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5 million years ago during

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CHED PERMIT TO OPERATE REVIEW CENTER No. 035 Series of 2008 - Fossils discovered in Tanzania and Kenya.
SEPT 2023 L.E.T REVIEW - Considered the first member of the genus Homo.
PREMAJORSHIP
WORLD HISTORY - Larger brain size than Australopithecus
Prepared by: RICHMOND SUGANOB, LPT - "Handy Man"

IV. Homo erectus

World History Lecture Notes
- Lived approximately 1.9 million years ago to about
70,000 years ago during the Pleistocene epoch.
A. Evolution of Man
- Fossils found in Africa, Asia, and Europe.
Human evolution refers to the gradual development and
diversification of hominid species over millions of years. The - First hominid to migrate out of Africa and colonize other
study of fossils, comparative anatomy, and genetic evidence continents.
helps us trace our evolutionary history. Hominids are a group of - Advanced stone tools, controlled fire, and potential
primates that include modern humans and their extinct early language development.
ancestors.
V. Homo sapiens
I. Early Hominids
1. Neanderthals (Homo neanderthalensis)
1. Dryopithecus - Lived approximately 400,000 to 40,000 years ago
- Lived approximately 12 to 9 million years ago during the during the Pleistocene epoch.
Miocene epoch. - Larger brain size and robust bodies, well-adapted to
- Belonged to the family of early apes and was the cold climates.
common ancestor of both humans and modern apes. - Evidence of symbolic behavior, burial practices, and
- Fossils found in Europe and Africa. use of tools.
- Similar to modern gibbons in size and anatomy.
2. Homo sapiens
- Arboreal (tree-dwelling) lifestyle.
- Lived approximately 300,000 years ago to the present.
2. Ramapithecus - Emerged in Africa and eventually spread globally.
- Lived approximately 14 to 8 million years ago during the - Modern humans with larger brain size and complex
Miocene epoch. behavior.
- Fossils discovered in India and Africa. - Advanced language, art, culture, and sophisticated
- Initially considered as a potential human ancestor but tools.
later reclassified as an extinct species of the orangutan
lineage. 3. Homo sapiens sapiens
- Refers to anatomically modern humans, including
II. Australopithecus present-day humans.
- Characterized by advanced cognitive abilities, social
1. Australopithecus afarensis structures, and technology.
- Lived approximately 3.9 to 2.9 million years ago during
the Pliocene epoch. The Stone Ages
- Famous fossil specimen "Lucy" discovered in Ethiopia.
I. Paleolithic Age (Old Stone Age)
- Bipedal (walked on two legs) but still had some
- Approximately 2.5 million years ago to 10,000 BCE.
adaptations for climbing trees.
- Brain size about one-third that of modern humans. - Hunter-Gatherer Lifestyle
- The development of stone tools and weapons, such as
2. Australopithecus africanus hand axes and spears
- Lived approximately 3 to 2 million years ago during the - Art and Rituals
Pliocene epoch.
- Fossils found in South Africa. II. Mesolithic Age (Middle Stone Age)
- Bipedal with more human-like teeth than earlier - Around 10,000 BCE to 5,000 BCE.
hominids. - Began to experiment with early forms of agriculture and
domestication of animals.
III. Homo habilis - Some communities settled in one location for more
extended periods, creating more stable societies.

III. Neolithic Age (New Stone Age)

 - Approximately 5,000 BCE to 2,000 BCE (timing varies e) Hittites
by region). - Ancient Anatolian people
- Shift from hunting and gathering to agriculture, leading - They were renowned for their skills in ironworking
to permanent settlements and the rise of early - First to sign peace treaties, most notably the Treaty of
civilizations. Kadesh with Egypt
- Domestication of Animals
- Innovations in pottery-making and early metalworking f) Chaldean
(copper, later bronze) - Neobabylonian
- King Nebuchadneszzar- great ruler
IV. Chalcolithic Age (Copper Age) - Hanging Gardens of Semiramis
- Roughly 5,000 BCE to 3,300 BCE. - Fell under Cyrus the Great (Battle of Opis)
- Introduction of Copper g) Persian
- Emergence of trade, social hierarchies, and the - Iran
specialization of labor. - Cyrus the Great- First leader to allowed different
religions to exist under his rule
B. Ancient civilizations - Freeing Jewish captives- in return to their homeland
Mesopotamia: - Conquered by Alexander the Great of Greece
- Considered the cradle of civilization h) Phoenician
- Emerged in the fertile valleys between the Tigris and - Lebanon
Euphrates rivers. - Great Merchants of the Ancient World
- Sophisticated irrigation systems and monumental - Remarkable shipbuilders and seafarers
architecture. - Phonetics- one sign was used for one sound.
- Cuneiform writing- the earliest known form of writing - alphabet comes directly from aleph and beth.
- Mesopotamians developed city-states, such as Sumer,
Akkad, and Babylon Ancient Egypt:
a) Sumerians - Banks of the Nile River
- Earliest known civilizations, residing in the region of - Great Pyramids of Giza and the temples of Luxor and
Mesopotamia Karnak.
- Governed by religious leaders known as priests or - Hieroglyphic writing- a complex system of pictorial
priest-kings. symbols
- Construction of monumental ziggurats and advanced Ancient Egypt Dynasties
irrigation systems. a) Predynastic Period (c. 5500-3100 BCE)
- polytheistic religion with a pantheon of gods - The earliest phase of Egyptian history before the
b) Akkadians emergence of centralized states.
- led by Sargon of Akkad - Communities along the Nile developed agriculture,
- The Akkadians continued to use Sumerian cuneiform pottery, and early forms of writing.
for writing - Nomadic groups consolidated into settled communities,
c) Assyrians marking the transition to the Dynastic Period.
- Capital city: Nineveh b) Early Dynastic Period (c. 3100-2686 BCE)
- advanced military tactics, iron weapons, and siege - The unification of Upper and Lower Egypt under the
machinery rule of King Narmer (Menes).
- Skilled administrators, constructing extensive road - Establishment of Memphis as the first capital and
networks and organizing their empire through a well- administrative center.
developed bureaucracy. - Hieroglyphics emerged as the official writing system.
- Their art and architecture reflected their militaristic c) Old Kingdom (c. 2686-2181 BCE)
nature, often depicting scenes of conquest and battles. - The construction of the Great Pyramids of Giza during
d) Babylonians the reigns of Khufu, Khafre, and Menkaure.
- southern part of Mesopotamia - The pharaohs were considered living gods with
- "Hammurabi's Code," - earliest known legal systems absolute power.
that established justice and regulated daily life in - Hierarchical society with a strong centralized
Babylonian society. government.
- advancements in mathematics, including the d) First Intermediate Period (c. 2181-2055 BCE)
development of a sexagesimal numeral system (based - A period of political unrest and fragmented rule
on the number 60 following the collapse of the Old Kingdom.
- The Babylonian astronomers made observations of the - Famine and civil strife contributed to the decline of
stars and planets and left behind important texts on central authority.
celestial events.
 e) Middle Kingdom (c. 2055-1650 BCE)
- Reunification of Egypt under the pharaohs of Theban
origin.
- Focus on public works, including the construction of
irrigation systems and infrastructure.
- The rise of literature and an increased emphasis on
personal piety.
f) Second Intermediate Period (c. 1650-1550 BCE)
- Invasions by the Hyksos, a foreign Semitic group who
ruled northern Egypt.
- The Theban kings resisted Hyksos rule and eventually
expelled them.
g) New Kingdom (c. 1550-1069 BCE)
- Egypt's most prosperous and powerful period.
- The reign of prominent pharaohs like Hatshepsut,
Thutmose III, Akhenaten, Tutankhamun, and Ramses
II.
- Expansion of trade, military conquests, and
monumental building projects.
h) Third Intermediate Period (c. 1069-664 BCE)
- Political instability and division between the northern
Tanite and southern Theban dynasties.
- Egypt came under the influence of foreign powers such
as the Nubians and Assyrians.
i) Late Period (c. 664-332 BCE)
- The revival of Egyptian culture and traditions.
- Influx of foreign influences due to Persian, Greek, and
later, Roman invasions.
Ancient China:
 Ancient China dynasties, Zhou, Qin, Han, Tang, and
Song.
a) Zhou Dynasty (1046 BCE - 256 BCE)
- The concept of the "Mandate of Heaven" - justified the
ruler's authority based on divine approval and virtuous
rule.
- Confucianism and Daoism: Two of the most significant
philosophical systems
b) Qin Dynasty (221 BCE - 206 BCE)
- Emperor Qin Shi Huang standardized writing, currency,
weights, and measures
- Great Wall of China: Although parts of the Great Wall
existed before the Qin Dynasty, it was during this time
that the walls were connected and extended, creating
the structure we know today.
c) Han Dynasty (206 BCE - 220 CE)
- Golden Age
- Civil Service Examinations: The Han Dynasty
formalized the civil service examination system, which
allowed officials to be selected based on merit rather
than hereditary privilege.
- Silk Road: During this period, trade flourished along the
Silk Road, connecting China to the rest of the world.
d) Tang Dynasty (618 CE - 907 CE)
- Poetry and Literature: Tang Dynasty produced some of
the most celebrated poets and literary works in Chinese
history, like Li Bai, Du Fu, and the "Tang Poems"
anthology.
e) Song Dynasty (960 CE - 1279 CE)
- Emphasis on education, technological advancements,
and economic growth.
- Neo-Confucianism: The rise of Neo-Confucianism
during the Song Dynasty combined traditional
Confucian values with Buddhist and Daoist ideas
- Technological Advancements: The invention of
movable type, gunpowder, and the compass
C. The Classical Period
1. Classical Grece:
- Ancient Greece- emphasizing democracy, philosophy,
and the arts.
a) The Minoan Civilization
- Emerged on the island of Crete, Greece, around 2700
BCE and thrived until approximately 1450 BCE.
- built magnificent palaces at Knossos, Phaistos, and
Malia
- Skilled seafarers and traders, connecting with Egypt,
Anatolia, Cyprus, and other regions.
- Minoan art: naturalistic and vibrant depictions,
displayed a fascination with nature, animals, and bull
symbolism.
- worshipped a mother goddess and placed great
emphasis on female deities
b) The Mycenaean Civilization
- Arose on the mainland of Greece around 1600 BCE
and reached its zenith between 1400 and 1200 BCE.
- Mycenaean cities, such as Mycenae, Tiryns, and Pylos,
were fortified with massive cyclopean walls,
showcasing their military and strategic sophistication.
- Linear B script- an early form of Greek writing.
- Characterized by a warrior aristocracy
- Engaged in extensive trade, especially in pottery,
metals, and other goods.
Ancient Greece City-States
- Greek city-states, such as Athens and Sparta, became
centers of learning and innovation.
- Athens- promoting democratic ideals and fostering
intellectual pursuits.
- Sparta- encourage discipline and physical toughness
- Philosophers: Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle
revolutionized human thought
Socrates
- Emphasized the pursuit of wisdom, virtue, and ethical
conduct.
- Socratic Method: a distinctive method of inquiry
- Believed that genuine knowledge could be achieved
through self-examination and the realization of one's
own ignorance.
Plato
- Stressed the importance of education in shaping
individuals and society, advocating for a system that
fosters intellectual and moral development.
- Theory of Forms: the material world is a mere reflection
of unchanging and eternal Forms or Ideas. The Forms
 represent the ultimate reality and serve as the basis for
understanding truth, beauty, justice, and other abstract
concepts.
- The Republic," -his vision of an ideal state governed by
philosopher-kings, emphasizing justice and the pursuit
of the common good.
Aristotle
- Aristotle emphasized empirical observation as the basis
for acquiring knowledge.
- Aristotle, a student of Plato, later became the tutor of
Alexander the Great.
- Deductive reasoning and syllogistic logic.
- Metaphysics: nature of reality, and concepts such as
causality, substance, and potentiality.
Playwrights: Sophocles and Euripides created enduring
theatrical works.
- The Parthenon, a temple dedicated to the goddess
Athena- iconic symbol of classical architecture.
- Literature and Drama: Homer, Aeschylus, Sophocles,
and Euripides
Aeschylus: his works explored themes of divine retribution,
justice, and the complexities of human nature, leaving a lasting
impact on Greek drama.
- “The Persians" (472 BCE) - The only surviving Greek
tragedy based on recent historical events, it explores
the Persian defeat in the Battle of Salamis.
- "The Oresteia" (458 BCE) - A trilogy consisting of
"Agamemnon," "The Libation Bearers," and "The
Eumenides," focusing on the curse of the House of
Atreus and the development of justice and law.
Sophocles: introduced painted scenery and stage decorations,
enhancing the visual aspects of Greek theater.
- "Oedipus Rex" (c. 429 BCE) - The tragic tale of King
Oedipus, who unknowingly fulfills a prophecy by killing
his father and marrying his mother.
- "Antigone" (c. 441 BCE) - The play deals with the
conflict between civil obedience and familial duty when
Antigone defies a decree to bury her brother.
Euripides: he emphasized the psychology and emotional turmoil
of his characters, paving the way for psychological realism in
drama.
- "Medea" (431 BCE) - A gripping tragedy that explores
the revenge of Medea, the scorned wife of Jason.
- "The Bacchae" (c. 405 BCE) - A play focusing on the
clash between Dionysus, the god of wine, and the
rational King Pentheus of Thebes.
Homer
- The Iliad: story of the Trojan War, a mythical conflict
between the Greeks and Trojans.
- The Odyssey: the adventures of Odysseus, a Greek
hero, on his journey back home from the Trojan War.
Ancient Rome:
-Founded by Romulus and Remus
1. The Roman Republic:
 Rome transitioned from a monarchy to a republic
around 509 BCE.
 The Roman Republic was governed by elected officials,
including consuls, senators, and assemblies.
2. The Triumvirates
a) The First Triumvirate (60-53 BCE): The primary motives
were to consolidate personal power, protect mutual
interests, and bypass Senate resistance.
- Gaius Julius Caesar: A military general and ambitious
politician who aimed to strengthen his influence in
Roman politics.
- Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus (Pompey): An esteemed
military leader, renowned for his victories in the East.
- Marcus Licinius Crassus: A wealthy and powerful
Roman senator, known for his financial acumen.
b) The Second Triumvirate (43-33 BCE): primarily to
avenge Julius Caesar's assassination and eradicate his
enemies and to restore stability and eliminate
opposition from the conspirators led by Brutus and
Cassius.
- Octavian (later known as Augustus): Adopted son and
heir of Julius Caesar, an astute statesman and military
leader.
- Mark Antony: A brilliant general and staunch supporter
of Caesar. (Lover of Cleopatra of Egypt)
- Marcus Aemilius Lepidus: A skilled general and
politician who initially aligned with Octavian and Antony
3. Roman Law:
- The Twelve Tables (450 BCE): The first written law
code, providing equal protection under the law for all
Roman citizens.
- The Corpus Juris Civilis: Compiled under Emperor
Justinian I in the 6th century CE, it remained a
foundation of European legal systems.
4. Roman Government:
- Senate: A governing body of aristocrats that advised
and influenced Roman leaders.
- Consuls: Two elected officials serving as the highest
authority in the Roman Republic.
5. Roman Engineering and Architecture
- Aqueducts: The Romans constructed extensive
networks of aqueducts to supply water to cities,
ensuring their growth and prosperity.
- Roads and Highways: Roman roads were renowned for
their durability and efficient transportation, facilitating
trade and military movement.
6. Architecture:
- The Colosseum: An iconic amphitheater known for its
grandeur and capacity to hold thousands of spectators
during gladiator games and other public spectacles.
- The Pantheon: A magnificent temple known for its
impressive dome and lasting influence on later
architectural styles.
- Arch and Dome Construction:
7. Roman Contributions to Language and Culture
 - Latin Language: became the official language of the
Roman Republic and later the Roman Empire.
8. Literature and Philosophy:
- Roman writers, such as Cicero, Virgil, and Ovid,
produced enduring works that influenced Western
literature and thought.
9. Roman Mythology and Religion: Roman pantheon of
gods and goddesses heavily influenced religious
practices in the Roman Empire.
10. Roman Innovations and Technology
- The Roman numeral system, which we still use today
for certain purposes, was a significant contribution to
mathematics.
- Influence on Christianity: Rome's embrace of
Christianity under Emperor Constantine significantly
impacted the spread and development of the religion.
Central and South American Civilizations:
a) Maya
- Located in the tropical lowlands of present-day Mexico,
Guatemala, Belize, Honduras, and El Salvador.
- Utilized slash-and-burn farming, along with advanced
irrigation techniques.
- Practiced bloodletting and human sacrifice as rituals to
appease gods.
b) Aztec
- Thrived in the Valley of Mexico, with their capital city
Tenochtitlan situated on an island in Lake Texcoco.
- Created chinampas (floating gardens) to maximize
agricultural output.
- Worshiped gods like Huitzilopochtli and Quetzalcoatl.
c) Inca
- Occupied the Andean region of South America,
spanning present-day Peru, Ecuador, Chile, and parts
of Colombia, Bolivia, and Argentina.
- Mastered terrace farming on steep mountain slopes to
grow crops like maize and potatoes.
- Worshiped deities like Inti, the Sun God, and Viracocha,
the Creator God.
Ancient African Civilization:
Western African Empires
a) Ghana Empire
- Soninke- first inhabitants in Ghana
- Timbuktu- center of trade; Kumbu- capital city of Ghana
- Decline: Due to invasions
b) Songhai Empire
- Sonni Ali- founder of Songhai Empire
c) Mali Empire
- Sundiata Keita- founded Mali Empire
- Musa I- thoughts to be the richest person on earth
Eastern African Empires
a) Kush Empire
- Meroe- the capital of Kush, thrived as a trade and iron-
smelting center.
b) Aksum Empire- The empire is famous for its impressive
obelisks
Ancient India:
a. The Indus Valley Civilization (c. 3300–1300 BCE):
- Harappan Civilization, was one of the world's earliest
urban societies
- Pakistan and northwest India
a) The Vedic Period (c. 1500–600 BCE):
- An era when Indo-Aryans migrated to the Indian
subcontinent
- Composed in the form of hymns and rituals, the Vedas,
the sacred texts of Hinduism
- Birth of the caste system: Brahmins (priests),
Kshatriyas (warriors), Vaishyas (merchants), and
Shudras (laborers)
b) The Maurya Empire (c. 322–185 BCE):
- Chandragupta Maurya, the Maurya Empire became one
of the most powerful ancient Indian empires.
c) Gupta Empire (c. 320–550 CE):
- Golden Age of India
- Scholars like Aryabhata and Varahamihira made
substantial strides in astronomy, and mathematical
innovations.
d) Aryabhata
- "Aryabhatiya," a comprehensive treatise written in verse
form. This work is divided into four chapters, covering
various aspects of mathematics and astronomy.
- Introduced the concepts of sine (jya), cosine (kojya),
and versine (utkrama-jya).
- the use of zero as a placeholder and the decimal
system
- Calculates the Earth's circumference, diameter, and the
duration of a day.
- Developed a "siddhanta- a 60-year cycle known as
the," crucial for the prediction of eclipses.
e) Varahamihira
- Brihat Samhita: an encyclopedic treatise that covers a
wide range of subjects, including astronomy, astrology,
geography, architecture, weather prediction, and more
- Studied planetary movements, eclipses, and various
celestial phenomena, making accurate predictions
based on astronomical observations.
b. Religion and Philosophy: Hinduism, Buddhism, and
Jainism
a) Hinduism:
- Emphasizes the concept of dharma (moral duty) and
karma (law of cause and effect).
- Believes in the cycle of birth, death, and rebirth
(samsara).
- Sacred texts include the Vedas, Upanishads, and
Bhagavad Gita.
- Yoga and Meditation
b) Buddhism:
- Founded by Siddhartha Gautama (Buddha) in the 6th
century BCE.
- Rejects the authority of the Vedas and the caste
system.
 - Four Noble Truths: existence of suffering, its causes,
cessation, and the path to end suffering (Eightfold
Path).
- Emphasizes compassion, non-violence, and the Middle
Way.
c) Jainism:
a) Founded by Mahavira in the 6th century BCE.
b) Emphasizes non-violence (ahimsa) and respect for all
forms of life.
c) Believes in karma, rebirth, and liberation from the cycle
of birth and death (moksha).
d) Five vows for ethical living: non-violence, truthfulness,
non-stealing, chastity, and non-possession.
D. The Medieval Period
1. Fall of the Western Roman Empire:
- Rome was sacked by barbaric Germans (Visigoths)
led by Odoacer
- Mongol Empire: Genghis Khan, largest contiguous
empire, cultural exchange.
- Roman Empire is divided:
- Eastern Roman Empire- “Byzantine Empire”
- Byzantine Empire:
- Justinian- built the Hagia Sophia
- Emperor Constantine the Great (r. 306-337) founded
Constantinople in 330 AD, which became the new
capital of the Eastern Roman Empire. (Modern day-
Istanbul)
- Invaded by the Seljuk Turks
Islamic Civilization
- Al Razi-greatest doctor in the Muslim world from 500 to
15000 AD
- Al- Khwarizimi- father of Algebra
- One Thousand and One Nights- collection of Middle
Eastern folk tales.
- Western Roman Empire- “Holy Roman Empire”
c. Feudalism and the Rise of Kingdoms:
- Feudalism- Kings granted land to nobles in exchange
for military service and loyalty.
- kings, lords, knights, and peasants
d. Social Structure: The Three Estates:
- The clergy- consisting of priests and monks, held
religious and intellectual authority.
- The nobility- comprising lords and knights, controlled
land and exercised military power.
- The commoners- including peasants and artisans
e. Architecture and Art: Romanesque and Gothic
architecture flourished, with magnificent cathedrals and
castles being built.
- Illuminated manuscripts and religious artwork, such as
stained-glass windows
f. Literature and Philosophy: Epic poems like "Beowulf"
and literary works like Geoffrey Chaucer's "Canterbury
Tales"
- The works of philosophers like Thomas Aquinas
merged classical thought with Christian theology.
- The Crusades- a series of military campaigns aimed at
capturing the Holy Land from Muslim control.
E. Renaissance and Reformation:
- Renaissance as a rebirth of knowledge and cultural
achievements
- The Reformation as a transformative movement
challenging religious authority
1. Humanism and the Arts
- Humanism and its focus on human potential,
secularism, and classical learning
- Artistic achievements and the revival of classical
aesthetics
- Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, and Raphael
Humanism:
- Prominent humanists such as Petrarch and Erasmus
laid the groundwork for the humanist movement.
2. Art and Artists
a) Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) Mona Lisa,The Last
Supper
b) Michelangelo (1475-1564) Sistine Chapel
Ceiling,David, St. Peter's Basilica's dome in Vatican
City
c) Raphael (1483-1520) The School of Athens, Madonna
del Granduca
3. Science and Invention:
a) Nicolaus Copernicus -Heliocentric model of the solar
system
b) Galileo Galilei - astronomical observations and
supported the heliocentric model.
c) Johannes Gutenberg- invention of the printing press
4. Literature and Language
- Dante Alighieri (1265-1321): The Divine Comedy
- Geoffrey Chaucer (c. 1343-1400): The Canterbury
Tales "Father of English Literature"
- William Shakespeare (1564-1616): "Romeo and Juliet,"
"Hamlet," "Macbeth," and "A Midsummer Night's
Dream."
5. Age of Exploration:
a) Christopher Columbus (1451-1506)
- Columbus reached the Caribbean islands, initially
believing he had found a western route to Asia.
b) Vasco da Gama (1460s-1524)
- Led the first successful sea route from Europe to India,
rounding the Cape of Good Hope.
- Finding a direct maritime route to India, Vasco da
Gama revolutionized the spice trade.
c) Ferdinand Magellan (1480-1521)
- Led the first expedition to circumnavigate the globe
The Reformation: Challenging Religious Authority
- Martin Luther and the Ninety-Five Theses
- Spread of Protestantism and the formation of new
Christian denominations
 - The Thirty Years' War: A devastating conflict in Europe
- Peace of Westphalia and the emergence of the modern
nation-state system
F. Enlightenment and Revolution
The Enlightenment and Revolution period laid the groundwork
for modern democratic societies and challenged the traditional
authority.
1. Rationalism: Emphasis on reason and critical thinking
to solve societal problems.
2. Empiricism: A reliance on observation and evidence-
based knowledge.
3. Individualism: Valuing the rights and freedoms of
individuals.
4. Secularism: Encouraging a separation of church and
state.
5. Progressivism: Belief in human progress through
education and scientific advancements.
Enlightenment Thinkers
a. John Locke: Advocated for natural rights (life, liberty,
and property) and the idea of a social contract between
the government and the governed.
b. Voltaire: Championed freedom of speech and religious
tolerance, and criticized religious intolerance and
superstition.
c. Montesquieu: Proposed the separation of powers within
government to prevent abuses of power.
d. Jean-Jacques Rousseau: Argued for direct democracy
and emphasized the importance of the "general will" of
the people.
e. Mary Wollstonecraft: Pioneered the feminist movement
and advocated for women's rights and education.
Influence on Politics:
- American Revolution (1775-1783): Inspired by
Enlightenment ideals, the American colonies sought
independence from British rule.
- French Revolution (1789-1799): Sparked by a desire for
liberty, equality, and fraternity, the French Revolution
led to significant social and political changes.
G. Industrialization and Imperialism
I. Industrialization refers to the process of developing an
economy based on the extensive use of machinery,
technological advancements, and the growth of
manufacturing industries.
Key Features of Industrialization:
1. Mechanization: Introduction of machinery and
automation to replace manual labor in various
industries, leading to increased production efficiency.
2. Urbanization: Large numbers of people moving from
rural areas to cities in search of better job opportunities
in factories and industries.
3. Division of Labor: Specialization of tasks, enabling
workers to become more efficient in their specific roles,
contributing to higher productivity.
4. Mass Production: Techniques that allow the rapid
production of goods in large quantities, reducing costs
and making products more affordable for consumers.
5. Infrastructure Development: Construction of
transportation networks, such as railways and roads, to
facilitate the movement of goods and raw materials.
Factors Driving Industrialization:
1. Technological Innovations: Inventions such as the
steam engine, spinning jenny, and power loom
revolutionized the manufacturing process.
2. Access to Raw Materials: Colonies and global trade
provided access to abundant resources needed for
industrial production.
3. Capital Investment: Accumulation of wealth and
investment in industries by entrepreneurs and
capitalists.
4. Skilled Labor Force: A growing population with skilled
workers willing to work in factories.
Impact of Industrialization:
1. Economic Growth: Led to increased production, higher
GDP, and improved standards of living for many
people.
2. Urban Growth: The rise of industrial centers resulted in
urbanization and the growth of cities.
3. Social Changes: The transformation of society,
including the rise of the middle class and the decline of
agrarian-based economies.
4. Global Trade: Increased international trade due to
surplus production and the need for resources.
5. Environmental Impact: Negative consequences, such
as pollution and resource depletion, due to industrial
activities.
II. Imperialism is the policy of extending a nation's power
and influence through diplomatic, economic, or military
means to gain control over other territories or countries.
a. Causes of Imperialism:
1. Economic Interests: Seeking new markets for goods
and sources of cheap raw materials to fuel industrial
growth.
2. Nationalism: Belief in the superiority of one's nation and
the desire for expansion and dominance.
3. Strategic Interests: Securing military bases and trade
routes for national security purposes.
4. Cultural Factors: Spreading cultural values, religion,
and civilization to "less developed" regions.
5. Rivalry and Competition: Nations vying for supremacy
and prestige in the international arena.
b. Forms of Imperialism:
1. Colonialism: Establishment and maintenance of
colonies for economic and strategic benefits.
2. Protectorates: Controlling a country's foreign policy
while leaving internal affairs to local rulers.
3. Spheres of Influence: Regions where a dominant nation
exerts significant economic and political influence
without direct control.
 4. Economic Imperialism: Dominating another nation's
economy through investments and trade.
c. Impact of Imperialism:
1. Exploitation: Colonized regions often faced economic
exploitation, leading to the extraction of resources and
forced labor.
2. Cultural Exchange: Imperial powers brought their
culture, language, and customs to the colonies,
resulting in cultural hybridization.
3. Globalization: Imperialism played a role in the
interconnectedness of nations and the emergence of a
global economy.
H. World Wars and the Cold War
I. World War I (1914-1918)
Causes
- Long-term causes: Militarism, Alliances, Imperialism,
Nationalism (MAIN).
- The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of
Austria triggered the war in 1914.
Major Events
- Trench warfare: Stalemate on the Western Front, with
heavy casualties.
- The United States entered the war in 1917, tilting the
balance in favor of the Allies.
- Outcomes
- The Treaty of Versailles: Imposed harsh penalties on
Germany, leading to long-term resentment.
- The League of Nations was established to prevent
future conflicts, but its effectiveness was limited.
II. World War II (1939-1945)
Causes
- Treaty of Versailles: The punitive terms contributed to
Germany's economic hardships and dissatisfaction.
- Expansionist policies of totalitarian regimes: Nazi
Germany, Fascist Italy, and Imperial Japan sought
territorial gains.
Major Events
- German blitzkrieg tactics led to rapid territorial
expansion in Europe.
- The Holocaust: The systematic genocide of millions of
Jews and other minorities by the Nazis.
- The United States' entry into the war after the attack on
Pearl Harbor in 1941.
d. Outcomes
- The establishment of the United Nations, aiming for
international cooperation and peace.
- The division of Europe into the Eastern Bloc (led by the
Soviet Union) and the Western Bloc (led by the United
States).
was characterized by ideological, political, and military tensions
without direct armed conflict between the two superpowers.
a. The Iron Curtain and Containment
- Winston Churchill's "Iron Curtain" speech marked the
division between Western Europe and Eastern Europe.
- The U.S. policy of containment aimed to prevent the
spread of communism and led to the formation of
alliances like NATO.
b. Proxy Wars and Nuclear Arms Race
- Proxy wars: Conflicts in Korea, Vietnam, Afghanistan,
and other regions where the superpowers supported
opposing sides.
- Nuclear arms race: Both sides built up massive nuclear
arsenals, leading to the concept of Mutually Assured
Destruction (MAD).
Thawing of Relations and the End of the Cold War
- Periods of détente between the superpowers reduced
tensions temporarily.
- The late 1980s saw significant reforms in the Soviet
Union under Mikhail Gorbachev, leading to the end of
the Cold War.
- The fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989 symbolized the
reunification of East and West Germany and the end of
Soviet control in Eastern Europe.
I. Modern Era
The Modern Era has been a period of immense change,
featuring significant technological advancements, social
transformations, and geopolitical shifts.
- Decolonization: End of European empires,
independence movements.
- Civil Rights Movement: Fight against racial segregation
and discrimination.

III. The Cold War (1947-1991)

The Cold War was a geopolitical struggle between the United

States and the Soviet Union, along with their respective allies. It