month. She decided to borrow money from Provincial Savings Bank with a monthly
deduction of P3,500. In the same month she also borrowed money to First Diamond Lending
Company with a monthly deduction of P 3,500.00. In the first 2 months she enjoyed a take home
pay of P7,500.00 because the 2 lending institutions will deduct on the 3rd month from the date she
borrowed. Is it alright for Mrs. Ramos to borrow the amount considering that she don’t have enough
take home pay when the deduction will take effect?
_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

Situation no. 8
Mr. Ricky dela Cruz is one of the youngest teacher in Silab Community High School. Due to his
young age he has lots of friends and barkadas. After school hours, he is always seen with his
friends in an internet cafe playing Dota, in gambling dens, and in beerhouses. He also frequently
seen in discos during weekends. Is Mr. Cruz acting as a good model to his students?
_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

Activity 4. Scenarios
You are a lecturer or course director responsible for the learning environment of these
students. What will you do? Could this have been prevented?
1. A student often uses terminology that is generally regarded as unacceptable to describe people
from minority ethnic groups. This is making the tutorial group uncomfortable, and another student
has objected in class. The student insists that, as she is not directing the terms at an individual in
the tutorial group or within the lecture hall, people should be less politically correct and stop taking
offence.
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

2. Some students are given a piece of assessed group work to complete over several weeks. A
Muslim student does not attend the first meeting because it is in the pub, and roles as part of
assessed group work are decided at this meeting. He asks for the second meeting to be held
somewhere else - other students agree, but derogatory comments and unacceptable 'banter'
follows. In addition, key decisions & discussions continue to happen informally in the pub. He is
now asking to work with a different group.
_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

3. A woman student is on an engineering course dominated by men. She is partnered with a man
for an assessment. Another student tells him that he had better be careful as he is aware that she
has made a complaint under the Sex Discrimination Act in the past. He has now asked the tutor to
work with someone else. There is also a rumour going round the students that she is a ‘serial
complainer’ and she has received some unpleasant e-mails (with sexual content) from a hotmail
account which make reference to her sex discrimination complaint.
_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

4. A disabled student has additional time for assessments and use of a dictaphone to tape lectures.
Another student starts using negative and patronising language when talking about disabled
people: this includes saying that they are not as competent as other students because of all the
special treatment they get, and shouldn't be allowed to be awarded qualifications. They also
approach the lecturer to say that the student should not be allowed to tape record lectures.
_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

5. A woman student has been getting excellent marks in class. There are persistent rumours that
the lecturer is a lesbian and that the student is sleeping with her in exchange for good marks, and
derogatory comments about them both have appeared on Facebook linked to the student
society. Other students have been whispering and sniggering behind her back, and the student’s
attendance is dropping.
_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

SUMMATIVE ASSESSMENT

Summative assessment can be accessed through MS Teams LMS as scheduled by the

college.

SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS
https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-transformational-leadership-2795313
https://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/servant-leadership.htm
https://online.stu.edu/articles/education/what-is-situational-leadership.aspx
https://www.indeed.com/career-advice/career-development/10-common-leadership-styles
https://www.americanexpress.com/en-us/business/trends-and-insights/articles/the-7-mostcommon-
leadership-styles-and-how-to-find-your-own/
https://www.ccl.org/blog/4-essential-types-skills-leaders-need/
http://olga-schooleadership.blogspot.com/2011/01/principal-as-leader-and-manager.html
https://www.educationworld.com/a_admin/admin/admin451.shtml
https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/The-difference-between-educational-management-and-
Connolly-James/85d6cee32424554c2e8644246f9995ac169bd06e?p2df
http://www.ascd.org/publications/books/104150/chapters/Organizational-Leadership@-Nurturing-
Leadership-in-Your-School.aspx
https://www.deped.gov.ph/2016/09/27/84632/
https://www.deped.gov.ph/2009/06/01/do-54-s-2009-revised-guidelines-governing-parents-
teachers-associations-ptas-at-the-school-level/
https://depedtambayan.net/the-code-of-ethics-for-professional-teachers/
https://www.edutopia.org/blog/school-community-collaboration-brendan-okeefe
https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/malnutrition
https://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/governance/brief/anti-corruption
http://www1.worldbank.org/publicsector/anticorrupt/corruptn/cor02.htm
http://sharedsafety.us/wellbeing-is-safety/
https://www.saferspaces.org.za/understand/entry/what-is-violence#:~:text=By%20looking%20more
%20closely%20at,Psychological%20violence
https://www.britannica.com/explore/savingearth/pollution-overview
https://www.epa.ie/climate/communicatingclimatescience/whatisclimatechange/
addresssingclimatechange/#:~:text=Addressing%20climate%20change%20requires
%20two,climatic%20stimuli%20or%20their%20effects
UNIT 3
Objectives:
At the end of the lesson, you will be able to:
1. Identify the important traits of a manager and a leader;
2. Elaborate the roles of teachers;
3. Identify the different styles of leadership;
4. Elaborate ways to develop school culture; and
5. Discuss important concepts of school culture.

Input 1

School-Based Management

https://www.teacherph.com/a-comprehensive-guide-to-school-based-management-sbm/

A Comprehensive Guide to School-Based Management (SBM)

By Mark Anthony Llego / Teaching & Education / 1 Comment

ABOUT SCHOOL-BASED MANAGEMENT (SBM)

School-based management (SBM) is a strategy to improve education by transferring

significant decision-making authority from state and district offices to individual schools. SBM
provides principals, teachers, students, and parents greater control over the education process by
giving them responsibility for decisions about the budget, personnel, and the curriculum. Through
the involvement of teachers, parents, and other community members in these key decisions, SBM
can create more effective learning environments for children. Reference: Office of Research
Education/ConsumerGuide

WHAT ARE THE ADVANTAGES?

 Allow competent individuals in the schools to make decisions that will improve learning;
 Give the entire school community a voice in key decisions;
 Focus accountability for decisions;
 Lead to greater creativity in the design of programs;
 Redirect resources to support the goals developed in each school;
 Lead to realistic budgeting as parents and teachers become more aware of the school’s
financial status, spending limitations, and the cost of its programs; and,
 Improve morale of teachers and nurture new leadership at all levels.
HOW DOES SCHOOL-BASED MANAGEMENT (SBM) AFFECT THE ROLES OF THE SCHOOL
BOARD AND THE SUPERINTENDENT AND DISTRICT OFFICE?

The school board continues to establish a clear and unifying vision and to set broad policies
for the district and the schools. SBM does not change the legal governance system of schools, and
school boards do not give up authority by sharing authority. The board’s role changes little in a
conversion to SBM.

The superintendent and his or her district office staff facilitate the decisions made at the
school level, and provide technical assistance when a school has difficulty translating the district’s
vision into high-quality programs. Developing student and staff performance standards and
evaluating the schools are also the responsibility of the district staff.

The district office will generally continue to recruit potential employees, screen job
applicants, and maintain information on qualified applicants from which the schools fill their
vacancies. The district office may also specify curricular goals, objectives, and expected outcomes
while leaving it up to the schools to determine the methods for producing the desired results. Some
districts leave the choice of instructional materials to the schools, whereas others may require
schools to use common texts.

HOW ARE BUDGET DECISIONS MADE?

In most SBM systems, each school is given a “lump sum” that the school can spend as it
sees fit. As outlined by JoAnn Spear (1983), the district office determines the total funds needed by
the whole district, determines the districtwide costs (such as the cost of central administration and
transportation), and allocates the remaining funds to the individual schools. The allocation to each
school is determined by a formula that takes into account the number and type of students at that
school.

Each school determines how to spend the lump sum allocated by the district in such areas
as personnel, equipment, supplies, and maintenance. In some districts, surplus funds can be
carried over to the next year or be shifted to a program that needs more funds; in this way, long-
range planning and efficiency are encouraged.

HOW ARE DECISIONS MADE AT THE SCHOOL LEVEL?

Most districts create school management councils at each school that include the principal,
representatives of parents and teachers, and, in some cases, other citizens, support staff, and–at
the secondary level–students. The council conducts a needs assessment and develops a plan of
action that includes statements of goals and measurable objectives, consistent with school board
policies.

In some districts, the management council makes most school-level decisions. In other
districts, the council advises the principal, who then makes the decisions. In both cases, the
principal has a large role in the decision-making process, either as part of a team or as the final
decisionmaker.

WHAT IS NECESSARY WHEN IMPLEMENTING SCHOOL-BASED MANAGEMENT (SBM)?

From the beginning, the school board and superintendent must be supportive of school-
based management. They must trust the principals and councils to determine how to implement the
district’s goals at the individual schools.

It is important to have a written agreement that specifies the roles and responsibilities of the
school board, superintendent and district office, principal, and SBM council. The agreement should
explicitly state the standards against which each school will be held accountable. James Guthrie
(1986) states that each school should produce an annual performance and planning report covering
“how well the school is meeting its goals, how it deploys its resources, and what plans it has for the
future.”

Training in such areas as decision-making, problem solving, and group dynamics is

necessary for all participating staff and community members, especially in the early years of
implementation. To meet the new challenges of the job, principals may need additional training in
leadership skills.

In summary:
 SBM must have the strong support of school staff.
 SBM is more successful if it is implemented gradually. It may take 5 years or more to
implement SBM.
 School and district staff must be given administrative training, but also must learn how to
adjust to new roles and channels of communication.
 Financial support must be provided to make training and time for regular staff meetings
available.
 Central office administrators must transfer authority to principals, and principals in turn must
share this authority with teachers and parents.

WHAT ARE THE LIABILITIES OF SBM?

Participatory decision-making sometimes creates frustration and is often slower than more
autocratic methods. The council members must be able to work together on planning and budget
matters. This leaves principals and teachers less time to devote to other aspects of their jobs.
Teachers and community members who participate in the councils may need training in budget
matters; some teachers may not be interested in the budget process or want to devote time to it.

Members of the school community must also beware of expectations that are too high.
According to the AASA/NAESP/NASSP task force, districts that have had the most success with
SBM have focused their expectations on two benefits–greater involvement in making decisions and
making “better” decisions.
WHERE HAS SCHOOL-BASED MANAGEMENT BEEN IMPLEMENTED?

Hundreds of school districts across the country have experimented with aspects of SBM.

School-Based Management (SBM) System will focus efforts in strengthening support

systems of the DepED on School-Based Management through improved educational planning and
management. This has sub-components created to attain this goal.

Objectives:
*Strengthen the support systems of DepED, three Regional Offices, selected Divisions and
schools for School Based Management through improved educational planning and management

*Development of a functional management support system for continuing school

improvement at regional, division and school levels.

School Based Management (SBM) or Component 1 of STRIVE is a response to BESRA

KRT 1 – enabling and empowering school stakeholders to manage its own affairs for improved
delivery of educational services in a sustainable manner. As such, this component is focused on the
strengthening of support systems including governance, advisory and partnership mechanisms for
SBM through practical experience in application activities in the three regions. The application
experience will be further enhanced through a range of capability building activities.

SCHOOL-BASED MANAGEMENT (SBM) SUB-COMPONENTS:

Policy & Planning System

Under this sub-component, STRIVE aims to enhance/develop structures, processes and tools
associated with policy /planning systems at the school, division, and regional levels

Participatory Mechanisms in Education Governance

This sub-component is dedicated to identifying existing participatory mechanisms in education
governance at the school, division and region

Human Resource Development of Education Management

This sub-component focuses on developing and piloting the appropriate regional organizational
structure to ensure that the divisions actually support the implementation of school-based
management as mandated by the Education Act of 2001. In order to help the regions perform this
function, the sub-component has developed the technical assistance mechanism that will
systematize the provision of professional help and guidance by the region to the divisions, and by
the divisions to the schools.

Quality Assurance & Accountability System

This sub-component offers a mechanism for insuring quality in the critical systems,
processes, outputs, and outcomes of DepED at various management levels to bring about
improved learning outcomes, continuous school improvement and better technical and
management services. It is supported by the interlocking processes of monitoring and evaluation
that systematically provide educators timely information useful for planning and for making
decisions and adjustments.
Programs to Improve Access
The focus of this sub-component is to establish the appropriate mechanisms that will increase
the number of effective initiatives undertaken by the region/division/schools to improve access. The
approach is to determine and pilot appropriate support options for basic education. It specifically
aims to:

 Pilot test numbers of effective initiatives directly undertaken by the Target Access Schools
and Community Learning Centers to improve access.
 Develop and pilot test support systems/mechanisms at the division level to render direct
technical assistance support to the Target Access Schools and Community Learning
Centers.
 Develop and pilot test support systems/mechanisms at the regions to facilitate policy
compliance, effective programs delivery and ensure quality assurance and accountabilities.

Unified Information System

The Regional UIS is the ICT-enabled support to the process and information requirements
of SBM, T&D and LRMDS. It aims to strengthen information management at the target regions and
divisions to enable data-driven decision-making and provide a venue for connecting people to
people and people to knowledge they need to effectively respond and create new and relevant
information. Specifically, the system aims to (1) streamline and efficiently render the collection and
processing of education data from the schools and field offices, (2) institutionalize Quality
Assurance and M&E processes at every level of the education management system, and (3)
support information requirements of school-based management, planning and policy formulation at
all levels.

The UIS shall consist of integrated databases, automated processes and technologies that
are to be implemented on enhanced organizational structures and improved workflow processes at
the target divisions and regions.

Consistent with the overall strategy of building on existing DepED systems and structures,
the solution system aims to establish effective linkages with currently functional systems.

ASSESSMENT of SBM PRACTICES: SCHOOLS INITIATED ASSESSMENT FOR SELF-

DIRECTED IMPROVEMENT

Why assess the School-Based Management (SBM) practices?

 Determine the level of SBM practices in school

 Provide basis on which to establish it plan of action
 Improve the SBM support systems through interventions that the school and other admin
levels of Deped
 Determine effectiveness of SBM practices in the delivery of basic education services
Assessment of SBM Practices Manual

Guide key players in:

 assessing their SBM practices

 identifying their needs for technical support that ought to be given by the support system
Matrix of Scale of Practice

THE WHAT of the ASSESSMENT TOOL

The instrument contains INDICATORS regarding the six (6) dimensions of SBM Practices
 Each INDICATOR has REQUIRED EVIDENCES as proof of the level of SBM practices
 Each SBM DIMENSION is to be responded to by a different group of school stakeholders.
(Thus, responses to be considered as group answer through CONSENSUS )

TABLE on the NUMBER ADMINISTRATION of SBM ASSESSMENT

STAGE 1: School Head’s Orientation by the DO

STAGE 2: Responding to the Instrument by the School Stakeholders

 Phase 1: Orientation of School – Stakeholders as Respondents
Phase 2: Actual Inventory of Evidences
Phase 3: Summarizing the Responses

STAGE 3: Focused Group Discussion (FGD)

 Factors of School Effectiveness Based on Research

8 Key Factors of School Effectiveness
http://edureach101.com/8-key-factors-of-school-effectiveness/

A recent study by EQAO confirms 8 key factors that can provide a foundation to guide
principals in their school-improvement efforts. It was taken from over 25 years.
1. Strong and Effective Principal Leadership
Puts children first by placing a strong belief in capabilities of students and teachers. Leaders
are highly visible, actively supervising instruction, protecting instructional time and supportive work
environment. They also monitor staff performance and promote professional development in their
schools.
2. Sustained focus on instruction and learning
Focus on academics, mainly literacy and numeracy.
3. Safe and positive school climate and culture
Shared goals, safety, and positive school climate.
4. High expectations for all students and staff
Student achievement first and constant discussions with parents.
5. Effective use of student achievement data
Monitoring student progress and promoting differentiated instruction.
6. Teaching Practice
Differentiated instruction and collaboration.
7. Productive parent involvement
Creating and maintaining open door policy
8. Building staff skills
High quality staff that engage in professional learning communities.

WHAT FACTORS MAKE A SCHOOL EFFECTIVE?

BY MATTHEW LYNCH
https://www.theedadvocate.org/what-factors-make-a-school-effective/#:~:text=Additional%20factors
%20that%20influence%20effective,used%2C%20the%20higher%20their%20achievement.

Spread the love

Although diverse school models exist, a fundamental question remains—how are we to
know whether or not a school model is effective, and how can effectiveness be judged? A number
of research studies focus on characteristics of effective schools. However, there is debate over
which attributes should be considered when describing successful schools.

According to some researchers, student performance should be the primary indicator of a

successful school. It makes sense, really, since the sole purpose of schools is educating their
students. Other researchers propose that students’ social characteristics, such as personal growth
should be included when determining effective schools. Another issue with school effectiveness
research is that findings are predominantly based on research conducted in elementary schools or
unique school settings in the inner city. Consequently, it is suggested that these findings cannot be
generalized to all schools.

In truth, there is no one factor that can accurately determine the effectiveness of K-12
schools. Instead, it is a multi-faceted conversation and one that evolves with each generation of
students. As suggested above, the context of schooling will impact factors that contribute to
effectiveness in specific schools. At the same time, there are attributes and factors that contribute to
effectiveness across schooling contexts. By understanding an array of effectiveness attributes we
are able to observe which attributes exist at a particular school and which, if adopted might facilitate
effectiveness, given a particular school context.

Common elements of success

A 2008 study describes five common characteristics that make up an effective school; these
characteristics, and the theory behind them has also been described as the five-factor theory.

 The first factor is quality leadership. In other words, students perform better where the
principal provides strong leadership. Effective leaders are visible, able to successfully
convey the school’s goals and visions, collaborate with teachers to enhance their skills, and
are involved in the discovery of and solutions to problems.
 The second factor is having high expectations of students, as well as teachers. High
expectations of students have repeatedly been shown to have a positive impact on students’
performance. More attention should be paid to high expectations of teachers. In other
words, teachers who are expected to teach at high levels of effectiveness are able to reach
the level of expectations, particularly when teacher evaluations and teacher professional
development is geared toward improving instructional quality.
 The third characteristic of a successful school is the ongoing screening of student
performance and development. Schools should use assessment data to compare their
students with others from across the country. Effective use of assessment data allows
schools to identify problematic areas of learning at the classroom and school levels, so that
solutions can be generated as to how to best address the problems.
 The fourth characteristic of a successful school is the existence of goals and direction.
Administration should actively construct goals and then effectively communicate them to
 appropriate individuals (i.e., students, teachers, community-at-large). School principals
must also be open and willing to incorporate innovation into goals for school processes and
practices. It is important to invite input from all stakeholders in the process of developing
school goals. Student performance has been shown to improve in schools where all in the
school community work toward goals that are communicated and shared among all in the
learning environment.
 The fifth and final factor of a successful school is the extent to which the school is secure
and organized. For maximum learning to occur, students need to feel secure. Respect is a
quality that is promoted and is a fundamental aspect of a safe school. There are also a
number of trained staff and programs, such as social workers, who work with problem
students before situations get out of hand.

Other elements of student success

Apart from the five factors of a successful school already mentioned, the size of the school
seems to be a school effectiveness factor. Research has found that the smaller the school, the
better students perform, especially in the case of older students. This is the rationale behind the
concept of schools-within-schools. Students in smaller learning environments feel more connected
to their peers and teachers, pass classes more often, and have a higher probability of going to
college.

A number of school districts view preschool education as a factor that will influence overall
effectiveness across all schools located within the district. Evidence suggests that children with
preschool experiences fare better academically and socially as they enter kindergarten and beyond.
Experiences in literacy and numeracy among early learners not only prepares preschoolers for a
kindergarten curriculum that has heightened expectations of prior knowledge, but also helps identify
early learners who will need additional support to ensure they are able to have positive learning
experiences later on.

Additional factors that influence effective schools include time to learn, teacher quality, and
school and parental trust. Research supports the commonsensical view that the more time a
student spends learning, and the more efficiently that time is used, the higher their achievement.
Schools that find creative ways to extend time on learning will likely be more effective. Schools with
high quality teachers also tend to be more effective. Schools able to hire teachers from high quality
teacher education programs increase the possibility of being an effective school.

School effectiveness can also be influenced by the frequency, relevancy, and quality of the
teacher professional development offered by the school and/or school district. Trust and parental
participation are also features of a successful school. Trust between all parties of the school
community is vital for enhancing the school’s effectiveness because it supports the prospect that
parents and teachers believe in the motives and actions of each other. Parental participation is also
important because it sends the message to students that the adults in their lives—both teachers
and parents—believe in the importance of education and are willing to make time to support
students’ educational experiences and efforts.

So there is no simple solution for labeling the effectiveness of a particular school – but it should
certainly go beyond assessments alone.
Philippine Accreditation System for Basic Education
https://www.deped.gov.ph/2013/04/08/do-20-s-2013-the-philippine-accreditation-system-for-basic-
education-pasbe-supplemental-guidelines-to-deped-order-no-83-s-2012-the-implementing-
guidelines-of-the-revised-sbm-framework-asses/

THE PHILIPPINE ACCREDITATION SYSTEM FOR BASIC EDUCATION (PASBE)

SUPPLEMENTAL GUIDELINES TO DEPED ORDER NO. 83, S. 2012 (THE IMPLEMENTING
GUIDELINES OF THE REVISED SBM FRAMEWORK, ASSESSMENT PROCESS AND TOOL)

1. The Philippine Accreditation System for Basic Education (PASBE) is an accreditation

process that looks into the operations of the public and private elementary and secondary
schools if they meet the quality standards as established by stakeholders of basic
education. Officially launched through DepEd Order No. 64, s. 2012, the harmonized
accreditation was relaunched in DepEd Order No. 83, s. 2012 as an integral component of
School-Based Management (SBM) practice.
2. This DepEd Order which provides the supplemental guidelines to the DepEd Order No. 83,
s. 2012, further details the continuum in the SBM and PASBE processes. In this DepEd
Order, an accredited status in PASBE is equivalent to Level III SBM practice. This reinforces
the role of SBM and accreditation as an integrated quality measure, where PASBE is the
quality assurance mechanism of the SBM practice.
3. All regions, divisions, and schools shall organize the SBM-PASBE Coordinating Team as
per Item No. 4 of DepEd Order No. 83, s. 2012, which shall be chaired by the regional
director (RD), schools division/city superintendent (SDS) and the school head (SH),
respectively.
4. All regions are encouraged to implement the integrated process starting summer of School
Year (SY) 2012-2013. In the first year of implementation, the SBM-PASBE Coordinating
Teams shall be given the task to orient the schools on the revised process.
5. Continuous advocacy on the SBM guiding principles in the context of A Child-and
Community-centered Education Systems (ACCESs) is imperative during the period of
validation of the SBM practice and before the school and division embark on accreditation.
6. For clarifications and concerns, all concerned may contact Ms. Elsie Esmer, Head,
Philippine Accreditation System for Basic Education (PASBE) Secretariat at telephone no.:
(02) 632-7586 and Ms. Maria Katrina L. Gregorio, School-Based Management (SBM)
Secretariat at telephone no.: (02) 633-7216 or through email
address: sbmpasbe@gmail.com.
7. Immediate dissemination of and strict compliance with this Order is directed.
Input 2

Creating a Positive School Culture

The Meaning of School Culture

https://www.educationalleaders.govt.nz/Culture/Understanding-school-cultures/School-culture

School culture is one of the most complex and important concepts in education. Schein
(1985, p.6) considers the basic essence of an organisation’s culture to be: the deeper level of basic
assumptions and beliefs that are shared by members of an organisation, that operate
unconsciously, and that define in a basic ‘taken for granted’ fashion an organisation’s view of itself
and its environment.

These are the heart of school culture and what makes it so hard to grasp and change.

How we view the world

Culture describes how things are and acts as a screen or lens through which the world is
viewed. In essence it defines reality for those within a social organisation, gives them support and
identity and creates a framework for occupational learning.

Each school has a different reality or mindset of school life, often captured in the simple
phrase, “the way we do things around here” (Deal & Kennedy, 1983). It also has its own mindset in
relation to what occurs in its external environment.

Culture is, thus, “situationally unique” (Beare et al., 1989). A school’s culture is shaped by its
history, context and the people in it.

Cultural change

A school’s age can impact cultural change.

 In the early years of a new school, dominant values emanate from its “founders” and the
school makes is culture explicit.
 In midlife the most important aspects of the culture are embedded and taken for granted,
and the culture is increasingly implicit. Change becomes more difficult because of less
consciousness of the culture; it is harder to articulate and understand.
 Maturity and/or stagnation and decline is reached if the school has ceased growing and
responding to its environment (Fink, 1999). This stage is most problematic from the
cultural change perspective.

Vary between primary and secondary

School cultures vary between primary and secondary schools (Cooper, 1988).

In primary schools, care and control influence their culture (Hargreaves et al., 1996), such
that when students leave primary school there is a feeling that have left a family (Ruddock, 1996).
In contrast secondary school culture is influenced not only by larger size and department structures,
but by the very fundamental nature of teachers’ academic orientation (Hargreaves et al., 1996) –
and the fragmented individualism (Hargreaves, 1982) that students experience in moving from one
subject and teacher to another.

Influenced by the school community

Locally, a school’s community, including the students’ parents, may have their own
conceptions of what a “real school” (Metz, 1991) is: “a real school is what I attended when I was a
child”. Political and economic forces or changes in national policies can also influence what is
valued at school.

Thrupp (1997) argues that the social mix of the school plays a major role in how it functions,
largely because of the cumulative effects of how students relate to each other as a group.

Essentially, students who attend the school flavour it in a particular way, through their own
student culture.

Changes in society
Changes in society pose challenges to a school’s culture. Changes might relate to learning,
the student population, organisational management, rapid technological developments or other
societal changes. Such changes often demand rapid responses from a school.

Yet while culture changes as participants change, it can also be a stabilising force,
particularly for those who have been part of the culture for a longer period. It can therefore appear
problematic for those in search of quick fix changes because it often seems as though it is an
unmoveable force.

While culture presents, therefore, the paradox of both being static and dynamic (Rossman et
al., 1988), in reality it is constantly evolving (Hopkins et al., 1994) and being reconstructed (Angus,
1996).

Culture as a Social Construct

Culture and Society
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-sociology/chapter/culture-and-society/

Culture is primarily an anthropological term. The field of anthropology emerged around the
same time as Social Darwinism, in the late 19th and early 20th century. Social Darwinism was the
belief that the closer a cultural group was to the normative, Western, European standards of
behavior and appearance, the more evolved that group was. As a theory of the world, it was
essentially a racist concept that persists in certain forms up to this day. If you have ever heard
someone reference people of African descent as being from, or close to, the jungle, or the
wilderness, you’ve encountered a type of coded language that is a modern incarnation of Social
Darwinist thought.

During the late 19th and early 20th century time period, the positivist school also emerged in
sociological thought. One of the key figures in this school, Cesare Lombroso, studied the physical
characteristics of prisoners, because he believed that he could find a biological basis for crime.
Lombroso coined the term atavism to suggest that some individuals were throwbacks to a more
bestial point in evolutionary history. Lombroso used this concept to claim that certain individuals
were more weak-willed, and more prone to criminal activity, than their supposedly more evolved
counterparts.

In accordance with the hegemonic beliefs of the time, anthropologists first theorized culture
as something that evolves in the same way biological organisms evolve. Just like biological
evolution, cultural evolution was thought to be an adaptive system that produced unique results
depending on location and historical moment. However, unlike biological evolution, culture can be
intentionally taught and thus spread from one group of people to another.

Initially, anthropologists believed that culture was a product of biological evolution, and that
cultural evolution depended exclusively on physical conditions. Today’s anthropologists no longer
believe it is this simple. Neither culture nor biology is solely responsible for the other. They interact
in very complex ways, which biological anthropologists will be studying for years to come.

Different societies have different cultures; a culture represents the beliefs and practices of a
group, while society represents the people who share those beliefs and practices.

Material culture refers to the objects or belongings of a group of people, such as

automobiles, stores, and the physical structures where people worship. Nonmaterial culture, in
contrast, consists of the ideas, attitudes, and beliefs of a society.

In 18th and 19th century Europe, the term “culture” was equated with civilization and
considered a unique aspect of Western society. Remnants of that colonial definition of culture can
be seen today in the idea of ” high culture “.

During the Romantic Era, culture became equated with nationalism and gave rise to the idea
of multiple national cultures.

Today, social scientists understand culture as a society’s norms, values, and beliefs; as well
as its objects and symbols, and the meaning given to those objects and symbols.

civilization: An organized culture encompassing many communities, often on the scale of a

nation or a people; a stage or system of social, political or technical development.
high culture: The artistic entertainment and material artifacts associated with a society’s aristocracy
or most learned members, usually requiring significant education to be appreciated or highly skilled
labor to be produced.

popular culture: The prevailing vernacular culture in any given society, including art,
cooking, clothing, entertainment, films, mass media, music, sports, and style

nationalism: The idea of supporting one’s country and culture; patriotism.

Culture encompasses human elements beyond biology: for example, our norms and values, the
stories we tell, learned or acquired behaviors, religious beliefs, art and fashion, and so on. Culture
is what differentiates one group or society from the next.

Different societies have different cultures; however it is important not to confuse the idea of
culture with society. A culture represents the beliefs and practices of a group, while society
represents the people who share those beliefs and practices. Neither society nor culture could exist
without the other.

Almost every human behavior, from shopping to marriage to expressions of feelings, is

learned. Behavior based on learned customs is not necessarily a bad thing – being familiar with
unwritten rules helps people feel secure and confident that their behaviors will not be challenged or
disrupted. However even the simplest actions – such as commuting to work, ordering food from a
restaurant, and greeting someone on the street – evidence a great deal of cultural propriety.
 Material culture refers to the objects or belongings of a group of people (such as
automobiles, stores, and the physical structures where people worship). Nonmaterial culture, in
contrast, consists of the ideas, attitudes, and beliefs of a society. Material and nonmaterial aspects
of culture are linked, and physical objects often symbolize cultural ideas. A metro pass is a material
object, but it represents a form of nonmaterial culture (namely capitalism, and the acceptance of
paying for transportation). Clothing, hairstyles, and jewelry are part of material culture, but the
appropriateness of wearing certain clothing for specific events reflects nonmaterial culture. A school
building belongs to material culture, but the teaching methods and educational standards are part of
education’s nonmaterial culture.

These material and nonmaterial aspects of culture can vary subtly from region to region. As
people travel farther afield, moving from different regions to entirely different parts of the world,
certain material and nonmaterial aspects of culture become dramatically unfamiliar. As we interact
with cultures other than our own, we become more aware of our own culture – which might
otherwise be invisible to us – and to the differences and commonalities between our culture and
others.

School Climate and School Culture

SCHOOL CLIMATE & CULTURE

https://aesimpact.org/school-climate-and-culture/

While school climate and culture have been defined in a number of ways, and at times are
used interchangeably, they are two distinct terms which overlap and influence one another. Think of
school climate as the attitude and school culture as the personality. One drives and determines the
other.

School climate is the feel of the school (the schools’ attitude), the behaviors and points of
view exhibited and experienced by students, teachers and other stakeholders.

• Freiberg and Stein (1999) describe school climate as “the heart and soul of the school,” the
feeling that either encourages teachers and students to engage, love the school, and to want to be
a part of it, or to reject the school and disengage from it. It is the outcome of the school’s norms and
values, the way in which people at the school relate to and interact with one another, and the way
systems and policies manifest.

• According to the National School Climate Center, “school climate includes major spheres of
school life such as safety, relationships, teaching and learning, and the environment as well as
larger organizational patterns (e.g. from fragmented to shared; healthy or unhealthy).” These
dimensions not only shape how students feel about being in school, but “these larger group trends
shape learning and student development” (National School Climate Center, 2013).

School culture is the way thing are done in the school (the personality of a school), the
underlying norms and values that shape patterns of behavior, attitudes and expectations between
stakeholders in the school.

• Deal and Peterson (1998) define school culture as “norms, values, beliefs, traditions, and
rituals built up over time.”
• A school’s culture is always at work, either helping or hindering learning. It influences every
decision and action in a school, from the leadership style of the principal to the way teachers
choose curriculum materials and interact with students.

What Is School Climate?

https://www.naesp.org/sites/default/files/resources/2/Principal/2008/M-Ap56.pdf

School climate is a term that has been used for many decades. Its early use denoted the
ethos, or spirit, of an organization. More recently, school climate is thought to represent the attitude
of an organization. The collective mood, or morale, of a group of people has become a topic of
concern, especially in our new age of accountability. It seems that a happy teacher is considered a
better teacher, and this attitude influences the quality of instruction. If happy people truly perform
better, then leaders must create conditions in which happiness thrives. Unfortunately, some leaders
do not research the most effective strategies for creating a happy school climate, instead relying on
extrinsic rewards. Bringing doughnuts to the faculty lounge on Fridays may help a few teachers
wake up quicker, but this act will not affect the morale of the building.

Culture Always Wins

Whenever a group of people spend a significant amount of time together, they develop a
common set of expectations. These expectations evolve into unwritten rules to which group
members conform in order to remain in good standing with their colleagues. Groups develop a
common culture in order to pass on information to the next generation. That information, however,
represents a set of beliefs that have been passed down by imperfect humans with personal
preferences. In schools, new teachers arrive with their own ideas about how to do their jobs.
Through their schooling, they will have been immersed in theories of best practices and cutting-
edge methodologies. If the culture of their first job does not embrace these new ideas, they will
soon learn that to fit in they will need to assimilate. Because new teachers want to fit in and to feel
like experienced teachers, they are vulnerable to the school’s culture and all the unwritten rules that
have been passed on through the decades.

An organization’s culture dictates its collective personality. Continuing Many school leaders
believe that organizational culture and organizational climate are the same thing. The distinction
that I will describe is not an exercise in semantics. Although these two terms have similar
characteristics, they express two separate concepts. Once educators understand the difference,
they will develop the capacity to be more precise in their diagnoses and treatments of the two. 58
Principal n March/April 2008 www.naesp.org this analogy, if culture is the personality of the
organization, then climate represents that organization’s attitude. It is much easier to change an
organization’s attitude (climate) than it is to change its personality (culture). Comparing Climate with
Culture The relationship between culture and climate can be observed through our perceptions of
the days of the week.

Typically in U.S. schools, Mondays are perceived as miserable and Fridays are thought of
as fun. This viewpoint reflects the business model’s values and, thus, we learn that we are not
supposed to want to come to school on Mondays. Teachers and students often talk about the
weekend or the next holiday or vacation, often counting down the days. To come in on Monday
morning, happy about being there and not looking forward to the weekend would challenge the
existing climate. As a result, we can expect the climate to be less positive on Mondays than it is on
Fridays. Placing a higher value on weekends is a particularly American phenomenon. There are
many societies, or cultures, that do not place value on the day of the week. Cultures create the
negative stigma of Monday mornings and we teach this preference to each generation—it usually
takes hold around the fourth or fifth grade for students. When the climate is negative, as is the case
on most Monday mornings, it is the culture that dictates how members of the group are supposed to
feel. The culture tells us that we’re supposed to feel miserable on Mondays. Table 1 provides some
examples of the differences between climate and culture and how culture influences climate.

The Role of School Culture in Learning

https://online.malone.edu/articles/importance-of-school-culture/
What makes a great school? High educational standards and strong test scores might be
common responses to that question, but these elements alone are not the overall arbiters of
achievement. More often than not, school culture plays an overwhelming role. School culture is the
beliefs, perceptions, attitudes, and written and unwritten rules that influence every aspect of a
school. The importance of school culture goes deeper than rules and attitudes, however, touching
on aspects as varied as diversity, student wellbeing, and even the order within classrooms and
common areas. Being such a far-reaching concept, it falls upon every member of a school’s staff to
help promote an enriching school culture. From the National Educational Association:

The whole village concept for improving schools stresses the importance of all school
employees working together to help students succeed – everyone from principals, custodians and
bus drivers to teachers, nurses, administrators, security and food service workers.

Perhaps most critical in driving school culture, though, is the leadership provided by a
school’s principal and administrators. Through the policies they set and behaviors they exhibit,
these school leaders send both direct and indirect messages that touch every corner of the
institutions they oversee.

Why School Culture is Important

While it might be tempting to dismiss the notion of school culture as too nebulous,
particularly when test scores and student-teacher ratios are prioritized as signs of achievement, the
truth is that improved school culture contributes to greater school success. Broadly speaking, when
school culture is strong, teachers and students have a greater incentive to strive for their maximum
potential. This is because their satisfaction, morale, and fulfillment all grow as school culture
blossoms.

Strong school culture breeds dedicated teachers. With the encouragement provided by a
healthy school, teachers are more likely to prioritize their professional development and aptitude by
improving their skills, expanding their base of knowledge, and connecting with their students.
Motivated teachers are more apt to tailor their approaches to students’ individualized learning
needs (where possible), better prepared to guide their students toward excellence, and more willing
to praise their students for a job well-done.

Developing Positive School Culture

A positive school culture is preferable to a negative one. Fostering one means focusing on
the connections between school staff and students, along with the beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors
of school administrators. In an article on school leadership, Kyle Wagner, a former educator and
founder of Transform Educational Consulting, laid out five pivotal strategies for building effective
school culture, which are:

Planning a bridge program for new students and staff. Administrators should start by
introducing a school’s newcomers to the institution’s ethos and expectations as soon as
possible. This allows them to make an easy transition and fit in with the school culture.

Making school-wide goals visible. By making the school’s mission and goals publicly
 accessible (as opposed to tucked away in a back office), the entire school can understand
and share in a similar purpose and work toward it collaboratively.

Keeping a loyal opposition. Through inviting constructive criticism, multiple viewpoints are
expressed, and school leaders can address deficiencies in their proposed policies.

Establishing collaborative networks. Seeking the aid of outside experts can help provide a
neutral point of view on a school’s challenges and introduce objective solutions for
improving school culture. The viewpoint of a trusted third-party can sometimes offer a
perspective no faction within the school could have conceived.

Holding school-wide rallies and assemblies. Daily gatherings of a school’s staff and student
body help further instill the idea that the school is a unit working toward shared goals, and it
offers an opportunity to build positivity through celebrating achievements and laying out
expectations.

Of course, these aren’t the only methods administrators can use to help improve their school
culture. Additional sources, such as School Leaders Now’s 8 Ways Principals Can Build Positive
School Culture Now offers substantive advice on what administrators can do to start shifting their
school’s sense of community in the right direction.

The importance of school culture

https://www.educationworld.in/the-importance-of-school-culture/

Tons of research in the education field points to an important fact – no sustainable

improvement in student results and gaps in achievement can be filled until the school leaders,
teachers work on strong norms of behavior. School culture has been defined in many ways but we
are focusing here on how the adults – the school leaders – behave in a school setting. What
practices they follow, how they interact with each other, what values inform their behavior, how do
the leaders model their behavior – these become the main guiding force in the schools capacity to
learn, improve, design its long term vision and mission and impact the various stakeholders from
the students to the parents.

Some of the ways this can be demonstrated in schools is by:

1. Creating an environment that fosters education for one and all – by making extra efforts to
reach out to the slow learners and disadvantaged students.
2. By appreciating and acknowledging the hard work that is put in by teachers and support
staff.
3. Constantly looking for opportunities to enhance the teaching capabilities of the teachers.
4. Creating a language of support and care around the school.
5. Providing the teachers a space where they can fearlessly talk about their challenges and
difficulties (Where the mind is without fear and the head is held high – to imbue the school
with these lines of Rabindranath Tagore)
6. Backing the teaching practices with cutting edge research and data. Aligning the teaching
process to what is working in the education sector

How do all the above mentioned translate into behaviors that need to be implemented? First
and the foremost way is to create strong bonds among the school community between the teachers
and the leaders. The leader needs to be trustworthy and should drive the agenda not from an ego
perspective but value perspective. There should be value given to other points of view and
language of respect and care should be used. He/she should demonstrate by practice the value of
right conduct. The school leadership should subscribe to magazines, journals that focus on latest
research in the field of education. The leader needs to be genuinely interested in the well being of
his team and makes the effort to be seen interacting with all without prejudice. He gives due
appreciation and recognition to a job well done. The leader participates in professional development
courses with the teachers thus demonstrating regard for constant learning. In following the human
values of love, respect, understanding, trust, kindness and right conduct the leaders can create a
culture that will create a model environment where all the education stakeholders will not just
survive but they will thrive.

11 Proven ways to build a positive school culture

https://www.prodigygame.com/main-en/blog/school-culture

1. Create meaningful parent involvement

Generating clear, open communication with the parents of your students can help you avoid
misunderstandings and remove feelings of mistrust or hostility.To involve parents in your school
culture, give them a platform for feedback on classroom activities or school programs. Ask them about
their hopes or concerns regarding their children’s education. Go beyond parent-teacher meetings and
organize workshops where teachers and parents can discuss homework, study skills, and
tests.Involving parents in school activities in a meaningful way also helps foster positive feelings
between the school and the parents. You can ask parents to be on event committees or to participate
in school fundraisers.Developing educational programs for parents can also help involve them in their
children’s schooling, and thus build a more positive atmosphere in your school.For example, Hollibrook
Elementary in Spring Branch, Texas, developed a "Parent University" to get parents more actively
involved in the school -- helping build trust and rapport between the school and the families of the
students.

2. Celebrate personal achievement and good behavior

This means more than the occasional "good job."Complimenting kids helps them to feel that
they are cared for individually. Both you and your staff play a huge part in this aspect of your school
culture.One way to generate more positive reinforcement from your staff is to set goals for the number
of compliments each member has to give during the day or week. Encourage them to give specific
compliments that highlight what each individual student has done well. [caption
id="attachment_2758" align="aligncenter" width="491"]An example of a ceremony recognizing
students for outstanding achievements -- in this case, Waresboro Elementary recognized 17
students for excellence in "scholarship, responsibility, leadership, and service." Image
source:Waresboro Elementary School[/caption]Celebrating the achievements of your students can be
done on a larger scale as well.For example, Joyce Elementary School in Detroit started holding an
honor ceremony for students. Here, they presented medallions for students and praised specific
achievements. This event includes not only school members, but hundreds from the community.

3. Establish school norms that build values

Your school and classroom rules should be clear to all students, and should be well-
regulated.However, this doesn’t mean that you need to establish rules for every possible
situation.Instead, create school norms that focus on building positive values in your class. This helps
kids to learn, not just what they should and shouldn’t do, but why they should or shouldn’t do it.For
example, instead of creating specific rules about chewing gum, use of water bottles, or electronic
devices in the classroom, you could create a classroom rule that states: “Be respectful of the people
around you.”To help students apply these norms, there should be consistency across the entire school
building, inside and out.

4. Set consistent discipline

 When rules are not followed, discipline must be administered. However, broadening the range
of discipline methods can help encourage a positive school culture.Instead of constantly putting out
fires, trying a more proactive approach to discipline. Giving a student detention after bad behavior
teaches him that he did something wrong. But giving him a task that helps correct the wrong teaches
him what he should’ve done instead. For example, imagine one student started a fight. His discipline
could include having to write a letter of apology to the student he hurt, and then to take a shift as
“hallway monitor”. Having students work to correct their own wrongs helps encourage them to take
responsibility for their actions. Getting your teachers to internalize the subtle and tactful arts
of classroom management consistently is critical for a school culture of mutual respect and adherence
to rules -- both by teachers and students. Also, it’s essential that all discipline is presented consistently
across the school. When all students are treated equally and bad behavior is disciplined in the same
way in different classrooms, this helps removes feelings of mistrust among students.

5. Model the behaviors you want to see in your school

You have a list of qualities and values that you want to see in your teachers and students.But
how well do you present those same aspects of your school culture?All changes have to start from the
top. That means when you interact with teachers and students, you need to be an example of the
behavior that you want to see in your school.

6. Engage students in ways that benefit them

When in school, your students are learning more than just secular instruction. They’re also
developing their social skills, and learning how to become successful adults.Schools that help students
develop essential social skills are preparing them on an even deeper level for their future after
graduation.One way to engage students and develop these types of skills is through social-emotional
learning (SEL). Throughout the day, encourage teachers to include activities that help students
develop qualities such as empathy, reliability, respect, concern, and a sense of humor.In the research
brief Social Emotional Learning in Elementary School, researchers found that SEL programs helped
students make more ethical decisions, maintain positive relationships, set and achieve goals at school
and at home, and manage their emotions. These programs promoted achievements at school, and
reduced substance abuse and emotional distress.

7. Create rituals and traditions that are fun for students and teachers
The school day — and school year — should be punctuated with time for fun. This helps
students engage with each other in positive events and builds morale in school.For example, one
school created a weekly event called ‘Fabulous Friday’, which opened students up to a variety of fun
activities. Why not create your own version of Fabulous Friday? Using technology in the classroom --
as a reward or simply to supplement learning -- is a cost-effective way to introduce positive rituals
for students on the level of the individual classroom. For example, you can create special rituals and
traditions for the first day of school, or for the first day of a new month.Creating appropriate times to
have fun and laugh breaks up the day and gives students a chance to relax in between learning. This
helps them become more refreshed when returning to the classroom.

8. Encourage innovation in the classroom

Innovation in the classroom starts with you — the school leader.When talking with teachers,
encourage them to try new methods of teaching. You can even set up regular meetings to discuss new
research on teaching methods or new teaching tech, and how these can be implemented in your
school.These meetings will help the whole teaching staff to brainstorm and implement new ideas,
bringing teachers into the process of building your school culture.For example, why not try game-
based learning? Particularly popular for improving results in topics like math, video game based
learning has been shown to heighten the level of interest, concentration, and enjoyment of educational
materials among students.And teachers tend to agree: in one study by the Joan Ganz Cooney Center,
almost 80% of K-8 classroom teachers surveyed agreed that digital games have “improved student
mastery of curricular content”.Plus, it’s fun!

9. Professional development for teachers

Students are not the only people in your school who should be learning. Helping your teachers
to develop their skills will encourage a positive school culture by giving them the ability to improve their
craft. For example, the Mooresville Intermediate School in North Carolina pairs each new teacher with
a mentor at the beginning of their career at the school. This helps teachers to be fully aware of school
policies and rules, and gives them specific instruction in how the school uses tech in the classroom.
Supporting new teachers in this way can help promote a consistent atmosphere across your school.
Also, it’s good to make sure that you as the school leader are aware of what your teachers think and
feel in their work. Set up regular times to ask for feedback, hear out concerns, and get suggestions for
improvement.

10. Maintain the physical environment of your school

Surprisingly enough, the physical surroundings of students and teachers has a huge impact on
the culture of your school.The HEAD Project (Holistic Evidence and Design) took evidence from over
3,700 students in 27 diverse schools. They found that the physical space where students are learning
can account for a 16% variation in the learning process over a school year.What aspects of a
classroom have the most impact? The novelty, stimulation, and freedom of movement students enjoy
in a flexible seating classroom setting positively impacts behavior, according to educational researcher
Sheryl Feinstein’s book From the Brain to the Classroom.[/caption]It was found that half of the learning
impact came from light, temperature, and air quality. The other half of learning impact came from
factors such as individualization of the environment and color of the room. For example, the ideal
classroom was found to have light-colored walls with one accent wall of a brighter color. Adopting a
policy that allows for flexible seating in classrooms is one step school leaders are taking more
frequently. Adjusting these seemingly insignificant factors isn’t difficult, and can result in an increase in
student engagement and improvement in learning.

11. Keep tabs on your school’s culture, and make adjustments when necessary
Unfortunately, creating a positive school culture isn’t just a matter of following a checklist. As a
school leader, you need to stay informed of what’s going on in your school, and understand the
attitudes and atmosphere that permeate the hallways and classrooms. As we mentioned above,
starting the process of improving your school culture involves analyzing the current situation of your
school. This analyzation process should become a regular part of your schedule. Set aside time
every few months to analyze your school culture. Keep on the watch for the specific factors that
indicate a positive school culture, and keep using the steps above to reinforce those aspects. Also,
be aware of any negative factors that have started to seep in, and take decisive action to remove
those. Above all, take time to listen to feedback from both teachers and students in order to
understand the experience that they are having in your school.

Shared Norms: Teacher and Student Norms

The Science Behind Classroom Norming

Blogger Todd Finley explores the value of Classroom Norming to help learners.
By Todd Finley (2014)
https://www.edutopia.org/blog/establishing-classroom-norms-todd-finley

Celebrated teachers like Jamil Odom, Ron Clark, and Rebecca Mieliwocki create
transcendent classroom cultures year after year. It’s not magic, it’s science.
 Our modern understanding of social norming occurred in 1936, when Muzafer
Sherif studied the autokinetic effect, a phenomenon that occurs when people observe a
stable light inside a dark space. After time passes, everyone "sees" the light move.
Sherif, on a hunch, asked confederates to enter the room and offer a contradictory
perception. The participants, without realizing they had been tricked, revised their
original judgment to align with the confederates' stated perception. Later, even when
participants re-entered the room alone, they continued to believe that the confederates'
perceptions were correct.

The mechanism for norming is group talk. The result is conformity...either the
good kind where hippies rally under Steve Jobs and invent a Macintosh computer or the
version that begins with goose-stepping and ends in death camps. Such potency,
researchers Patricia and Richard Schmuck assert, makes norming one of the most
important influences on academic achievement.

WHAT ARE CLASSROOM NORMS?

In contrast to rules, which are (usually) teacher generated and work best when
introduced on the first day, norms are "an agreement among members of a classroom or
school about how they will treat one another," according to Gary Borich, Professor of
Educational Psychology at The University of Texas at Austin. There are three types of
norms : those that pertain to safety and health (no shoving), moral norms (help peers),
and discretionary norms (clean your desk before leaving for the day).

NORMING AND STAGES OF GROUP DEVELOPMENT

Bruce Tuckman's research on teams revealed that group development happens in
five stages, regardless of the culture, language, or purpose of the group: forming,
storming, norming, performing, adjourning. Teachers need to allow the first two stages to
occur (2-3 weeks) before facilitating the classroom norming process. Here are brief
descriptions of those stages:
Forming - Members are anxious about being accepted, so they behave cautiously.
Storming - Dominant members emerge amidst some confrontations. Clarification about roles
and the group purpose is sought.
Norming - Members grow more cohesive and interdependent; communication, trust and
Esprit de corps improves.
Performing - Productivity and autonomy are strong as members problem solve to complete
group objectives.
Adjourning - The team disbands. Mourning sometimes occurs.

To help students advance successfully through the first stage, establish clear
goals. During storming, stay positive during tense moments and be ready to promptly
address conflicts. Describe the team development process and reassure students that
things will become easier when the later stages are reached. Also rehearse routines until
they're automatic.

HOW TO FACILITATE CLASSROOM NORMING

When introducing a class to the norming process, state that the goal is to develop
a class culture that promotes academic achievement. To address potential impatience, I
explain that our class is like a supertanker. "It won’t turn quickly based on one person's
needs, but we will arrive at the intended academic destination." In addition, mention that
the class will revisit norms later in the semester and make course corrections.
 Next, ask students to complete a problem/norm T-chart in small groups. Before
learners begin this task, talk them through the first entry (see italics, below) to model the
process.

After 10-15 minutes, disseminate a list of potential problem areas and ask if they
have already been addressed in each group's T-chart. If not, direct students to keep
developing more norms that will handle these issues.
Input 3

School Policies and Their Functions

Importance of Policies

Importance of Policies in School Education Ecosystem

Published on March 25, 2018
https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/importance-policies-school-education-ecosystem-sami-ulla-m/

Policy is generally an intent, a set of rules and principles, adopted for ease of governance
within an organisation. It is fundamentally important for organisations to have implementable
policies, as it forms a linking pin between the school management, teachers, students, parents, and
the rule of law. An organisation without policy is an organisation without control.

If there are no formal policies, then organisation staff at any level would have no guidance
on how to make right consistent decisions. Imagine, a parent approaches a teacher, and requests
to view her child’s answer script. If the school has no proper policy on Assessments, the choice on
whether to show the answer paper might depend upon which teacher she spoke to, or whether the
teacher she speaks to is having a bad day. In short, an absence of policy leads to inconsistency of
decision making.

Not everyone understands why policies exist – some people view them as being
bureaucratic and overbearing. In reality, as the school management cannot be everywhere all the
time to ensure staff carry out their tasks correctly and responsibly, policies provide useful and
necessary assistance. Rules therefore help to decrease the amount of direct supervision by the
management, and at the same time increase the efficiency of work processes.

Besides, policies are also important because they help a school establish model operating
procedures and create standards of quality for learning and safety, as well as expectations and
accountability. Without these, institutions would lack the structure and function necessary to provide
the educational needs of students. Eventually, policies are key for the success of a school, and
provides many other privileges provided they are written well and kept up to date.

Internal Controls

Organisational policies should serve as an important form of internal control. Policy form as
a control mechanism that will effectively limit the behaviour of teaching and non-teaching staff.
Instructions could be that two teachers must be involved in any assessment process, one to correct
the answer script, and another to audit the sheet. Policy should always be enforced through some
kind of scrutinising mechanism, or it will be a weak internal control. School management can make
life easier by creating proper internal controls that are enforceable.

Minimise Costs:

Management always feel the need to minimise costs. This can take the form of examining
the real amount of resources required for what the School actually needs, such as finding the
cheapest suppliers without sacrificing quality. It can also be about limiting the financial losses that
can cripple school operations, such as shortages, wastages, errors and other kinds of losses. When
policies address potential sources of risk and require employees to know them, it creates
awareness of the need for risk management. It is best to ensure that employees comply with
company policies intended to minimise risk.

Maintain Compliance

School policies must enable the organisation to maintain a degree of accountability in the
eyes of internal and external stakeholders. School has an obligation towards the law of the land.
Compliance is to follow these established defined statutory procedures and practices. Educational
policies are rules that are intended to help schools teach students efficiently, fairly and safely as per
the regulatory norms, and the Board to which the Institution is affiliated. These terms determine how
students are taught, what they are taught, how schools manage students and its personnel.

Build a Learning Culture

Academics being the major service of a school, it is mandatory to create a learning culture
by encouraging the staff to continuously add to their knowledge. This includes determining which
capability each staff should acquire and creating a process for updating it throughout the year. For
example, a policy to have a staff competency matrix and training need analysis for all staff must be
completed before becoming eligible for the appraisal. Initially each staff learning should include a
checklist of tasks, such as required training and development, work samples and formal learning
instructions.

Safe Learning Environments

Students, teachers and staff members deserve to feel physically and psychologically secure
in their environment. Policies influence how safe individuals are in school. In order to create this
environment, guidelines need to be developed and reinstated that establish safety standards for the
physical environment and mental state of students and staff. Disciplined rules have an effect on the
safety of students and staff at school level, therefore, procedures should extend beyond the
classroom, frequency of fire drills, anti-bullying, and how staff should respond during a medical
emergency.

Setting Goals and Establishing Productivity

Students and teachers are the major customers of all the policies in a school. Management
should establish standard rules to guide acceptable behaviour, and help create a conducive
learning environment. All of these are necessary to help the institution run smoothly to ensure that
students receive a quality education. In order for an institution to encourage higher learning, plans
must be in place that establish goals as set forth by the school management. This is important for
relating education to the community and making it responsible to the larger world. Accountability
through the use of goal-oriented policies ensures productivity – thus save time, prevent confusion
and unify the school.

Suspension and Expulsion

Although the law strictly disapproves it, the school should be very careful in determining
when a student should be suspended or expelled, because it can impact a child's future. Although it
is common to expel students for excessive violations of school rules, this is not always a good
option for dealing with behaviour problems. When a child is expelled, he may lose his desire to
continue attending traditional institution and quit. Suspension policies can inadvertently discourage
students from attending school, leading to a lifetime of low-paying jobs or dependency of others.
For this reason, it is important to have policies that incorporate other solutions before resorting to
suspension and expulsion.

Equality

Equality in the schools is again determined by it’s policies. School must have guidelines
requiring acts of discrimination to be reported to their administrators and to be remedied promptly.
There are also rules in place to make sure that children with disabilities, or slow-learners, receive
the same access to an education as other students. This ensures that everyone gets the
opportunity to contribute to society and thrive economically.

Teacher Engagement

Another important thing is that policies on teacher training and engagement should focus
more on the professional continuum of teachers. Teacher engagement is the key element for
teacher retention, including teacher interventions, and their continuous professional development all
over their career – they are a whole and they are interconnected. A proper workplace policy also
aims to guide teaching and non-teaching staff in how to perform in the school for various prohibited
issues in – harassment, internet use, health and safety, and social media are just a few.

Stakeholder involvement

Last but not the least, collaboration between all the stakeholders should be much larger. It is
extremely important that everyone is involved in the policy-making, that each stakeholder has
his/her role, and should be able to take that role into the process. Schools should have well-
documented and comprehensive policies and standard-operating-procedures for all the internal and
external stake holders.

Having well-developed policies and rules can empower the School to:

 help teachers and students know what is expected of them with respect to standards of
behaviour and performance.
 set guidelines for decision-making in routine situations so that teachers and managers do
not need to continually ask senior management what to do.
 help to adopt a consistent and clear response across the school to continually refer to
situations involving any interactions between peers, students and parents.
 allow to demonstrate good faith that employees will be treated fairly and equally.
 allow to have an accepted method of dealing with complaints and misunderstandings in
place to help avoid favouritism.
 set a framework for delegation of decision-making.
 give a means of communicating information to all stakeholders.
 offer protection from breaches of legislations, compliances, etc.

Subsequent to the policies being established, it is important to convey decisions that are
made on a school level to the relevant stakeholders, students, teachers and other staff. Because it
is necessary that they know which decisions have been taken, why they have been taken and what
the whole rationale behind this decision was, the management should really focus on the strict
adherence to them, as it only stays valuable as long as they are properly implemented and
monitored.

Enhancing Student Achievement

by Charlotte Danielson
http://www.ascd.org/publications/books/102109/chapters/Policies-and-Practices-Affecting-
Students.aspx

Chapter 6. Policies and Practices Affecting Students

The policies and practices affecting students are those aspects of a school's operation that
organize students' experiences within the institution. For younger students, these policies and
practices also structure the parents' relationship with the school. In considering the school's policies
and practices affecting students, educators should ask themselves such questions as “What is the
school policy with respect to homework, or to absences?” “What happens when a student is sent to
the principal's office?” “How are students treated in the lunchroom?”
The decisions that a school makes regarding established policies and practices affect students
enormously. Teachers' instructional decisions influence students' feelings about (and success with)
the curriculum, but the policies and practices in both classrooms and in the entire school provide
the context for teacher-student interactions around instruction.

Relationship to the Framework

Decisions regarding policies and practices that affect students should draw from earlier
discussions regarding what we want, believe, and know, and should respect the following key
concepts.

A Safe and Positive Environment

Both the physical and psychological school environments must be safe for all students.
Broken plumbing and falling ceilings, for example, must be fixed in a timely manner. Such problems
don't only pose a physical danger; when gone untended, they send a powerful message to students
that their well-being is not important. Policies and practices must show respect for students, who
should feel safe at school and feel that it is theirs. Consistency and predictability are a part of
safety; rules and procedures must be fairly and consistently applied, so that they are not regarded
as capricious.

A Culture of Hard Work

Students derive enormous satisfaction from tackling difficult tasks and succeeding on their
own. If educators want students to experience the pride of success through hard work, they will
establish practices that reward hard work rather than natural endowment or luck. In addition,
homework and grading policies shouldn't handi-cap students who don't “get it” on the first attempt;
such students should be given a second chance to succeed, and a third.

A Success Orientation
The goal of school policies and practices should be student mastery of the curriculum and
development of their potential. There is no room in a school truly committed to student learning for
policies that are punitive, turn students away, or undermine their confidence. If some students
believe that they are forever relegated to a “low group”—that nothing they do will ever let them
become leaders in student government, because they are somehow not regarded as part of the
school's “elite”—they will turn their back on the benefits of school. If students regard challenging
courses or membership in certain clubs as the province of only a select few, most will harbor no
ambitions for such opportunities.

A Culture of Respect and Responsiveness to Clients

In many schools, particularly high schools, students feel that they are the least important
people in the building: they are kept waiting by teachers or the principal, they are summoned to the
office for mysterious reasons, and they feel that no one ever believes their side of the story. Taken
together, the policies and practices in these schools do not produce an environment in which
students feel respected as human beings and valued as full participants.

Student Leadership and Decision Making

Opportunities for student leadership can help define the culture of a school. These must not
be restricted to an elite—there must be broad opportunities for students to develop leadership skills,
such as by helping establish the homework guidelines, serving as lab assistants in science, or
lending a hand with younger students.

Decision making relates more to how policies and procedures are derived than to what they
are. Students of all ages value the opportunity to shape the rules by which they live. When they
help create the rules, students are more likely to understand the rationale behind them and will
comply with them more willingly. In addition, the inclusion of student voices in the decision-making
process provides educators with access to a valuable perspective. Rules and procedures are
therefore likely to be stronger if students help create them than they would be if mandated by
teachers and administrators alone.

Minimal Competition
Despite knowing the corrosive effects of competition, many educators continue, largely
because of tradition, to create policies and practices that institutionalize competitiveness into the
fabric of the school. Students should only compete against themselves in the classroom (e.g., by
trying to “top” a previous essay).

A Culture for Learning

Learning is an active process, in which students must be engaged as genuine participants.
And student learning is not limited to the curriculum: students learn from homework and discipline
policies as well. Consequently, aspects of a school's policies that have an effect on student learning
should be designed with active learning in mind: for example, if educators want students to assume
responsibility for their behavior, discipline policies should reflect a view of students as active
decision makers.

A school's culture for learning is the implicit sense among students regarding what is valued
in the school, and whether it is important to be a successful learner. In this context, I use the term
“culture” in the anthropological sense, meaning the norms and values that prevail in a school
setting. What is valued? What traits are honored? What are the relative values of athletic skill,
academic success, and artistic talent? Many schools, and high schools especially, suffer from a
student culture in which it is not “cool” to be smart, work hard, or earn high grades. Educators
should bear the following issues in mind when considering their schools' cultures:

 School cultures are slow to change. Some students, particularly those who have
experienced little school success, build their reputations as class clowns. They
project the image that school is dumb, and that only nerds play the game. Even
 when faculty makes a concerted effort to change this student culture and support a
success orientation, the students themselves may be resistant to change. As a
result, high-school teachers, particularly in required courses, may inherit students
who have had a long history of failure and who are not prepared to risk their self-
esteem and reputation with friends for the elusive goal of school success. A shift in
school culture will take time.

 Different spheres of student excellence merit recognition. Most high schools

proudly display their athletic trophies, and student athletes are publicly recognized
through school assemblies and the student newspaper. Likewise, students with leads
in the school play may be acknowledged. But what about a gifted poet? Or the
manager of the props for the school play? Or the author of an elegant solution to a
mathematics problem? There are many areas of excellent student performance, and
a school culture that recognizes only its celebrities can undermine the confidence of
students whose talents lie else where.

 A school culture that supports student learning should be promoted both

within each classroom and in the school as a whole. This culture should be
promoted in classrooms—where student creativity and commitment should be
recognized on a daily basis—as well as throughout the school (e.g., through displays
of student work, honor rolls, recognition assemblies, or weekly lunches with the
principal).

Categories of Policies and Practices

Schools have multiple policies and practices that affect students. Some of these have been
deliberately set in place, and others have evolved with time. Educators are well advised to re-
examine the accepted ways of doing things at their schools. These practices will be familiar to both
students and faculty, and if they contribute to a school's focus on learning, they should be retained.
Practices that do not support student learning should be revised to ensure that they do, difficult
though it may be to disrupt the status quo.

The major policies and practices affecting students are described below.

Attendance Policies
Most schools establish their attendance policies on the assumption that the students can't
learn unless they are in school. The goal of such policies is to ensure that students attend school as
much as possible. Of course, no school wants to encourage students who are sick to attend school,
lest they infect others. Unfortunately, students will occasionally be sick without even knowing it,
thereby infecting other students before being sent home. (Many elementary teachers have had the
experience of chicken pox working its way through their class for most of an entire school year.)
In general, attendance policies should do the following:

 Maximize time in school. Attendance and tardiness policies should be grounded in

the expectation that school is not optional and that attendance is important.
However, staff members must allow for illness and recognize mitigating
circumstances. Schools should therefore probably not set an absolute limit to
absences, but might require statements from parents or doctors explaining why the
child has missed school.
  Be flexible. Attendance and tardiness policies must allow for individual
circumstances and for situations outside of a student's control, such as the need to
care for younger siblings.
 Offer opportunities for teaching. Students of all ages can benefit from learning
how to improve attendance and punctuality. In most cases, this opportunity for
teaching can be achieved in the classroom setting: students can share strategies for
preparing their school materials in advance of when they must walk out the door, or
for ensuring that they make the bus. However, some students—particularly older
students who face challenges at home—may need individual coaching. A counselor
or trusted teacher can be of real assistance in these cases.

Discipline Policies
Discipline policies are the rules regarding student conduct, both within classrooms and in
the school as a whole. These include rules about running in the halls, disrespectful language, willful
disregard of teacher requests, and, for older students, public displays of affection. Discipline
policies might also include student conduct on the bus and playground, or in the cafeteria.

In a sincere attempt to enhance the quality of their school environment, educators in some
schools have instituted harsh zero-tolerance policies for students. In some cases, such as weapons
possession, a zero-tolerance approach is certainly justified. However, it is important that educators
not confuse being tough with being businesslike.

Educators must appreciate the relationship between instruction and student conduct. When
students are engaged in meaningful work and experience learning success, they are not much
inclined to disrupt a class. But if students are bored, or if they believe that they are about to be
embarrassed or humiliated, they may actually prefer being sent to the office to staying in class. A
solution, then, for some student infractions may be to make learning experiences more engaging,
so that students can be challenged as well as successful.
Successful standards of conduct will reflect certain characteristics:

 Respectful and appropriate. Discipline policies should reflect a school's belief that
everyone in the school community—both adults and students—must be treated with
respect (e.g., no bullying or impolite language). Consequences for student infractions
should fit the situation, and should not be punitive; students should not be
suspended for trivial infractions.
 Public. Standards of student conduct should be well publicized and known to
everyone: students, teachers, and parents. They need to be, and to be perceived to
be, reasonable and transparent; any appearance of arbitrariness will undermine their
credibility.
 Consistent. Standards of student conduct should be consistent across a school,
rather than dependent on the whim of each teacher. Individual teachers may have
their own expectations, of course, but the same general rules should apply across an
entire school.

Homework Policies
Teachers assign homework to students mainly to extend learning time. Students are in
school for six hours or so each day; if they complete assignments at home, they can be actively
engaged in learning for considerably longer than that.
 A school's approach to homework depends on the age of the students. Although it is
unreasonable to expect young children to spend long hours doing assignments, a well-conceived
homework policy helps students assume more responsibility for their own learning and allows
students to continue learning beyond the school day.

As educators determine their school's approach to homework, the following guidelines may
be helpful:

 Homework is important. If assigned, homework must be completed; it should not

be optional, but rather integral to the instructional program. A school's homework
policy should convey the importance the school attaches to homework and
emphasize student commitment and responsibility for completing it.
 Student must be able to complete assignments independently. As a general
rule, students should be able to complete assignments without adult assistance at
home. The reason for this is simple equity. Some parents are able to substantially
assist their children by virtue of their own education: they can explain how to factor
polynomials, for example, or provide feedback on writing. But because other parents
are not able to offer this type of help, only some students will have the benefit of
what amounts to a private tutor at home. It is essential that success in school not
depend on the availability of parental assistance.
 Assignments should be appropriate to completion at home. Some assignments
are inappropriate for homework—such as those that represent new learning or
learning that requires frequent explanations or intervention by a teacher. More
suitable homework assignments are those that ask students to practice previously
learned skills, write essays, or memorize vocabulary. Practice increases fluency and
facility, and repetition can enhance student mastery of a concept.
 Links between home and school should be pursued. Some assignments can
integrate the home into the learning experience. After studying the Great Depression,
for example, 11th grade history students might be asked to interview older relatives
and neighbors regarding their experiences during the Depression and its aftermath.
Or 3rd graders, after having learned to make bar graphs, can collect data regarding
the different types of furniture in their homes and display the information in a bar
chart; the next day, the classroom walls will be covered with charts of chairs, tables,
beds, and televisions from which patterns may be observed and hypotheses
generated.
 Educators should help students deal with emergencies. When unforeseen
events occur, students should not be unduly penalized. Some students, however,
exhibit a pattern of suspicious “emergencies”—dogs, after all, can eat only so much
paper. Teachers may need to help such students to develop a “plan B” that they can
implement when emergencies arise.
 Teachers should distinguish between completion and effort. Students
sometimes get stuck in the course of doing their homework because they do not
understand something critical. This may be due to poor instruction, lack of clarity
about the assignment, or day dreaming on the part of the student during an
explanation. But the result is that the home work is not complete. A reasonable and
respectful policy will take these factors into account. In addition, teachers should ask
students to document what they did before abandoning their homework: what
approaches they tried, for example, or the names of students they phoned for help.
Such a policy sends the message that perseverance and resourcefulness are
important, so students should not give up at the first sign of trouble.
  Teachers should coordinate major assignments. Students are quick to notice
when major assignments from two different courses are due on the same day, and
they are not completely open to their teachers' suggestions that a little advance
planning would mitigate the conflict. If a school wants students to give energy to the
work they do outside of school, it makes sense for teachers in different departments
to share their schedules for major assignments with one another. Students should
certainly be expected to complete small daily assignments in many subjects, but
major assignments should be coordinated.
 Teachers should help parents help their children. A school's staff should support
a richer intellectual environment at home for students, independent of homework, by
encouraging parental involvement. Educators should enlighten parents who don't
recognize the educational value of regularly reading aloud to younger children, or of
asking them to set the table or sort the laundry. Older children can be asked to read
bus schedules or road maps on car trips, or to determine which brand of soap is the
best bargain at the supermarket—skills that require higher-order thinking. And
children of all ages benefit from conversation or keeping a journal. Educators should
help parents to appreciate the value of these activities, so that they will encourage
their children to take part in them.

Grading Policies
Of all the policies and practices affecting students, the school's approach to grading has the
greatest potential to affect students' futures, both within the school and beyond it. Furthermore, a
school's grading policy will often have a lot of “baggage” associated with it, as it is an aspect of
school life about which everyone—teachers, students, and parents—feels strongly.

Almost no one believes that conventional approaches to grading are beneficial. There is no
consensus as to what grades mean; some teachers appear to believe that their grade distributions
reflect their own teaching abilities or the complexity of the content more than they do student
achievement; others maintain that their harsh grading policy reflects their own high standards.
Teachers also tend to disagree on the quality of student work: given the same student essay, some
teachers would award it an A while others would give it a C. Teachers, that is, tend to apply their
own standards of quality to student work that are rarely communicated to either students or other
teachers. Furthermore, many citizens, educators, and admissions directors in institutions of higher
education think that the distribution of grades should follow the bell curve, believing that too many
high grades is evidence of grade inflation.

Any discussion of grading policies must begin with their purposes, which include the
following:
 Motivating students. Educators can use grades to motivate students to work hard,
study, and learn the content of a course, especially in high school.
 Communicating with students. Grades can help let students know what learning is
important, as well as how well they are doing, in general.
 Communicating with parents. Grades can help let parents know how well their
children are progressing in school. Most parents are not interested in the details of
their children's progress; they are primarily looking for reassurance that their children
are “on track.”
 Communicating with other teahers. In some schools, teachers use grades to let
one another know how well students are performing. When students move from one
school to another—from middle school to high school, for example—grades can be
used to communicate between the two faculties.
  Communicating with the outside world. Admissions directors at colleges,
universities, and technical schools, as well as company personnel directors, look to
school transcripts for clues about students. Educational institutions want to know
whether students are sufficiently prepared for the rigors of higher education, whereas
employers tend to care about factors such as punctuality, interpersonal skills, and
initiative.

Attendance Policy
Attendance does matter. Missing a lot of class can create huge holes that could lead to
academic failure. The average school year in the United State is 170 days. A student who misses
an average of 10 days a year beginning in pre-Kindergarten through twelfth grade will miss 140
days of school. That adds up to almost an entire school year that they have missed. Looking at it in
that perspective, attendance becomes increasingly important and without a solid attendance policy,
it is virtually impossible to deal with. Tardies are equally important because a student who comes in
late time after time is essentially playing catch up every day they are late.
Bullying Policy
Never in the history of education has it been as important as it is today to have an effective
bullying policy. Students across the globe are affected by bullying every single day. The number of
bullying incidents only continue to increase each year. We hear about students dropping out of
school or taking their lives because of bullying all too often. Schools have to make bullying
prevention and bullying education a top priority. This starts with a strong bullying policy. If you
haven't got an anti-bullying policy or it hasn't been updated in several years it is time to address it.
Cell Phone Policy
Cell phones are a hot topic among school administrators. Over the last 10 years, they have
increasingly caused more and more problems. With that said, they can also be a valuable
educational tool and in a catastrophic situation, they can save lives. It is essential that schools
evaluate their cell phone policy and figure out what will work best for their setting.
Dress Code Policy
Unless your school requires your students to wear uniforms, then a dress code is essential.
Students continue to push the envelope when it comes to how they dress. There are so many
distractions that a student can cause by how they dress. Like many of these policies, they need to
be updated yearly and the community the school is located can influence what is appropriate and
what is inappropriate. Last year a student came to school wearing bright lime green contact lenses.
It was a major distraction for the other students and so we had to ask him to remove them. It wasn't
something that we had dealt with before, but we adjusted and added to our handbook for this year.
Fighting Policy
There is no denying that not every student will get along with every other student. Conflict
does happen, but it should never get physical. Too many negative things can occur when students
engage in a physical fight. Not to mention that the school could be held liable if a student is injured
severely during a fight. Big consequences are the key to stopping fights from occurring on campus.
Most students do not want to be suspended from school for a long period of time and they
especially do not want to deal with the police. Having a policy in your student handbook that deals
with fighting with tough consequences will help deter many fights from occurring.
Respect Policy
I am a firm believer that when students respect teachers and teachers respect students that
it can only benefit learning. Students today as a whole aren't as respectful adults as what they used
to be. They simply aren't taught to be respectful at home. Character education is increasingly
becoming the school's responsibility. Having a policy in place that education and demands mutual
respect between both the students and the faculty/staff can have a profound effect on your school
building. It is amazing how much more pleasant it can be and how discipline issues can be
minimized through such a simple thing of respecting one another.
Student Code of Conduct
Every student handbook needs a student code of conduct. The student code of conduct will
be a simple list of all the expectations that the school has for its students. This policy should be at
the front of your handbook. The student code of conduct does not need to go into a lot of depth but
instead needs to be an outline of the things you feel are most important to maximize a student's
learning potential.
Student Discipline
Students need to have a list of all the possible consequences if they make a poor choice.
This list will also assist you in trying to figure out how to deal with a particular situation. Being fair is
very important as you make discipline decisions, but there are many factors that go into that
situation. If your students are educated on the possible consequences and have access to those in
their handbook, they cannot tell you that they didn't know or that it isn't fair.
Student Search and Seizure Policy
There are times when you will have to search a student or a student's locker, backpack, etc.
Every administrator needs to know proper search and seizure procedures because an improper or
inappropriate search can result in legal action. Students too should be made aware of their rights.
Having a search and seizure policy can limit any misunderstanding about a student's rights when it
comes to searching them or their possessions.
Substitute Policy
In my opinion, there is no job in education more daunting than that of a substitute teacher. A
substitute often does not know students very well and students take advantage of them every
opportunity they get. Administrators often deal with many issues when substitutes are used. With
that said, substitute teachers are necessary. Having a policy in your handbook to discourage poor
student behavior will help. Educating your substitute teachers on your policies and expectations will
also cut down in discipline incidents.

 Effective Policy Formulation and Implementation in a School Community Partnership

Input 4

Roles and Competencies of School Heads

Competencies for School Heads: The NCBSSH

http://school-principal.blogspot.com/2011/05/national-competency-based-standards-for.html

National Competency-Based Standards for School Heads (NCBS- SH)

Many teachers could be thinking and wondering why they are only the subject of a national
competency standards while their immediate superiors, the school heads are not. But its not
actually the case for like the teachers who are considered as the heart of the school system, school
heads too will be under a national competency standards as stated in DepEd Order No. 32, s. 2010,
Guiding Principles in the Framing of the NCBS –SH

The following are the principles which guided the framing of the NCBS-SH.
• Function - based. The competencies are based on school head functions as stated in RA
9155, related laws and DepEd policies.
• Responsive. Competencies are applicable in any range of context: big or small school, city
or rural school, culturally divergent groups.
• Impartial. These are applicable to any school head regardless of position item, gender, age,
experience and other personal circumstances.
• Coherent. These are clear and logical.
• Valid. All performance indicators are research-and experience-based.

CORE PRINCIPLE
School heads are competent, committed and accountable in providing access to quality and
relevant education for all all through transformational leadership and high degree of
professionalism.

DOMAINS AND COMPETENCY STRANDS

Domain 1. School Leadership

1.A. Developing and Communicating Vision, Mission, Goals, and Objectives (VMGO)
• Expresses ownership and personal responses to the identified issues.
• Involves internal and external stakeholders in formulating and achieving school vision,
mission, goals and objectives.
• Expresses ownership and personal responses to the identified issues.
• Aligns goals and objectives with the school vision and mission to identified issues.
• Gives personal response consistent with the school's vision.
• Communicates the school VMGO clearly.
• Explains the school vision to the general public.
• Revisits and ensures that school activities are aligned with the school VMGO.
1.B. Data-Based Strategic Planning
• Establishes BEIS/SIS and baseline data of all performance indicators/ involves all internal
and external stakeholders in developing SIP/AlP.
• Utilizes data, e.g, BEIS/SIS,SBM assessment, TSNA, and' strategic planning in the
development of SIP/AlP.
• Aligns the SlP/AIP with national, regional and local education policies and thrusts.
• Communicates effectively SIP/AlP to internal and external stakeholders.
1.C. Problem Solving
• Resolves problems at the school level.
• Assists teachers and students to understand problems and identify possible solutions.
• Analyzes causes of problems critically and objectively.
• Addresses the causes of the problem rather than the symptoms.
1.D. Building High Performance Teams
• Explores several approaches in handling problems.
• Demonstrate a proactive approach to problem solving.
• Involves stakeholders in meetings and deliberations for decision making.
• Sets high expectations and challenging goals.
• Provides opportunities for growth for growth and development of members as team players.
• Defines roles and functions of each committee.
• Monitors and evaluates accomplishment of different committees/teams.
• Gives feedback on the team's performance using performance - based assessment tool.
• Establishes a system for rewards and benefits for teachers and staff.
1.E. Coordinating With Others
• Collaborates with concerned staff on the planning and implementation of programs and
projects.
• Ensures proper allocation and utilization of resources (time, fiscal, human, IMS, etc.)
• Provides feedback and updates to stakeholders on the status of progress and completion of
programs and projects.
• Mobilizes teachers/staff in sustaining a project.
1.F. Leading and Managing Change
• Maintains an open, positive and encouraging attitude toward change.
• Assists teachers in identifying strengths and growth areas through monitoring and
observation.
• Introduces innovations in the school program to achieve higher learning outcomes.
• Monitors and evaluates the implementation of change programs included in SIP/AlP.
• Observes and applies multi-tasking in giving assignments.
• Advocates and executes plans for changes including culture' change in the workplace
• Empowers teachers and personnel to identify, initiate and manage changes.

Domain 2. Instructional Leadership

2.A. Assessment for Learning

• Manages the processes and procedures in monitoring student achievement
• Ensures utilization of a range of assessment processes to assess student performance
• Assesses the effectiveness of curricular/co-curricular programs and / or instructional
strategies.
• Utilizes assessment results to improve learning.
• Creates & manages a school process to ensure student progress is conveyed to students
and parents/guardians, regularly.
2.B.. Developing Programs and or Adopting Existing Programs
• Develops/adapts a research based school program.
• Assists in implementing an existing, coherent and responsive school-wide curriculum
• Addresses d~ciencies and sustains successes of current programs in collaboration with
teachers, and learners
• Develops a culture of functional literacy.
2. C. Implementing Programs for Instructional Improvement
• Manages the introduction of curriculum initiatives in line with DepEd policies (e.g. BEC,
Madrasah)
• Works with teachers in curriculum review.
• Enriches curricular offerings based on local needs.
• Manages curriculum innovation and enrichment with the use of technology.
• Organizes teams to champion instructional innovation programs toward curricular
responsiveness
2.D. Instructional Supervision
• Prepares and implements an instructional supervisory plan
• Conducts Instructional Supervision using appropriate strategy
• Evaluates lesson plans as well as classroom and learning management
• Provides in a collegial manner timely, accurate and specific feedback to teachers' regarding
their performance.
• Provides expert technical assistance and instructional support to teachers.
Domain 3. Creating a Student Centered Learning Climate

3. A. Setting high social and academic expectations

• Benchmarks school performance.
• Establishes and models high social and academic expectations for all
• Creates an engaging learning environment.
• Participates in the management of learner behavior within the school and other school
related activities done outside the school.
• Supports learners desire to pursue further learning
• Recognizes high performing learners and teachers and supportive parents and other
stakeholders
3.B. Creating school environments focused on the needs of the learner
• Creates and sustains a safe, orderly, nurturing and healthy, environment.
• Provides environment that promotes use of technology among learners and teachers.

Domain 4. HR Management and Professional Development

4.A. Creating a Professional Learning Community

• Builds a community of learners among teachers
• Assesses and analyzes the needs and interests of teachers and other school personnel,
• Ensures that the School Plan for Professional Development(SPPD) emerges from the
Individual Professional Plan for 'Development (IPPD) and other identified needs of school personnel
included in the SIP/AIP.
• Includes the SPPD in the SIP/AlP.
• Mentors and coaches employees and facilitates the induction of new ones
• Recognizes potential of staff and provides opportunities for professional development
• Ensures that the objectives of the school development plan are supported with resources for
training and development programs.
• Prepares, implements, and monitors school-based INSET for all teaching staff based on
IPPD’s
• Monitors and evaluates school-based INSETs.
4.B. Recruitment and Hiring
• Utilizes the basic qualification standards and adheres to pertinent policies in recruiting and
hiring teachers/ staff
• Creates and trains School Selection and Promotion Committee and trains its members.
• Recommends better ways and means to improve recruitment, hiring and performance
appraisal of teachers.
4.C. Managing Performance of Teachers and Staff
• Assigns teachers and other personnel to their area of Competence.
• Assists teachers and staff in setting and resetting performance goals.
• Monitors and evaluates performance of teaching and nonteaching personnel vis-a-vis
targets.
• Delegates specific tasks to help manage the performance of teaching and non-teaching
personnel.
• Coaches deputized staff as needed on managing performance.
• Creates a functional school-based performance appraisal committee.
• Assists and monitors the development of IPPD of each teacher.

Domain 5. Parents Involvement and Community Partnership

 5.A. Parental Involvement
• Establishes school and family partnerships that promote student peak performance.
• Organizes programs that involve parents and other school stakeholders to promote learning.
• Conducts dialogues, fora, training of teachers, learners and' parents on the welfare and
improves performance of learners.
5.B. External Community Partnership
• Promotes the image of the school through school summit, State of the School Address
(SOSA), cultural shows, learners' project exhibits, fairs, etc.
• Conducts dialogues and meetings with multi-stakeholders in crafting programs and projects.
• Participates actively in community affairs.
• Establishes sustainable linkages / partnership with other sectors, agencies and NGOs
through MOA/ MOU or using Adopt-a-School Program policies.

Domain 6. SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND OPERATION

6.A. Managing School Operations

• Manages the implementation, monitoring and review of the SIP/AlP and other action plans.
• Establishes and maintains specific programs to meet needs of identified target groups.
• Takes the lead in the design of a school physical plant facilities improvement plan in
consultation with an expert.
• Allocates/prioritizes funds for improvement and maintenance of school physical facilities and
equipments.
• Oversees school operations and care and use of school facilities according to set
guidelines.
• Institutionalizes best practices in managing and monitoring school operations thereby
creating a safe, secure and clean learning environment.
• Assigns/ hires appropriate support personnel to manage school operations.
6.B. Fiscal Management
• Prepares a financial management plan.
• Develops a-school budget which is consistent with SIP/AIP.
• Generates and mobilizes financial resources.
• Manages school resources in accordance with DepEd policies and accounting and auditing
rules and regulations and other pertinent guidelines.
• Accepts donations, gifts, bequests and grants in accordance with RA 9155.
• Manages a process for the registration, maintenance and replacement of school assets and
dispositions of non-reusable properties.
• Organizes a procurement committee and ensures that the official procurement process is
followed.
• Utilizes funds for approved school programs and projects as reflected in SIP/AlP.
• Monitors utilization, recording and reporting of funds
• Accounts for school fund.
• Prepares financial reports and submits / communicates the same to higher education
authorities and other education partners.
6.C. Use of Technology in the Management of Operations
• Applies Information Technology (IT) plans for online communication
• Uses IT to facilitate the operationalization of the school management system (e.g. school
information system, student tracking system, personnel information system)
• Uses IT to access Teacher Support Materials (TSM), Learning support Materials (LSM) and
assessment tools in accordance with the guidelines.
• Shares with other school heads the school's experience in the use of new technology.
DOMAIN 7. Personal and Professional Attributes and Interpersonal Effectiveness

7.A. Professionalism
• Manifests genuine enthusiasm and pride in the nobility of the teaching profession.
• Observes and demonstrates desirable personal and professional (RA 6713 & Code of
Ethics RA 7836) behaviors like respect, honesty, dedication, patriotism and genuine concern for
others at all times.
• Maintains harmonious relations with superiors, colleagues, subordinates, learners, parents
and other stakeholders.
• Makes appointments, promotions and transfers on the bases of merit and needs in the
interest of the service.
• Maintains good reputation with respect to financial, matters such as the settlement of his/her
debts, loans and other financial affairs.
• Develops programs and projects for continuing personal and professional development
including moral recovery and values formation among teaching and non-teaching personnel.
7.B. Communication
• Communicates effectively to staff and other stakeholders in both oral and written forms.
• Listens to stakeholders' needs and concerns and responds appropriately in consideration of
the political, social, legal and cultural context.
7.C. Interpersonal Sensitivity
• Interacts appropriately with a variety of audiences.
• Demonstrates ability to empathize with others.
7.D. Fairness, Honesty and Integrity
• Observes Award System and a system of assistance for teachers staff to sustain integrity,
honesty and fairness in all school practices.
• Demonstrates integrity, honesty and fairness all his/her dealings and transactions.
• Makes individuals accountable for their actions.
With these standards, teachers would no longer envy their school heads as to the volume of work
and responsibility they are expected to perform.

This national competency standards too will ensure the continuing flow of dedicated and passionate
applicants to the school heads position and not those wishy washy type whos primary and common
agenda is to have higher pay, prestige, and easy work as formerly perceived by many of a school
head position.

(This material is based on the attachment to a Division Memorandum No. 141, s. 2010 dated June
1, 2010 of the City Schools Division of Marikina as stumbled upon by The Learning Captain through
google search. Take note that, the presentation is identical with NCBTS and so it is expected that
the process of rating is the same.)

 Competency Framework for Southeast Asian School Heads, 2014 Edition

Competency Framework for Southeast Asian School Heads

https://www.seameo-innotech.org/seameo-innotech-develops-the-competency-framework-for-
southeast-asian-school-heads/

In 2003, the Southeast Asian Ministers of Education Organization Regional Center for Educational
Innovation and Technology (SEAMEO INNOTECH) developed the Competency Framework for
Southeast Asian School Heads. The competency framework was envisioned to provide a common
foundation for defining what skills and attributes are needed of school heads in order to effectively
carry out their roles, and lead their schools to excellence and success. Since then, the framework
had been used as basis for INNOTECH’s program offerings for school heads in the region.

Ten years after, SEAMEO INNOTECH undertook the challenge of reviewing and updating the
competency framework to make sure that it remains responsive to the changing contexts and needs
of school heads as well as the communities they serve. Accordingly, a consultative and
participatory process that spanned nine months (October 2012 and February to September 2013)
and covered 9 countries (Brunei, Cambodia, Indonesia, Lao PDR, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore,
Thailand, and Vietnam) was undertaken. The process took into account views and responses of
agood number and mix of school heads and stakeholders composed of ministry of education
officials, teachers, students, parents, and education experts from all over the region. The result is
the Competency Framework for Southeast Asian School Heads (2014 Edition) comprised of five
competency domains, 16 general competencies, 42 enabling competencies, and 170 indicators.
The five general competencies were ranked by the participants in terms of their importance,
frequency of performance, and amount of training school heads would need the most as follows:

(1) Strategic Thinking and Innovation

(2) Managerial Leadership
(3) Instructional Leadership
(4) Personal Excellence
(5) Stakeholder Engagement.

The competency framework is intended to be a basis for the development of SEAMEO

INNOTECH’s capacity-building initiatives for Southeast Asian school heads. It doesnot replace, but
rather complements, existing regional and national standards.

Ministry of education officials may find the framework an important and useful benchmark. School
heads may find it useful in keeping themselves informed of the competencies that they need in
order to successfully perform their role as school heads in Southeast Asia.

Here’s the link to the Competency Framework for Southeast Asian School Heads (2014)

In 2015, SEAMEO INNOTECH developed a learning guide which will facilitate the use of the
competency framework for the professional growth and development of high-performing school
heads in Southeast Asia. Training personnel from the ministries of education may also find it useful
in developing capacity- building programs for their school heads. To expand its reach and maximize
its usability, the learning guide was translated in other Southeast Asian languages. The guide can
be downloaded for free in English, Burmese, Thai Kadai, Vietnamese, Thai, and Khmer.

 Domains and Competencies for School Heads in Southeast Asia

o Instructional Leadership
Instructional Leadership Skills: Definition and Examples
March 13, 2020
https://www.indeed.com/career-advice/career-development/instructional-leadership
If you're interested in pursuing an educational career, such as becoming a principal, it's important to
understand what skills you'll need to succeed in the position. Instructional leadership skills help
principals provide support and resources to teachers to enable them to deliver more effective
lessons. It's valuable to know that while instructional leadership involves many routine tasks like
budgeting, scheduling and going to meetings, the bulk of an instructional leader's job is to connect
with those they're responsible for mentoring and collaborate with them for the overall benefit of a
school and its students.

In this article, we explain everything you need to know about being a great instructional leader to
help you expand your skills.

What are instructional leadership skills?

Instructional leadership skills are the traits possessed by effective educational leaders to inspire
action and optimism. These leaders set an example for others by treating people fairly and making
an impression with their honesty and integrity. Effective leaders are supportive of those around
them and provide inspiration to achieve individual and collective goals. They use their excellent
communication skills to gather feedback, ask for ideas and make informed decisions regarding the
processes of the educational institutions they run.

Instructional leadership is most commonly associated with school principals who manage
curriculums, budgeting and scheduling and are responsible for the success of each student in their
schools. These individuals often strive to empower teachers to become leaders themselves,
distributing the weight of the school's responsibilities more equitably and providing a model of
teamwork for students to look up to. This method of leadership in education became popular in the
'80s and '90s and continues to evolve based on societal and educational needs.

Related: Learning Styles for Career Development

Examples of instructional leadership skills

Instructional leadership skills and effective teaching are directly related to the success of the
students in a classroom setting. An instructional leader advocates for effective teaching by
providing clarity and support for teachers as well as procuring the necessary resources to maximize
teaching effectiveness. Some specific skills related to instructional leadership include:

 Communication skills
 Effective planning
 Trustworthiness
 Competence
 Team building and collaboration
 Optimism
 Interaction with parents

Communication skills
Verbal and written communication skills are essential to leadership success. An instructional leader
must be able to effectively communicate their intentions regarding students' education. This may
involve emails and other written communication, or it could mean holding meetings with teachers to
set goals and assess lesson plans.
Effective planning
An instructional leader's ability to research and provide necessary resources improves learning and
allows teachers to be more effective at their jobs. For example, a principal may adopt new
technology for teaching tools and for overseeing staff initiatives, and this process requires planning.
Instructional leaders must be able to maintain a balance between procedure and adaptability in
order to support creativity and innovative teaching in their schools.

Trustworthiness
A positive and fair leader easily earns the trust of their staff, allowing the staff to look to the leader in
good times as well as challenging times. A good instructional leader is able to remain calm and fair
during a discussion where people present opposing ideas, weighing the merits and drawbacks of
each while gathering feedback from other members of staff who would be affected by any changes
in plans. An instructional leader's balanced judgment leads their teachers to trust and respect them,
and this trust helps build a united educational community.

Competence
Teachers rely on instructional leaders for information associated with instructional methods, current
trends in education and other pertinent news related to effective teaching. Additionally, principals
are expected to be a visible representation of positivity and transparency in the institution, leading
by example and focusing on important learning objectives to promote innovations in teaching.

Related: 10 Common Leadership Styles

Team building and collaboration

As the role ultimately responsible for the success of a school, an instructional leader must be adept
at uniting the staff and students to further the creation of new ideas and teaching methods. They
must be able to create a dependable team that works together to create a more effective and
positive learning environment.

Optimism
Staff and students often adopt the disposition of their leader, so an instructional leader must
maintain a positive attitude regardless of their current situation. The more upbeat and excited a
leader is, the more this attitude spreads to teachers and students, creating an overall environment
of positivity. This is also true when providing encouragement, rewarding a good job and focusing on
the success and happiness of teachers, students and the institution as a whole.

Interaction with parents

Instructional leaders recognize the importance of a parent's role in the success of their child and the
cumulative effect on the success of the school. Principals are able to identify family members as a
critical resource for important events such as fundraisers and extracurricular activities. To get
parents excited about participating in these events, principals sometimes choose to host workshops
or meetings so that parents can become familiar with each other as well as with teachers and
school policies. It also provides them with opportunities to offer their input and ideas to improve the
learning environment for their children.

How to improve instructional leadership skills

Consider following these tips to help improve your instructional leadership skills:
 1. Conduct formal observations at regular intervals. Increase the frequency of formal
classroom observations you conduct each year, aiming for at least three per teacher. Create
a schedule to help you complete them effectively and efficiently.
2. Provide helpful feedback. Upon completing a scheduled classroom observation, take the
time to provide at least one suggestion for improvement balanced with praise for something
the teacher did successfully. Give clear examples and suggest techniques they can
implement. Showing your staff that there is no perfect evaluation can help keep them
motivated to create inspirational lessons.
3. Establish realistic expectations. Developing a consistent and transparent set of
expectations can provide teachers with a guide to help them continuously create effective
lesson plans. After you establish your expectations, maintain communication with the
teachers to ensure they understand what to do and how to improve, if necessary.
4. Keep learning. Continuing to learn about teaching techniques can make you a stronger
mentor for your staff. Attend conferences focused on topics that relate to your staff's
concerns or your role as a leader. As you come across research that is relevant to your own
facility, take note, adapt it and apply it to your next round of observational suggestions.
5. Be a role model. Make it known to your teachers that you are willing to do everything that
you ask of them. This can mean helping to integrate new technology into a classroom or
working with a teacher to create better tests. You might consider teaching a class of your
own or substituting for an absent teacher to better understand what your teachers go through
on a daily basis. Not only does this make you more relatable, but it also allows you to
approach challenges with a more well-rounded mindset.

Related: Setting Goals to Improve Your Career

Instructional leadership in the workplace

Here are some tips to strengthen instructional leadership in the workplace:

 Have a clear vision for your school. Set specific goals for your institution, and make sure
they're clearly explained to your faculty and that they reflect a common set of values that all
staff can agree on. Also, collaborate with your faculty to communicate the school's goals with
the students, asking for feedback in ways to make the students feel the most comfortable.
 Recognize individual strengths. Recognize the different ways students learn, and try to
pay attention to how teachers are teaching. If they're teaching in a way that reaches some
students but not others, work with the teachers to ensure the best learning experience for
every student. This is your opportunity to recognize students' diversity.
 Maintain communication with teachers. Make a concentrated effort to ask questions
regarding teachers' lesson plans, assessment methods, teaching methods and more. Asking
questions like this helps teachers grow and advance their skills, which ultimately benefits the
students' learning experiences. You can also ask the teachers questions that help stimulate
their creativity in teaching, such as how they determine the success of a lesson, how they
present new challenges at different learning levels and what they might consider changing
the next time they teach a lesson.
 Encourage continued learning. Leading a learning community involves encouraging
teachers to pursue additional educational opportunities to strengthen the effectiveness of
their teaching methods. You can also hold regular meetings to share newly discovered
knowledge with them and request their insights on how the school can use new or updated
information to enhance the educational experience of students.
How to highlight instructional leadership skills
In order to obtain a position as a school principal or another similar role, you need to highlight the
instructional leadership skills you've accumulated in a way that shows their relationship to the job
you're applying for. Choosing which skills to highlight can be easier when you read through the job
description and pick out a few that are relevant to your own experiences. This can give the
employer an idea of the value you could bring to their school or company. The following tips can
help you highlight your best skills to impress hiring managers:

On your resume
As mentioned above, read the job posting carefully, and take note of the skills and requirements
listed so that you can include them in your resume. Match them with your own instructional
leadership skills, and explain how they are relevant to what the employer expects. For example, if
the employer lists leadership skills in the job posting, you can include that skill in the skills section of
your resume and then explain how you ran your last school effectively in the work experience
section.

In your cover letter

In your cover letter, describe your past accomplishments using your instructional leadership skills,
making it clear how these skills contributed to those successes. If possible, use an example that
closely relates to the employer's business in order to show them how you can help improve the
success rates of their organization's future efforts.

During an interview
When interviewers ask about your specific instructional leadership skills, use them to quantify your
accomplishments. For example, if you're asked about your ability to collaborate, you could provide
examples in which you worked with your team to increase test scores by a certain percentage, or
an example of a time you collaborated with faculty and parents to raise funds for the school. You
can also describe the progression of your skills as you've moved through your career and gained
practical experience.

o Administrative Leadership

Administrative Leadership: What Is It? Why Is It Important? And How Does It Connect to CLASS?
02 May 2016 by Mary-Margaret Gardiner
LEADERSHIP AND POLICY
Over the past few months, the McCormick Center has been discussing the concept of whole
leadership. While I encourage you to read through the whole series, one article in the series stuck
out to me in particular, Administrative Leadership: What Is It? Why Is It Important? by Teri Talan.
This article was really interesting to me—especially when I dusted off my old center director hat and
thought about how much CLASS would have benefited me when I managed a large hospital-based
center, or multiple sites for a private, for-profit center. I started thinking about how CLASS could
relate to administrative leadership, and the parallels formed in my mind.
Many of us find ourselves in a leadership position with little preparation or experience that can build
and sustain a program. I was a teacher and found myself promoted to the director position, and
when I got there I had a lot to learn! How could CLASS have helped me all those years ago? The
tool would have given me a way to provide real feedback to my staff-feedback that was relevant,
realistic, and measurable. It reminds me of the importance of an emotionally supportive relationship,
organized structure, and thoughtful and intentional conversations with my staff—to truly build their
practice.
Additionally, I could have used the data from observations to see where my staff was the strongest
during the day and planned my staffing patterns—and other supports—around this information.
Would things go smoother if I had an extra staff person help with meals and routines so the
teachers had less stress and more opportunity to interact positively? Would providing some
resources around open-ended play build my staff’s regard for the children’s perspective?
I could have used CLASS data to show my funders that using the power of CLASS actually can
change the outcomes for children, while helping teachers find ways to enhance their interactions
and find the joy in teaching again. That investment in high quality care can benefit us all!
Both types of leadership, operational and strategic, really do fit together, and they also speak to the
CLASS construct and the data-driven opportunities for growth
I’d be really interested in hearing your thoughts on Teri’s insightful post below!

Administrative Leadership: What Is It? Why Is It Important?

by Teri Talan
APRIL 4, 2016
http://info.teachstone.com/blog/administrative-leadership-what-is-it-why-is-it-important-and-how-
does-it-connect-to-class

READ MORE FROM THE WHOLE LEADERSHIP BLOG SERIES

Reading over the series of blog posts and comments on Whole Leadership, I am struck by the level
of engagement the discussion has evoked. Clearly, deconstructing program leadership and
exploring leadership essentials are topics that resonate. However, I am taking the discussion in a
new direction—a consideration of administrative leadership. My hope is that this aspect or domain
of Whole Leadership can be equally thought-provoking.
My colleague, Mike Abel offered this description of administrative leadership in an earlier post:
Administrative leadership is about orchestrating tasks (and often includes mobilizing people) to
develop and sustain an early childhood organization. Successful administrative leaders are able to
establish systems that protect and sustain essential operational functions to meet the needs of
children and families. There are at least two important aspects of administrative leadership—
operational leadership and strategic leadership. Operational leadership is accomplished through
activities like hiring and supporting staff, overseeing budgets, and maintaining a positive workplace
climate. Strategic leadership involves guiding the direction of an early childhood organization with
the future in mind. Strategic leaders clarify purpose, inspire individuals to pursue a shared vision,
and ensure that goals and outcomes are attained.
I really like this description for a couple of reasons. First, it makes it clear that orchestrating the
work of teaching and learning, mobilizing staff to achieve child and program outcomes, and
establishing systems to effectively run a healthy, thriving organization are indeed leadership
functions. In our field of early care and education, these responsibilities are typically characterized
as management functions and are less valued than leadership functions. Instead of thinking of this
important work as management (and therefore less important than leadership), let’s claim it for
what it really is—administrative leadership.
Second, the above description of administrative leadership includes both operational and strategic
leadership dimensions. One of the responders to an earlier post asked about advocacy and where it
fits in the Whole Leadership framework. I believe that advocacy is a part of strategic leadership. In
my experience, effective administrative leaders engage in advocacy because they are future
oriented; they want to have influence on external conditions that impact their programs, not just
react to them.
Finally, I believe that pedagogical and administrative leadership are like the double strands
that form the DNA helix. They are in a constant relationship to each other, separate but
connected. The most qualified teachers cannot be effective in their work with children and families if
their work environments (including supervisor support, opportunities for professional growth,
decision making, collegiality, rewards and recognition, role clarity, task orientation, innovativeness,
and physical environment) do not adequately support them. Administrative leadership is important
because without it, pedagogical leadership cannot be sustained and children and families will be
poorly-served.
Let us know your thoughts on administrative leadership. Do you agree that this is the right
term? Is there a critical connection that needs further exploration between administrative leadership
and instructional or pedagogical leadership? I am hoping you are provoked!

Types of Leadership in School Administration

KATHERINE BRADLEY
https://classroom.synonym.com/types-educational-leadership-theories-8169633.html

The school administrator is the linchpin for success in the educational environment. It is difficult to
determine which leadership style or combination of styles is most effective in education. Leadership
styles and leadership theories vary, intersect and overlap. The manifestation of a particular
leadership style and its effectiveness is often determined by the leadership qualities of the leader,
the type of organization, and/or the goal of the organization. Transactional leadership,
transformational leadership, shared leadership, classical leadership and many others have been
studied and defined to develop a better understanding of effective leadership. (See Reference 4.)

1Administrative Leadership

Administrative leadership is a leadership style that focuses on accountability, bureaucracy

management, and enforcing rules, procedural regulations and administrative chores. (See
Reference 1.) In this age of accountability, it is easy to understand how an administrator might rely
heavily on this leadership style. School administrators are held accountable for the academic and
behavioral climate of the school and the impact that those concepts have on the performance of the
school as a whole.

2Instructional Leadership

Instructional leadership is manifested by a principal whose actions are directed at the ultimate goals
of student growth, high expectations and academic excellence. This type of leadership is focused
on curriculum development and alignment, monitoring and evaluating teachers and the allocation of
resources for optimal instruction. (See Reference 2.) The success of this type of leadership is
measured solely on the instructional growth and health of the school.

3Shared Leadership
Shared leadership is an informal leadership style that is based on the embodiment of ownership,
learning and sharing and is sometimes aligned in theory with "democratic" leadership. (See
Reference 3.) The success of this type of leadership hinges on the ability of the leader to establish
a cohesiveness among human resources personnel and to get them to accept being a part of the
leadership ring. The underlying theory is that the collaborative leadership that uses all available
human resources, engages shared perspectives and solutions, and is more comprehensive is
therefore more effective.

4Classical Leadership

In contrast to shared leadership, classical leadership is more formal and is hierarchical in design.
There exists a distinct division between leaders and followers. (See Reference 3.) These leaders
lead and expect others to follow. They are goal-oriented, concern themselves with high productivity
and focus on engaging those in their charge to the organizational goal. (See Reference 4.)

https://classroom.synonym.com/types-educational-leadership-theories-8169633.html

Administrative Leadership
Administrative leadership is a leadership style that focuses on accountability, bureaucracy
management, and enforcing rules, procedural regulations and administrative chores. (See
Reference 1.) In this age of accountability, it is easy to understand how an administrator might rely
heavily on this leadership style. School administrators are held accountable for the academic and
behavioral climate of the school and the impact that those concepts have on the performance of the
school as a whole.

Instructional Leadership
Instructional leadership is manifested by a principal whose actions are directed at the ultimate goals
of student growth, high expectations and academic excellence. This type of leadership is focused
on curriculum development and alignment, monitoring and evaluating teachers and the allocation of
resources for optimal instruction. (See Reference 2.) The success of this type of leadership is
measured solely on the instructional growth and health of the school.

Shared Leadership
Shared leadership is an informal leadership style that is based on the embodiment of ownership,
learning and sharing and is sometimes aligned in theory with "democratic" leadership. (See
Reference 3.) The success of this type of leadership hinges on the ability of the leader to establish
a cohesiveness among human resources personnel and to get them to accept being a part of the
leadership ring. The underlying theory is that the collaborative leadership that uses all available
human resources, engages shared perspectives and solutions, and is more comprehensive is
therefore more effective.

Classical Leadership
In contrast to shared leadership, classical leadership is more formal and is hierarchical in design.
There exists a distinct division between leaders and followers. (See Reference 3.) These leaders
lead and expect others to follow. They are goal-oriented, concern themselves with high productivity
and focus on engaging those in their charge to the organizational goal. (See Reference 4.)

ACTIVITY
Activity 1. Identification.
Directions: Below are four important traits of a manager. Identify what is described. Write your
answers on the space provided before each number.
1. ___________________________: Managers build a strategic vision and break it down
into a roadmap for their team to follow.
2. ___________________________: Managers are responsible for day-to-day efforts while
reviewing necessary resources, and anticipating needs to make changes along the way.
3. ___________________________: Managers have the authority to establish work rules,
processes, standards, and operating procedures.
4. ___________________________: Managers are known to look after and cater to the
needs of the people they are responsible for: listening to them, involving them in certain
key decisions, and accommodating reasonable requests for change to contribute to
increased productivity.

The seven primary leadership styles are:

1. ___________________________: The phrase most illustrative of this style is "Do as I

say." Generally, this leader believes that he or she is the smartest person at the table and
knows more than others. They make all the decisions with little input from team members.
This command-and-control approach is typical of leadership styles of the past, but it doesn't
hold much water with today's talent.
Bottom of Form
2. ___________________________: The phrase most indicative of this style of leadership
(also known as "visionary") is "Follow me." The mark of this leadership style ia confident
leaders who map the way and set expectations, while engaging and energizing followers
along the way.
3. ___________________________: "Do as I do!" is the phrase most indicative of leaders
who utilize this leadership style. This style describes a very driven leader who sets the pace
as in racing. Theyset the bar high and push their team members to run hard and fast to the
finish line.
4. ___________________________: These leaders are more likely to ask "What do you
think?" They share information with employees about anything that affects their work
responsibilities. They also seek employees' opinions before approving a final decision.
5. ___________________________: When you having this leadership style, you tend to
have a "Consider this" approach. A leader who coaches views people as a reservoir of talent
to be developed. The leader who uses a coach approach seeks to unlock people's potential.
6. ___________________________: A phrase often used to describe this type of leadership
is "People come first." Of all the leadership styles, the approach of this leadership styleis
one where the leader gets up close and personal with people. A leader practicing this style
pays attention to and supports the emotional needs of team members. The leader strives to
open up a pipeline that connects him or her to the team.
7. ___________________________: This leadership style is at the opposite end of the
autocratic style. Of all the leadership styles, this one involves the least amount of oversight.

Activity 2. Elaboration
Directions: Below are Roles for Teacher Leaders. Elaborate them further on the spaces provided
below.

Grade Level/Subject Area Leader

____________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________

Vertical Leader
____________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________

Backup Leader
____________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________

Mentor
____________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________

Note-Taker/Recorder
____________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________

Parliamentarian/Timekeeper
____________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________

Presenter
____________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________

Conference Attendee
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________

Speaker/Writer
____________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________

School Plan Chair

____________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________

Faculty Representative
____________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________

Host Teacher
____________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________

Instructional Audit Leader

____________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________

Search Committee Panelist

____________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________

Community Leader
____________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________

Student Activities Coordinator

____________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________

Technology Leader
____________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________

Web Page Curator

____________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________

Supplies Coordinator
____________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________

Activity 3. Explain thoroughly your answers.

1. Why are leadership styles important?

__________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________

2. Define Servant Leadership.

__________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________

3. How can one exercise transformational leadership?

__________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________

4. Why is School-Based Management important and therefore practiced?

__________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________

Activity 4. Elaborate the following ways to develop a positive school culture.

Planning a bridge program for new students and staff.

_______________________________________________________________________________

Making school-wide goals visible.

_______________________________________________________________________________

Keeping a loyal opposition.

_______________________________________________________________________________
Establishing collaborative networks.
_______________________________________________________________________________

Holding school-wide rallies and assemblies.

_______________________________________________________________________________

Activity 5. Getting acquainted with the essential terms in the study of Positive School Culture,
School Policies and Their Functions, and Roles and Competencies of School Heads is not enough,
what also matters is you should also be able to explain its inter-relationships. Now, I will require you
to explain thoroughly your answers.

1. How do the changes in society pose challenges to a school’s culture?

_______________________________________________________________________________

2. Why is Culture considered as a Social Construct?

_______________________________________________________________________________

3. What is the Role of School Culture in Learning?

_______________________________________________________________________________
 4. How important are Policies in School Education Ecosystem?

_______________________________________________________________________________

SUMMATIVE ASSESSMENT

Summative assessment can be accessed through MS Teams LMS as scheduled by the

college.

SUPPLEMENTAL MATERIALS

https://www.slideshare.net/zarmeendurrani/culture-as-social-construction-75738136
http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/59222/1/Franks_Social-construction-evolution-cultural-universals_2014.pdf
https://k12engagement.unl.edu/strategy-briefs/School%20Climate%20&%20Culture%202-6-
16_1.pdf
https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1236099.pdf
https://www.slideshare.net/SandyJohnstone/shared-norms#:~:text=Level%202The%20teacher
%20maintains%20a,are%20referenced%20to%20school%20values.&text=Level%204%20The
%20teacher%20refers,with%20them%20for%20reinforcing%20protocols.
https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ724868.pdf
https://www.atiner.gr/journals/education/2014-1-X-Y-Kolodziejczyk.pdf
https://www.slideshare.net/cancerian91/difference-between-educational-leadership-and-
managment-130722109
https://www.slideshare.net/polchan/educational-leadership-the-importance-of-leadership-and-
management-to-education
https://hrmars.com/papers_submitted/557/
Exploring_Educational_Administration_The_Relationship_between_Leadership_and_Management.
pdf
https://www.slideshare.net/guruonline/what-is-school-based-management
https://iris.peabody.vanderbilt.edu/wp-content/uploads/pdf_case_studies/ics_norms.pdf
https://www.slideshare.net/DepEdNEAP/deped-national-competencybased-standards-for-school-
heads-50954270
https://prezi.com/vt6qpjydconp/competency-framework-for-southeast-asian-school-heads/
https://www.seameo.org/SEAMEOWeb2/images/stories/Publications/Centers_pub/
2012TeachingCompetencyStandards/TeachingCompetencyStd.pdf
https://www.naesp.org/sites/default/files/J-F_p34.pdf
https://msu.edu/~chenhaom/inter/uschina/pdf/leadership_research_brief.pdf
https://study.com/academy/lesson/the-school-community-definition-members.html
https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/33425669.pdf
FINAL EXAMINATION

Final assessment will be a comprehensive examination in Multiple Choice Questions

administered through MS Teams.

-----END-----

CONGRATULATIONS! YOU HAVE JUST FINISHED THIS COURSE.

Course Prepared by:

RAM BAYANI, EdD

Name of Professor

Course Reviewed by:

ELIZABETH DIOSO, EdD

Program Head

Approved by:

DELFIN J. ENARGAN, MA
Dean of College