Suraj Dewan (9729960045)

Electrostatics 22 Periods

Chapter–1: Electric Charges and Fields

Electric Charges; Conservation of charge, Coulomb's law-force

between two point charges, forces between multiple charges;
superposition principle and continuous charge distribution.
Electric field, electric field due to a point charge, electric field lines,
electric dipole, electric field due to a dipole, torque on a dipole in
uniform electric field.
Electric flux, statement of Gauss's theorem and its applications to
find field due to infinitely long straight wire, uniformly charged
infinite plane sheet and uniformly charged thin spherical shell (field
inside and outside).

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Chapter–1: Electric Charges and Fields

Electrostatics - The branch of physics which deals with the study of

charges at rest. The study of forces, fields & potentials due to static
charges is called ES or static electricity or Frictional electricity.
Electric charge is something possessed by material objects that
make it possible for them to exert electrical force and respond to
electrical force.
Table
Particle Mass (kg) Charge (C)
Electron 9.1 × 10−31 − 1.6 × 10−19
Proton 1.673 × 10−27 + 1.6 × 10−19
Neutron 1.675 × 10−27 0

We have two kinds of charges (Du Fay), Named Positive & Negative
by Benjamin Franklin.
Like charges repel and unlike charges attract.
Polarity of charge: Property that differentiates the two kinds of
charges.
Conductor: a substance which can be used to carry or conduct
electric charge. Ag, Cu, Fe, Al, Hg, Earth, human body etc.
Possesses free electrons.
Insulator (Dielectric): a substance which cannot carry or conduct
electric charge. Glass, rubber, plastic, ebonite, mica, wax, paper,
wood etc. Do not have free electrons.
When two insulating substances are rubbed against each other,
electrons are transferred from the substance in which electrons are
loosely bound to the atom. The cause of charging is the actual
transfer of electrons. Body which loses electrons becomes positively

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charged and the body which gains electrons becomes negatively
charged.
Positive charge Negative charge
Glass rod silk
Fur / wool Amber / ebonite
Dry hair comb

A body can be charged by three methods – friction, induction &

contact.
Induction: the phenomenon of charging a body by bringing a
charged body near it, without making a direct contact.

1. Introduction:
Examples of electric discharge – car, synthetic clothes, lightning.
It’s due to discharge of electric charges through our body, which
were accumulated due to rubbing of insulating surfaces.
Electrostatics deals with the study of forces, fields & potentials
arising from static charges.

2. Electric charge:
Thales 600 BC Greece discovered - amber when rubbed with wool
or silk attracts light objects. Electricity – Greek word elektron
means amber.
T.V. screen – paper, hair
Charge – something possessed by a material object that makes it
possible for them to exert electrical force & respond to electrical
force.
𝑚𝑒 = 9.1 × 10−31 𝑘𝑔 ; 𝑚𝑝 = 1.673 × 10−27 𝑘𝑔
𝑒 = 1.6 × 10−19 𝐶 ; 𝑚𝑛 = 1.675 × 10−27 𝑘𝑔

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Masses are responsible for gravitational force. Charges are
responsible for electric force.

2(glass rods – wool/ silk)

𝑔𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑠
[ ] 𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑒𝑙 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟
𝑤𝑜𝑜𝑙 𝑝𝑖𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑠
Glass & wool attract each other

2(plastic rods – cats fur)

𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑠
[ ] 𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑒𝑙 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟
𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑠 𝑓𝑢𝑟 𝑝𝑖𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑠
𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑟𝑜𝑑 & 𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑠 𝑓𝑢𝑟 attract each other

Glass – plastic ------ attract each other

𝑔𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 − 𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑠 𝑓𝑢𝑟
[ ] 𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑒𝑙 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟
𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 − 𝑤𝑜𝑜𝑙 /𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑘

Glass (contact) pith balls ---- repel each other

Plastic (contact) pith balls --- repel each other
Glass pith ball – plastic pith ball --- attract each other.

Only two kinds of electric charge - Du Fay

A body acquires charge on rubbing or transfer charge by contact.
Like charges repel. Unlike charges attract.
Polarity of a charge: property which differentiates the two kinds of
charges.
When A is rubbed with B, A acquires one kind of charge & B
acquires other kind of charge. When A & B are brought in contact,
they no longer attract each other & also do not attract or repel other
light objects.
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Charge gets neutralized or nullified so named +ve & - ve by
Benjamin Franklin.
Convention: charge on glass rod, cats fur --- positive
Charge on plastic rod, silk, fur --- negative.

Gold leaf electroscope – detects charge on a body.

The degree of divergence indicates the amount of charge.

All matter is made up of atoms/ molecules. Materials are electrically

neutral. +ve & –ve charges are balanced. Molecular forces, atomic
forces, adhesive, surface tension forces are basically electrical in
nature. In a solid some electrons which are less tightly bound in the
atom are transferred by rubbing. Glass rod rubbed with silk.
Electrons from glass rod are transferred to silk.

3. Conductors and Insulators

Conductors: allow electricity to pass through them easily, they have
electric charges (electrons) that are comparatively free to move
inside the material. Metals, human and animal bodies and earth are
conductors.
Insulators: offer high resistance to the passage of electricity through
them. Most non-metals like glass, porcelain, plastic, nylon & wood.

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When charge is transferred to a conductor, it readily gets
distributed over the entire surface of the conductor. When charge is
put on an insulator, it stays at the same place.
A nylon or plastic comb gets electrified on combing dry hair or on
rubbing, but a metal article like spoon does not. The charges on
metal leak through our body to the ground as both are conductors
of electricity.
When we bring a charged body in contact with the earth, all the
excess charge on the body disappears by causing a momentary
current. This process of sharing the charges with the earth is called
grounding or earthing.
The electric wiring in our houses has three wires: live (Red, Yellow,
& Blue), neutral (Black) and earth (Green).

Earthing provides a safety measure for electrical circuits and

appliances. A thick metal plate is buried deep into the earth and
thick wires are drawn from this plate; these are used in buildings
for the purpose of earthing near the mains supply.

Metallic bodies of the electric appliances such as electric iron,

refrigerator, TV are connected to the earth wire. When any fault
occurs or live wire touches the metallic body, the charge flows to
the earth without damaging the appliance and without causing any
injury to the humans.

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4. Charging by induction:

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Why neutral objects like bits of paper or pith balls are attracted
towards the electrified rods?
When electrified rods are brought near light objects, the rods
induce opposite charges on the near surfaces of the objects and
similar charges move to the farther side of the object. This happens
even when the light object is not a conductor. The force of attraction
overweighs the force of repulsion because opposite charges are
comparatively nearer. As a result the particles like bits of paper or
pith balls, being light, are pulled towards the rods.

5. Basic properties of electric charge

Point charge: size of the charged body is very small compared to
the distances between the charges. All charge of a body is assumed
to be concentrated at one point in space.
5.1 Additivity of charges: total charge of a system is the algebraic
sum of all charges. Charges add up like real numbers. Charges
are scalars, have magnitude but no direction. Charge can be
either +ve or –ve.
5.2 Charge is conserved: (established experimentally) – total
charge of an isolated system is always conserved. Only
redistribution takes place. It is not possible to create or destroy
net charge carried by any isolated system.
Charge carrying particles may be created or destroyed.
A neutron turns into a proton & an electron.
Pair production, 𝛾 = 𝑒 − + 𝑒 + ; Pair annihilation, 𝑒 − + 𝑒 + =
𝛾+ 𝛾
Radioactive decay 92𝑈 238 → 2𝐻𝑒 4 + 90𝑇ℎ234
Nuclear transformation 7𝑁14 + 2𝐻𝑒 4 → 8𝑂17 + 1𝐻1
5.3 Quantization of charge: (established experimentally) – all free
charges are integral multiples of a basic unit of charge ‘e’.
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𝑞 = 𝑛𝑒 ; 𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟 = ±1, ±2, ±3, … … …
Charge of an electron –e = – 1.6 x 10-19 C,
Charge of a proton +e = + 1.6 x 10-19 C
At macroscopic level (µC), the quantization of charge has no
practical consequence and can be ignored.
Quantization first suggested by experimental laws of electrolysis,
discovered by Faraday. Experimentally demonstrated by Millikan.

One Coulomb is the charge flowing through a wire in 1 second if

the current is 1 Ampere.
We have 6.25 × 1018 electrons in a charge of – 1 C.

6. Coulomb’s law: (experimentally arrived) – force between two

point charges is directly proportional to the product of magnitude
of two charges and is inversely proportional to the square of the
distance between them. Force of attraction or repulsion acts
along the line joining the charges.
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|𝑞1 𝑞2 | 1 |𝑞1 𝑞2 |
𝐹=𝑘 = 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑎𝑐𝑢𝑢𝑚.
𝑟2 4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟 2
k is electrostatic force constant, depends on the medium.
2
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𝑁𝑚 1
𝐼𝑛 𝑆𝐼 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚, 𝑘 = 9 × 10 ; 𝑘=
𝐶2 4𝜋𝜀𝑜
2
𝐶
𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝜀𝑜 = 8.85 × 10−12
𝑁𝑚2

Dimension of 𝜀𝑜 ---

1 |𝑞1 𝑞2 | 1 |𝑞1 𝑞2 |
𝐹= ; 𝜀𝑜 =
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟 2 4𝜋𝐹 𝑟 2
𝐴𝑇 𝐴𝑇 −1 −3 4 2
𝐷𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝜀𝑜 = = 𝑀 𝐿 𝑇 𝐴
𝑀𝐿𝑇 −2 𝐿2
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Define 1 Coulomb – 1 Coulomb is the charge flowing across a cross
section of a wire in 1 second if the current is 1 Ampere. dq = I dt.
Define 1 Coulomb - 1 Coulomb is the charge that when placed at a
distance of 1m from another identical charge in vacuum experiences
an electrical force of repulsion of magnitude 9 x 109 N
Charge of an electron – 𝑒 = −1.6 × 10−19 𝐶 = − 4.8 ×
10−10 𝑒𝑠𝑢
1 𝐶 = 3 × 109 𝑒𝑠𝑢

Coulomb’s law in the vector form:

𝐹⃗12

+𝑞1 𝑟⃗21

𝑟⃗1 𝑟⃗12

+𝑞2 𝐹⃗21
𝑟⃗2

Nomenclature
𝐹⃗12 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑛 1 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 2 ; 𝐹⃗21 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑛 2 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 1
𝑟⃗12 = 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 2 𝑡𝑜 1 ; 𝑟⃗21 = 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 1 𝑡𝑜 2
𝑞1 𝑞2 𝑞1 𝑞2
⃗
𝐹12 = 𝑘 ⃗
𝑟̂12 ; 𝐹21 = 𝑘 𝑟̂21
𝑟12 2 𝑟21 2
𝑞1 𝑞2 𝑞1 𝑞2
⃗
𝐹21 = 𝑘 ⃗
(−𝑟̂12 ) ; 𝐹21 = − {𝑘 𝑟̂ }
𝑟21 2 𝑟21 2 12
𝐹⃗21 = − 𝐹⃗12 ; 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑠,
𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏 ′ 𝑠 𝑙𝑎𝑤 𝑜𝑏𝑒𝑦𝑠 𝑁𝑒𝑤𝑡𝑜𝑛′ 𝑠 3𝑟𝑑 𝑙𝑎𝑤.
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7. Forces between multiple charges:
Principle of superposition: (experimentally verified) - force on any
charge due to a number of other charges is the vector sum of all the
forces on that charge due to the other charges, taken one at a time.
The individual forces are unaffected due to the presence of other
charges.

Consider a system of 3 charges q1, q2 and q3 located at 𝑟⃗1 ,

𝑟⃗2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟⃗3 respectively.
𝐹⃗13

+𝑞2 𝑟⃗12 +𝑞1 𝐹⃗12

𝑟⃗1
𝑟⃗2 𝑟⃗13

+𝑞3
𝑟⃗3

𝑞1 𝑞2 𝑞1 𝑞3
𝐹⃗12 = 𝑘 𝑟̂ ⃗
; 𝐹13 = 𝑘 𝑟̂
𝑟12 2 12 𝑟13 2 13
𝐹⃗1 = 𝐹⃗12 + 𝐹⃗13
𝑞1 𝑞2 𝑞1 𝑞3
𝐹⃗1 =𝑘 𝑟̂ + 𝑘 𝑟̂
𝑟12 2 12 𝑟13 2 13

So if you have N charges q1, q2, q3 …… qN located at 𝑟⃗1 , 𝑟⃗2 ,

𝑟⃗3 … … 𝑟⃗𝑁 respectively.
𝐹⃗1 = 𝐹⃗12 + 𝐹⃗13 + 𝐹⃗14 + … … 𝐹⃗1𝑁
𝑞1 𝑞2 𝑞1 𝑞3 𝑞1 𝑞4 𝑞1 𝑞𝑁
𝐹⃗1 = 𝑘 2
𝑟̂
12 + 𝑘 2
𝑟̂
13 + 𝑘 2
𝑟̂
14 + ⋯ 𝑘 2
𝑟̂1𝑁
𝑟12 𝑟13 𝑟14 𝑟1𝑁

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𝑞2 𝑞3 𝑞4 𝑞1 𝑞𝑁
𝐹⃗1 = 𝑘 𝑞1 [ 2 𝑟̂12 + 𝑘 2
𝑟̂
13 + 𝑘 2
𝑟̂
14 + ⋯ 𝑘 2
𝑟̂1𝑁 ]
𝑟12 𝑟13 𝑟14 𝑟1𝑁
𝑁
𝑞𝑖
𝐹⃗1 = 𝑘 𝑞1 ∑ 2
𝑟̂1𝑖
𝑟1𝑖
𝑖=2
Vector sum is obtained by parallelogram law or triangle law of
addition. All electrostatics is basically a consequence of coulombs
law & superposition principle.

Compare & contrast electrostatic force & gravitational force.

Similarities –
a. Both are central forces – they act along the line joining the
centers of the two interacting bodies.
b. Both obey the inverse square law.
c. Both are conservative forces – the work done does not depend
on the path followed.
d. Both forces can operate in vacuum.

Differences –
a. Gravitational force is always attractive.
Electrostatic force may be attractive or repulsive.
b. Gravitational force does not depend on the intervening medium.
Electrostatic force depends on the intervening medium.
c. Electrostatic force is about 1039 times stronger than
gravitational force.
Relative permittivity or dielectric constant (εr or K) – the ratio of
absolute permittivity ε, to the permittivity of free space or vacuum
εo.
𝜀
𝜀𝑟 = ; 𝜀 = 𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟
𝜀𝑜
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Relative permittivity or dielectric constant (εr or K) – is the ratio of
force of interaction between two point charges at a certain distance
in air (vacuum) to that in a given medium.
𝐹𝑜 1 |𝑞1 𝑞2 | 1 |𝑞1 𝑞2 |
𝜀𝑟 = ; 𝐹𝑜 = ; 𝐹𝑚 =
𝐹𝑚 4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟 2 4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟 𝑟 2

8. Electric field – electric field due to a charge Q at a point in space

may be defined as the force that a unit positive charge would
experience if placed at that point.

•
𝑟⃗ qo
Q

𝐹⃗ 𝐹⃗
𝐸⃗⃗ = = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 ; 𝑆𝐼 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑖𝑠 𝑁/𝐶
𝑞𝑜 𝑞𝑜 →0 𝑞𝑜
𝐹⃗ (𝑟⃗) 𝐹⃗ (𝑟⃗)
𝐸⃗⃗ (𝑟⃗) = = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 ; 𝑜𝑟 𝐹⃗ (𝑟⃗) = 𝑞𝑜 𝐸⃗⃗ (𝑟⃗)
𝑞𝑜 𝑞𝑜 →0 𝑞𝑜
𝑄𝑞𝑜
𝑄𝑞𝑜 𝑘 𝑟̂ 𝑄
𝑟2
𝐹⃗ (𝑟⃗) = 𝑘 2
𝑟̂ ; 𝐸⃗⃗ (𝑟⃗) = = 𝑘 2 𝑟̂
𝑟 𝑞𝑜 𝑟

Electric field is in the direction of the force that acts on a test

positive charge.
Electric field is defined in terms of a test positive charge qo but is
independent of qo. Electric field exists at every point in 3
dimensional space.

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For a +ve charge, electric field will be directed radially outwards
& for a –ve charge the electric field will be directed radially
inwards.
For a given source charge Q electric field depends only on distance
r, so if r is same the magnitude of electric field is the same. ∴
Electric field for a point charge is spherically symmetric.
How does a force act at a distance? Source charge Q sets up an
electric field around it, which inter acts with the charge qo.

8.1 Electric field due to a system of charges

If you have N charges q1, q2, q3 …… qN ; located at 𝑟⃗1 , 𝑟⃗2 ,

𝑟⃗3 … … 𝑟⃗𝑁 respectively relative to some origin. To determine the
electric field at point P at position vector 𝑟⃗
𝐸⃗⃗ (𝑟⃗) = 𝐸⃗⃗𝑃1 + 𝐸⃗⃗𝑃2 + 𝐸⃗⃗𝑃3 + … … 𝐸⃗⃗𝑃𝑁
𝑞1 𝑞2 𝑞3
⃗⃗
𝐸 (𝑟⃗) = 𝑘 𝑟̂ + 𝑘 𝑟̂ + 𝑘 𝑟̂
𝑟𝑃1 2 𝑃1 𝑟𝑃2 2 𝑃2 𝑟𝑃3 2 𝑃3
𝑞𝑁
+ ⋯𝑘 2
𝑟̂𝑃𝑁
𝑟𝑃𝑁
𝑁
𝑞𝑖
𝐸⃗⃗ (𝑟⃗) = 𝑘 ∑ 𝑟̂
𝑟𝑃𝑖 2 𝑃𝑖
𝑖=1

8.2 Physical significance of electric field:

For electrostatics, the concept of electric field is convenient, but not
really necessary. Electric field at a point due to a system of charges
gives the force a unit positive test charge would experience if placed
at that point (without disturbing the system). Electric field is
independent of the test charge that is placed to determine the field.
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The electric field is defined at every point in space and may vary
from point to point. Electric field is a vector field, since force is a
vector quantity. If source charge is disturbed the effect on the test
charge is not instantaneous. There is a time delay between effect &
cause, because the speed of wave is 3 × 108 𝑚/𝑠. Electric field can
transport energy.

9 Electric field lines – It is a vector quantity.

An electric field line is, a curve drawn in such a way that the tangent
to it at each point is in the direction of the net electric field at that
point.
The field lines of a single positive charge are radially outward while
those of a single negative charge are radially inward.

Properties of Electric field lines -

(i) Field lines originate (start) from positive charges and terminate
(end) at negative charges.
If there is a single +ve charge, they start at the +ve charge and end
at infinity.
If there is a single -ve charge, they start at infinity and end at the –
ve charge.
(ii) In a charge-free region, electric field lines can be taken to be
continuous curves without any breaks.
(iii) Two field lines can never cross each other. (If they did, the field
at the point of intersection will not have a unique direction, which
is absurd.)
(iv) Electrostatic field lines do not form any closed loops.
(v) The field lines crowd where the field is strong and are spaced
apart where it is weak.

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(vi) Electric field lines are in a state of tension, which causes them
to shorten.
(vii) Electric field lines repel each other sideways.
(viii) The density of the field lines in any region is proportional
to the magnitude of electric field.

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10 Electric flux –

Strength of electric field: at a given point is the number of lines

crossing a unit surface area, placed normal to the field.
Electric flux is proportional to the number of field lines cutting the
area element.
𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 ∆𝜙 = 𝐸⃗⃗ • ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗| cos 𝜃 , where θ is the
∆𝑠 = |𝐸⃗⃗ ||∆𝑠
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗|
angle between |𝐸⃗⃗ | & |∆𝑠
Area vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
∆𝑠 : the outward normal to the closed surface.
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝜙 = ∑ 𝐸⃗⃗ • ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ∆𝑠

𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝜙 = ∫ 𝐸⃗⃗ • ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝑑𝑠
𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑠
𝑁 2 𝑁𝑚2
𝑆𝐼 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑚 =
𝐶 𝐶

18
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11. Electric dipole – an electric dipole is a pair of equal and
opposite point charges + q & - q, separated by a distance 2a. By
convention, the direction from – q to + q is said to be the direction
of the dipole. The midpoint of locations –q to +q is the center of
the dipole. Total charge of the dipole is zero.
-q +q
2a
A B
𝑝⃗
|𝑝⃗| = 2𝑎 𝑞
𝑝⃗ = 2𝑎 𝑞 𝑝̂ 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡

11.1 Field due to an electric dipole on axis at a distance r,

-q 2a +q 𝐸⃗⃗−𝑞 𝐸⃗⃗+𝑞
A
A B P
𝑟⃗
𝑞 𝑞
𝐸⃗⃗+𝑞 (𝑃) = 𝑘 𝑝̂ ⃗⃗
; 𝐸−𝑞 (𝑃) = 𝑘 (−𝑝̂ )
(𝑟 − 𝑎)2 (𝑟 + 𝑎)2
𝐸⃗⃗ (𝑃) = 𝐸⃗⃗+𝑞 (𝑃) + 𝐸⃗⃗−𝑞 (𝑃)
𝑞 𝑞
⃗⃗ (
𝐸 𝑃 =𝑘) ( )
𝑝̂ + 𝑘 (−𝑝̂ )
(𝑟 − 𝑎)2 (𝑟 + 𝑎)2
1 1
⃗⃗
𝐸 (𝑃) = 𝑘𝑞 { − } (𝑝̂ )
(𝑟 − 𝑎)2 (𝑟 + 𝑎)2
(𝑟 + 𝑎)2 − (𝑟 − 𝑎)2
𝐸⃗⃗ (𝑃) = 𝑘𝑞 { } (𝑝̂ )
(𝑟 − 𝑎)(𝑟 − 𝑎)(𝑟 + 𝑎)(𝑟 + 𝑎)

(𝑟 2 + 𝑎2 + 2𝑎𝑟) − (𝑟 2 + 𝑎2 − 2𝑎𝑟)
𝐸⃗⃗ (𝑃) = 𝑘𝑞 { 2 2 2
} (𝑝̂ )
(𝑟 − 𝑎 )
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 Suraj Dewan (9729960045)
4𝑎𝑟 2 × 2𝑎𝑟
𝐸⃗⃗ (𝑃) = 𝑘𝑞 { } ; ⃗⃗
𝐸 (𝑃) = 𝑘𝑞 { 2 } (𝑝̂ )
(𝑟 2 − 𝑎2 )2 (𝑟 − 𝑎2 )2
2𝑟 𝑝⃗
⃗⃗
𝐸 (𝑃) = 𝑘 { 2 } ; ∵ (𝑝⃗ = 2𝑎 𝑞 𝑝̂ )
(𝑟 − 𝑎2 )2
4𝑎𝑟
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑟 ≫ 𝑎, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛: ⃗⃗
𝐸 𝑃 = 𝑘𝑞 { 4 } (𝑝̂ )
( )
𝑟
2 × 2𝑎
⃗⃗
𝐸 (𝑃) = 𝑘𝑞 { 3 } (𝑝̂ )
𝑟
2𝑘𝑝 2𝑘𝑝⃗ 𝑝⃗ 1
⃗⃗
𝐸 (𝑃) = 3 (𝑝̂ ) = 3 ; 𝐸 (𝑃) = 2𝑘 3 ⃗⃗ ; 𝐸(𝑃) ∝ 3
𝑟 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟
1 1
𝑑𝑖𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑠 3 ; 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑠 2
𝑟 𝑟

Field due to an electric dipole on the equatorial plane at a distance

‘r’:

𝐸⃗⃗+𝑞 E sinθ

E cosθ θ
P
E cosθ θ

x x
r
𝐸⃗⃗−𝑞 E sinθ

A θ a a B

-q 2a +q
A
20
 Suraj Dewan (9729960045)
𝑞 𝑘𝑞
𝐸⃗⃗ (𝑃)+𝑞 = 𝑘 2
= 2 2
𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝐵𝑃
𝑥 ( 𝑟 +𝑎 )
𝑞 𝑘𝑞
⃗⃗
𝐸 (𝑃)−𝑞 = 𝑘 2 = 2 𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝑃𝐴
𝑥 (𝑟 + 𝑎 2 )
𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑒
𝐸⃗⃗ (𝑃) = 𝐸⃗⃗ (𝑃)+𝑞 + 𝐸⃗⃗ (𝑃)−𝑞
𝐸⃗⃗ (𝑃) = {𝐸 (𝑃)+𝑞 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝐸 (𝑃)−𝑞 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃} (−𝑝̂ )
𝑘𝑞𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑘𝑞𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
⃗⃗
𝐸 (𝑃) = { 2 + } (−𝑝̂ )
(𝑟 + 𝑎2 ) (𝑟 2 + 𝑎2 )
2𝑘𝑞𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 2𝑘𝑞 𝑎
⃗⃗
𝐸 (𝑃) = − { 2 } (𝑝̂ ) = − { 2 } (𝑝̂ )
(𝑟 + 𝑎2 ) (𝑟 + 𝑎2 ) √(𝑟 2 + 𝑎2 )
2𝑘𝑞𝑎
𝐸⃗⃗ (𝑃) = − { 3 } (𝑝̂ )
⁄
(𝑟 2 + 𝑎 2 ) 2
𝑘𝑝⃗
⃗⃗ ( )
𝐸 𝑃 = −{
2 2 3⁄ } ∵ 𝑝⃗ = 2𝑎𝑞 (𝑝̂ )
(𝑟 + 𝑎 ) 2
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑟 ≫ 𝑎 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛
𝑝⃗
⃗⃗ ( )
𝐸 𝑃 = −𝑘 3 ;
𝑟
1 1
𝑑𝑖𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑠 3 ; 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑠 2
𝑟 𝑟

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 Suraj Dewan (9729960045)
Electric field at a general point due to a dipole:

𝐸⃗⃗𝑃
𝐸⃗⃗𝑎𝑥

𝐸⃗⃗𝑒𝑞
α

P
𝑟⃗

p cosθ

θ 𝑝⃗
-q +q
p sinθ

2𝑘𝑝 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 |𝐸⃗⃗𝑎𝑥 | = =
𝑟3
𝑘𝑝 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
⃗⃗
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙 |𝐸𝑒𝑞 | = =
𝑟3
2𝑘𝑝 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 2 𝑘𝑝 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 2
|𝐸⃗⃗ (𝑃)| = √( ) + ( )
𝑟3 𝑟3

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 Suraj Dewan (9729960045)
𝑘𝑝
|𝐸⃗⃗ (𝑃)| = 3
√4 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃
𝑟
𝑘𝑝
|𝐸 (𝑃)| = 3 √4 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 + (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃) ; |𝐸⃗⃗ (𝑃)|
⃗⃗
𝑟
𝑘𝑝 2𝜃+1
= √ 3 𝑐𝑜𝑠
𝑟3
𝑘𝑝 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
𝐸𝑒𝑞 𝑟 3
𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝛼 = =
𝐸𝑎𝑥 2𝑘𝑝 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃
𝑟3
𝑘𝑝 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝑟3 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃
= × ; 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝛼 =
𝑟3 2𝑘𝑝 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 2

11.2 Physical significance of dipoles:

When the centers of positive charges and negative charges of a
molecule lie at the same place, their dipole moment is zero.
Example: CO2 & CH4. However, they develop a dipole moment
when an external electric field is applied.
When the centers of negative charges and of positive charges of a
molecule do not coincide, they have a permanent electric dipole
moment, even in the absence of an electric field. They are called
polar molecules. Example H2O.

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12. Torque on an electric dipole in a uniform electric field.
qE
+q
2a θ

-q
qE E

When electric field is uniform the net force on the dipole is zero.
Torque τ = (either force) (⊥ distance)
𝜏 = (𝑞𝐸 )(2𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃) = 2𝑎𝑞𝐸 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
𝜏 = 𝑝𝐸 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
𝜏 = 𝑝⃗ × 𝐸⃗⃗
This torque will tend to align the dipole with the electric field

Work done in rotating an electric dipole in a uniform electric field:

𝑊 = 𝐹⃗𝑒𝑥𝑡 ∙ 𝑆⃗
𝑊 = 𝜏⃗𝑒𝑥𝑡 ∙ 𝜃⃗ ; 𝜏𝑒𝑥𝑡 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝜃
𝜃𝑓 𝜃𝑓
𝑊 = ∫ 𝑑𝑊 = ∫ 𝜏⃗𝑒𝑥𝑡 ∙ 𝑑𝜃⃗ = ∫ 𝜏𝑒𝑥𝑡 𝑑𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠 0
𝜃𝑖 𝜃𝑖
𝜃𝑓 𝜃𝑓
𝑊 = ∫ 𝜏𝑒𝑥𝑡 𝑑𝜃 = ∫ 𝑝𝐸 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝜃𝑖 𝜃𝑖
𝜃𝑓 𝜃𝑓
𝑊 = 𝑝𝐸 ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 = 𝑝𝐸 [− 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃]
𝜃𝑖 𝜃𝑖
𝑊 = − 𝑝𝐸 [𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃𝑓 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃𝑖 ] ; 𝑊 = − 𝑝𝐸 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 ; 𝑖𝑓 𝜃𝑖 = 90
𝑊 = − 𝑝⃗ ∙ 𝐸⃗⃗
24
 Suraj Dewan (9729960045)

Electric field due to a uniformly charged circular loop (ring), at a

distance 𝑥 from the centre along a line perpendicular to the plane
of the ring:
dl

r
a

θ dE cosθ
x θ

q dE sinθ dE

𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑞 ; ( 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑙𝑦 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑏𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑑)

𝑞
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑛 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑙 𝑖𝑠, 𝑑𝑞 = 𝑑𝑙
2𝜋𝑎
𝑘 𝑑𝑞 𝑘 𝑞 𝑑𝑙 𝑘 𝑞 𝑑𝑙
𝑑𝐸 = 2 = =
𝑟 2𝜋𝑎 𝑟 2 2𝜋𝑎(𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 )
𝑑𝐸 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 , 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑐𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑙 𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑎𝑖𝑟𝑠
𝑑𝐸 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 , 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑎𝑑𝑑 𝑢𝑝
𝑘 𝑞 𝑑𝑙 𝑥
𝑑𝐸 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 =
2𝜋𝑎(𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 ) √(𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 )
2𝜋𝑎 2𝜋𝑎
𝑘 𝑞 𝑥 𝑑𝑙
𝐸 = ∫ 𝑑𝐸 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = ∫ 3
0 0 2𝜋𝑎 (𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 ) ⁄2
2𝜋𝑎
𝑘𝑞𝑥
𝐸= 3 ∫ 𝑑𝑙
⁄
2𝜋𝑎 (𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 ) 2 0
𝑘𝑞𝑥
𝐸= 3⁄ 2𝜋𝑎
2 2
2𝜋𝑎 (𝑥 + 𝑎 ) 2

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 Suraj Dewan (9729960045)
𝑘𝑞𝑥
𝐸= 3⁄
(𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 ) 2
𝑘𝑞𝑥
𝐸⃗⃗ = 3 𝑛̂
(𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 ) ⁄2
1 𝑞𝑥
𝐸⃗⃗ = 𝑛̂
4𝜋𝜖𝑜 (𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 )3⁄2
𝐸⃗⃗ = 0 ; 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥 = 0.
1 𝑞𝑥 1 𝑞
𝐸⃗⃗ = 𝑛̂ = 𝑛̂ ; 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥 ≫ 𝑎.
4𝜋𝜖𝑜 𝑥 3 4𝜋𝜖𝑜 𝑥 2

E
2 𝑘𝑞
𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
ξ3 𝑎2
3
Emax

𝑎
⁄ x
ξ2

2 𝑘𝑞
𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
ξ3 𝑎2
3

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 Suraj Dewan (9729960045)

13

14 Gauss’s law: electric flux through a closed surface S, is equal to

𝑞𝑒𝑛
𝜖𝑜
where qen is the charge enclosed by the surface S.
𝑞
∅ = ∮𝑠 𝐸⃗⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝑠⃗ = 𝑒𝑛
𝜖𝑜
The SI unit of electric flux is N C–1 m2.

Gauss’s law – Proof

Consider total flux through a spherical surface of radius r, which
encloses a pt. charge q at its center.

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 Suraj Dewan (9729960045)
𝐸⃗⃗

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑠

𝑟⃗

𝑘𝑞 𝑘𝑞
∆∅ = 𝐸⃗⃗ ∙ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
∆𝑠 ∆∅ = 2 𝑟̂ ∙ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
∆𝑠 = 2 ∆𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠0 ; ∵ 𝑟̂ ∥
𝑟 𝑟
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
∆𝑠
1 𝑞
∆∅ = ∆𝑠
4𝜋𝜖𝑜 𝑟 2
1 𝑞 1 𝑞
∅ = ∑𝑎𝑙𝑙∆𝑠 ∆∅ = ∑𝑎𝑙𝑙∆𝑠 2 ∆𝑠 = 2 4𝜋𝑟 2
4𝜋𝜖𝑜 𝑟 4𝜋𝜖𝑜 𝑟
𝑞
∅=
𝜖𝑜
Law implies that total electric flux through a closed surface is zero
if no charge is enclosed by the surface.

Deduce Coulombs law from Gauss’s law.

Consider a pt. charge q at the centre of an imaginary sphere of
radius r.
𝐸⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑠

𝑟⃗

𝑞 𝑞
∅ = ∮𝑠 𝐸⃗⃗ ∙ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑠 = ; ∅ = ∮𝑠 𝐸 𝑑𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠0 =
𝜖𝑜 𝜖𝑜
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 Suraj Dewan (9729960045)
𝑞
∅ = 𝐸 ∮ 𝑑𝑠 = , 𝐸 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡. 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒
𝑠 𝜖 𝑜
𝑞 1 𝑞 𝑘𝑞
𝐸 4𝜋𝑟 2 = ; 𝐸 = =
𝜖𝑜 4𝜋𝑟 2 𝜖𝑜 𝑟2
1 𝑞 𝑘𝑞
⃗⃗
𝐸 = 𝑟̂ = 𝑟̂
4𝜋𝑟 2 𝜖𝑜 𝑟2
If you have a test charge + qo at P then
𝑘𝑞
⃗ ⃗⃗
𝐹 = 𝑞𝑜 𝐸 = 𝑞𝑜 2 𝑟̂
𝑟
𝑘 𝑞 𝑞𝑜
𝐹⃗ = 2
𝑟̂ − − − − − −𝐶𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑠 𝑙𝑎𝑤.
𝑟

Important points regarding Gauss’s law -

(i) Gauss’s law is true for any closed surface, irrespective of its
shape or size.
(ii) The term qen on the right side of Gauss’s law includes the sum of
all charges enclosed by the surface.
(iii) In the situation when the surface is so chosen that there are
some charges inside and some outside, the electric field flux is due
to all the charges, both inside and outside S. The term qen on the
right side of Gauss’s law, however, represents only the total charge
inside S.
(iv) Gaussian surface cannot pass through any discrete charge. This
is because electric field due to a system of discrete charges is not
well defined at the location of any charge.
However, the Gaussian surface can pass through a continuous
charge distribution.
(v) Gauss’s law is often useful towards a much easier calculation of
the electrostatic field when the system has some symmetry.

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 Suraj Dewan (9729960045)
(vi) Gauss’s law is based on the inverse square dependence on
distance contained in the Coulomb’s law. Any violation of Gauss’s
law will indicate departure from the inverse square law.

15 Applications of Gauss’s law:

15.1 Electric field due to an infinite Straight wire uniformly charged

at a distance r.
𝑞
𝜆 = , 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑙

𝐸⃗⃗

𝑑𝑠⃗⃗⃗⃗1 𝑑𝑠⃗2
λ

𝐸⃗⃗
𝑑𝑠⃗𝑐𝑠

𝑞𝑒𝑛 𝜆𝑙
∅ = ∮𝑠 𝐸⃗⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝑠⃗ = =
𝜖𝑜 𝜖𝑜
𝜆𝑙
∅ = ∮ 𝐸⃗⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝑠⃗𝑐𝑠 + ∮ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑠1 + ∮ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸1 ∙ 𝑑 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝐸2 ∙ 𝑑𝑠⃗⃗⃗⃗2 =
𝑐𝑠 𝑠1 𝑠2 𝜖𝑜
𝜆𝑙
∮ 𝐸 𝑑𝑠𝑐𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠0 + ∮ 𝐸1 𝑑𝑠1 𝑐𝑜𝑠90 + ∮ 𝐸2 𝑑𝑠2 𝑐𝑜𝑠90 =
𝑐𝑠 𝑠1 𝑠2 𝜖𝑜
𝜆𝑙 𝑞
∅ = 𝐸 ∮ 𝑑𝑠𝑐𝑠 = =
𝑐𝑠 𝜖𝑜 𝜖𝑜

30
 Suraj Dewan (9729960045)
𝜆𝑙 𝑞
∅ = 𝐸 2𝜋𝑟 𝑙 = =
𝜖𝑜 𝜖𝑜
𝜆𝑙 𝑞
𝐸 = =
𝜖𝑜 2𝜋𝑟 𝑙 𝜖𝑜 2𝜋𝑟 𝑙
𝜆 𝑞
⃗⃗
𝐸 = 𝑟̂ = 𝑟̂
2𝜋𝜖𝑜 𝑟 2𝜋𝜖𝑜 𝑟 𝑙

15.2 Electric field due to an infinite thin sheet of charge, at a

distance r from the sheet:
𝑞
𝜎 = ⁄𝐴 , 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎

+𝜎
𝐸⃗⃗ 𝐸⃗⃗

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸1 r P ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸2
A
𝑑𝑠⃗⃗⃗⃗1 𝑑𝑠⃗⃗⃗⃗2

𝑑𝑠⃗⃗⃗⃗3

𝑞𝑒𝑛 𝜎𝐴
∅ = ∮ 𝐸⃗⃗ ∙ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑠 = =
𝑠 𝜖𝑜 𝜖𝑜
𝜎𝐴
𝐸𝑐𝑠 ∙ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
∅ = ∮ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝐸1 ∙ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑠𝑐𝑠 + ∮ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝐸2 ∙ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑠1 + ∮ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑑𝑠2 =
𝑐𝑠 𝑠1 𝑠2 𝜖𝑜
𝜎𝐴
∮ 𝐸 𝑑𝑠𝑐𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 90 + ∮ 𝐸1 𝑑𝑠1 𝑐𝑜𝑠 0 + ∮ 𝐸2 𝑑𝑠2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 0 =
𝑐𝑠 𝑠1 𝑠2 𝜖𝑜

31
 Suraj Dewan (9729960045)
𝜎𝐴
𝐸1 ∮ 𝑑𝑠1 + 𝐸2 ∮ 𝑑𝑠2 =
𝑠1 𝑠2 𝜖𝑜
𝜎𝐴
𝐸1 𝐴1 + 𝐸2 𝐴2 = ; 𝐸1 = 𝐸2 = 𝐸 & 𝐴1 = 𝐴2 = 𝐴
𝜖𝑜
𝜎𝐴
𝐸𝐴+ 𝐸𝐴= 2𝐸𝐴 =
𝜖𝑜
𝜎 𝜎
𝐸 = ⃗⃗
; 𝐸 = 𝑛̂
2𝜖𝑜 2𝜖𝑜
Magnitude of electric field is independent of r, implies uniform
electric field.

15.3 Electric field due to a thin spherical shell (conductor)

Consider a spherical shell of radius R, let the total charge on it be
q.
𝑞
𝜎 = ⁄ , 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦
4𝜋𝑅2

+
𝐸⃗⃗
+
+
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑠
r

+ + r

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑠
+
+
R
𝐸⃗⃗
+

a) Point inside r < R

32
 Suraj Dewan (9729960045)
𝑞 𝑒𝑛 0
∅ = ∮ 𝐸⃗⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝑠⃗ = ; ∮ 𝐸 𝑑𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 0 = ;
𝑠 𝜖𝑜 𝑠 𝜖𝑜
∵ 𝑞 𝑒𝑛 𝑏𝑦 𝐺𝑆 𝑖𝑠 0.
0
∅ = 𝐸 ∮ 𝑑𝑠 = 𝐸 4𝜋𝑟 2 =
𝑠 𝜖𝑜
𝐸 =0
Field inside a charged shell (conductor) is zero, ∵ there is no charge
inside the shell.
b) Point outside r > R
𝑞 𝑒𝑛 𝑞
⃗⃗
∅ = ∮ 𝐸 ∙ 𝑑𝑠⃗ = ; ∅ = ∮ 𝐸 𝑑𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 0 =
𝑠 𝜖 𝑜 𝑠 𝜖𝑜
𝑞 2
𝑞
∅ = 𝐸 ∮ 𝑑𝑠 = ; 𝐸 4𝜋𝑟 =
𝑠 𝜖 𝑜 𝜖𝑜
𝑞 𝑞 𝑞 𝑞
𝐸 = = =𝑘 2 ; ⃗⃗
𝐸 = 𝑘 2 𝑟̂
4𝜋𝑟 2 𝜖𝑜 4𝜋𝜖𝑜 𝑟 2 𝑟 𝑟
c) On surface r = R
𝑞 𝑞 𝑞
𝐸 = =𝑘 2 ; ⃗⃗
𝐸 = 𝑘 2 𝑟̂
4𝜋𝜖𝑜 𝑅2 𝑅 𝑅

kq/R2 E Shell uniformly charged

E α 1/r2

E=0
R r

33
 Suraj Dewan (9729960045)
Shell theorems –
a. A shell of uniform charge attracts or repels a charged particle
that is outside the shell as if all the shell’s charge were concentrated
at its center. (Provided charge on shell is much larger than charge
on particle).
b. If a charged particle is located inside a shell of uniform charge,
there is no net electrostatic force on the particle from the shell.
The individual electric field is unaffected due to the presence of
other charges.

FORMULAE ELECTRIC CHARGES AND FIELDS

𝑞 = 𝑛𝑒 ; 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑧𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒
2 2
𝐶 𝑁𝑚
𝜀𝑜 = 8.85 × 10−12 ; 𝑘 = 9 × 10 9
; 𝑒
𝑁𝑚2 𝐶2
= 1.6 × 10−19 𝐶
1 |𝑞1 𝑞2 | 1 |𝑞1 𝑞2 |
𝐹𝑣𝑎𝑐 = 2
; 𝐹𝑚𝑒𝑑 =
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟 4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟 𝑟 2
1 𝑞1 𝑞2
⃗
𝐹12 = 𝑟̂12 ; (𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑥 ) ; 𝐹⃗21
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟 2
1 𝑞1 𝑞2
= 𝑟̂
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟 2 21
𝐹⃗12 = − 𝐹⃗21 ; Coulombs law obeys N′ s 3𝑟𝑑 law
𝜀 𝐹𝑜
𝜀𝑟 = =
𝜀𝑜 𝐹𝑚
Force on 1 due to multiple (N) charges
𝑁
𝑞𝑖
𝐹⃗1 = 𝐹̂12 + 𝐹̂13 + 𝐹̂14 + … … 𝐹̂1𝑁 ; 𝐹⃗1 = 𝑘𝑞1 ∑ 2 𝑟̂1𝑖
𝑟1𝑖
𝑖=2

34
 Suraj Dewan (9729960045)
Force experienced by test charge qo due to various distributions.
𝜆𝑑𝑙 𝜎𝑑𝑠
⃗ ⃗
𝐹 = 𝑘𝑞𝑜 ∫ 2 𝑟̂ ; 𝐹 = 𝑘𝑞𝑜 ∫ 2 𝑟̂ ; 𝐹⃗
𝑟 𝑟
𝑙 𝑠
𝜌𝑑𝑣
= 𝑘𝑞𝑜 ∫ 2 𝑟̂
𝑟
𝑣
lim 𝐹⃗ 𝐹⃗ 𝑁
𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝐸⃗⃗ = ; ⃗⃗
𝐸= →
𝑞𝑜 → 𝑜 𝑞𝑜 𝑞𝑜 𝐶

1 𝑞
𝐸⃗⃗ = 𝑟̂ ; 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟 2
𝑁
1 𝑞𝑖
𝐸⃗⃗ (𝑝) = ∑ 2 𝑟̂𝑖𝑝 ; 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟𝑖𝑝
𝑖=1
𝑝 = 2𝑎 𝑞 𝑝̂ ; 𝑑𝑖𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
⃗⃗⃗⃗
Field due to electric dipole on axis ; 𝐸⃗⃗𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙 (𝑃)
2 𝑝⃗ 1
= 𝑘 3 ; 𝐸⃗⃗𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙 (𝑃) ∝ 3
𝑟 𝑟
1 2𝑝𝑟
𝐸𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙 =
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 (𝑟 2 − 𝑎2 )2
Electric dipole field on equatorial plane; 𝐸⃗⃗𝑒𝑞 (𝑃) =
𝑝⃗ 1
−𝑘 3 ; 𝐸⃗⃗𝑒𝑞 (𝑃) ∝ 3
𝑟 𝑟
1 𝑝
|𝐸𝑒𝑞 | =
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 (𝑟 2 + 𝑎2 )3⁄2
electric dipole field at general point
𝑝 tan 𝜃
𝐸 (𝑃) = 𝑘 3 √3 cos 2 𝜃 + 1 ; tan 𝛼 =
𝑟 2
𝑝 × ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝜏⃗⃗⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝐸 = 𝑝 𝐸 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 ; 𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒
35
 Suraj Dewan (9729960045)

Pot. Energy of an electric dipole in a uniform electric field

𝑈 = −𝑝𝐸 (cos 𝜃𝑓 − cos 𝜃𝑖 )
𝑖𝑓 𝜃𝑖 = 90° & 𝜃𝑓 = 𝜃 ; 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑈 = −𝑝𝐸 cos 𝜃
𝑈 = − 𝑝⃗ ∙ 𝐸⃗⃗

Field - uniformly charged circular loop (radius a) at a distance 𝑥

from the centre on axis.
1 𝑞𝑥
⃗⃗
𝐸= 𝑛̂
4𝜋𝜖𝑜 (𝑎2 + 𝑥 2 )3⁄2
𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥, ∅ = 𝐸⃗⃗ ∙ 𝐴⃗ = 𝐸 𝐴 cos 𝜃 ; ∅ = ∫ 𝐸⃗⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝐴⃗
𝑠
𝑞𝑒𝑛
′
𝐺𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑠 𝑠 𝑙𝑎𝑤, ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
∅ = ∮ 𝐸 ∙ 𝑑𝐴 =
𝑠 𝜖𝑜
1 𝜆 1 𝑞
⃗⃗
𝐸 = 𝑟̂ = 𝑟̂ ; 𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑟𝑒
2𝜋𝜖𝑜 𝑟 2𝜋𝜖𝑜 𝑙 𝑟
𝜎
⃗⃗
𝐸 = 𝑛̂ ; 𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑡
2𝜖𝑜
Field due to a thin spherical shell (conductor)
𝐸 =0 ; r < 𝑅
1 𝑞
⃗⃗
𝐸= 𝑟̂ ; 𝑟>𝑅
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟 2
1 𝑞
𝐸⃗⃗ = 2
𝑟̂ ; 𝑟 = 𝑅
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑅
Field due to a solid sphere (insulator), uniform volume charge
density:
1 𝑞𝑟
⃗⃗
𝐸= 𝑟̂ ; 𝑟<𝑅
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑅 3

36
 Suraj Dewan (9729960045)
1 𝑞
𝐸⃗⃗ = 𝑟̂ ; 𝑟>𝑅 ;
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟 2
1 𝑞
𝐸⃗⃗ = 2
𝑟̂ ; 𝑟=𝑅
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑅

Electric field due to a non-conducting uniformly charged solid

sphere:
Volume charge density = ρ ; Radius of the sphere = R

a) For a point inside, r < R

+
+ + +
+ r +
+ + +
+ + 𝑑𝑠⃗
+ +
R +
+ 𝐸⃗⃗
4
𝑞𝑒𝑛 𝜌 × 𝜋𝑟 3
∅ = ∮ 𝐸⃗⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝑠⃗ = = 3
𝑠 𝜖 𝑜 𝜖𝑜
4 𝜌 𝜋 𝑟3 4 𝜌 𝜋 𝑟3
∮ 𝐸 𝑑𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 0 = ; 𝐸 ∮ 𝑑𝑠 =
𝑠 3 𝜖𝑜 𝑠 3 𝜖𝑜
3
4 𝜌 𝜋 𝑟 4 𝜌 𝜋 𝑟3 𝜌𝑟
𝐸 4 𝜋 𝑟2 = ; 𝐸 = =
3 𝜖𝑜 3 𝜖𝑜 4 𝜋 𝑟 2 3 𝜖𝑜

𝜌𝑟 3𝑞𝑟 𝑞
𝐸⃗⃗ = 𝑟̂ = 𝑟̂ ; ∵𝜌=
3 𝜖𝑜 4 𝜋 𝑅 3 3 𝜖𝑜 4
𝜋 𝑅3
3
37
 Suraj Dewan (9729960045)
𝑞𝑟 𝑞𝑟
⃗⃗
𝐸 = 𝑟̂ = 𝑘 3 𝑟̂ ; 𝐸 ∝ 𝑟
4 𝜋 𝜖𝑜 𝑅 3 𝑅

(b) For a point outside r > R

+ r
+ +
+
+ + +
+ +
+ +
+ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑠
+ +
R
+ 𝐸⃗⃗

4
𝑞𝑒𝑛 𝜌 × 𝜋𝑅3
∅ = ∮ 𝐸⃗⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝑠⃗ = = 3
𝑠 𝜖𝑜 𝜖𝑜
𝑞 4 𝜌 𝜋 𝑅3
∮ 𝐸 𝑑𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 0 = =
𝑠 𝜖 𝑜 3 𝜖𝑜
𝑞 4 𝜌 𝜋 𝑅3
𝐸 ∮ 𝑑𝑠 = =
𝑠 𝜖 𝑜 3 𝜖𝑜
3
𝑞 4 𝜌 𝜋 𝑅
𝐸 4 𝜋 𝑟2 = =
𝜖𝑜 3 𝜖𝑜
𝑞 4 𝜌 𝜋 𝑅3 𝜌 𝑅3
𝐸 = 2
= 2
=
4 𝜋 𝑟 𝜖𝑜 3 𝜖𝑜 4 𝜋 𝑟 3 𝜖𝑜 𝑟 2
𝑞 𝜌 𝑅3
𝐸⃗⃗ = 𝑘 2 𝑟̂ = 2
𝑟̂
𝑟 3 𝜖𝑜 𝑟
𝑏𝑒ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑠 𝑎 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒

(c) for a point on the sphere.

38
 Suraj Dewan (9729960045)
3
𝑞 𝜌 𝑅
𝐸⃗⃗ = 𝑘 𝑟̂ = 𝑟̂
𝑅2 3 𝜖𝑜 𝑅 2
𝑞 𝜌 𝑅
⃗⃗
𝐸 = 𝑘 2 𝑟̂ = 𝑟̂
𝑅 3 𝜖𝑜

kq/R2

Eαr
E α 1/r2

R r

39
 Suraj Dewan (9729960045)
Electric field due to an infinite wire uniformly charged at a distance
𝑥.
da

r
a

dE cosθ θ
x
dE sinθ
λ
dE

𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑘 𝑑𝑞
𝜆= 𝑑𝐸 = 2
; ; 𝑑𝑞 = 𝜆 𝑑𝑎
𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑟
𝑘 𝜆 𝑑𝑎 𝑘 𝜆 𝑑𝑎
𝑑𝐸 = =
𝑟2 (𝑥 2 + 𝑎 2 )
𝑘 𝜆 𝑑𝑎 𝑥
𝑑𝐸 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 2
(𝑥 + 𝑎2 ) √(𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 )
+90 +90
𝑘 𝜆 𝑑𝑎 𝑥
𝐸= ∫ 𝑑𝐸 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = ∫
−90 −90 (𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 )3⁄2
𝑎
𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 = ; 𝑎 = 𝑥 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 ; 𝑑𝑎 = 𝑥 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝑥
(𝑥 + 𝑎 ) = 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 2 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝜃 = 𝑥 2 (1 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝜃 ) = 𝑥 2 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃
2 2

∴ (𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 )3⁄2 = 𝑥 3 𝑠𝑒𝑐 3 𝜃
+90 𝑥 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 2𝑘𝜆 +90
𝐸= 𝑘 𝜆 𝑥 ∫−90 3 3 ; 𝐸= ∫0 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝑥 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝜃 𝑥
2𝑘𝜆 2𝑘𝜆
𝐸= [𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃]90
0 ; 𝐸= (1 − 0)
𝑥 𝑥
1 𝜆 1 𝜆
𝐸=2 =
4𝜋𝜖𝑜 𝑥 2𝜋𝜖𝑜 𝑥

40
 Suraj Dewan (9729960045)
A conducting wire of length l carries a total charge q, uniformly
distributed on it.
Find the electric field at a point located on the axis of the wire at
distance ‘a’ from the near end.
A l B 𝐸⃗⃗
a P
dx x

𝑘 𝑑𝑞 𝑞𝑜 𝑞
𝑑𝐹 = ; 𝑑𝑞 = 𝑑𝑥
𝑥2 𝑙
𝑘 𝑞 𝑞𝑜 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝐹 = ;
𝑙 𝑥2
𝑎+𝑙
𝑘 𝑞 𝑞𝑜 𝑑𝑥 𝑘 𝑞 𝑞𝑜 𝑎+𝑙 𝑑𝑥
𝐹 = ∫ 𝑑𝐹 = ∫ 2
= ∫
𝑎 𝑙 𝑥 𝑙 𝑎 𝑥2
𝑘 𝑞 𝑞𝑜 1 𝑎+𝑙 𝑘 𝑞 𝑞𝑜 1 1
𝐹= [− ] = [ − ]
𝑙 𝑥 𝑎 𝑙 𝑎 𝑎+𝑙

𝑘 𝑞 𝑞𝑜 𝑎 + 𝑙 − 𝑎 𝑘 𝑞 𝑞𝑜 𝑙
𝐹= [ ] = [ ]
𝑙 𝑎(𝑎 + 𝑙) 𝑙 𝑎(𝑎 + 𝑙)
𝑘 𝑞 𝑞𝑜
𝐹=
𝑎(𝑎 + 𝑙)
𝐹⃗ 𝑘 𝑞 𝑞𝑜 𝑘𝑞
⃗⃗
𝐸= = = 𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝐴𝐵𝑃
𝑞𝑜 𝑎(𝑎 + 𝑙)𝑞𝑜 𝑎(𝑎 + 𝑙)
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑎 ≫ 𝑙, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛
𝑘𝑞
𝐸⃗⃗ = 2
𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝐴𝐵𝑃 , 𝑏𝑒ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑠 𝑎 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒.
𝑎

41
 Suraj Dewan (9729960045)
Dipole – dipole interaction
𝑝⃗1 𝑝⃗2
-q1 2a1 +q1A -q2 2a2 +q2A
r

2a2
𝐹⃗1 -q2 +q2A 𝐹⃗2
dr dr

𝐸⃗⃗1 𝐸⃗⃗ 𝐸⃗⃗2

Force bet. Two dipoles (at large distance)

If p1∥ p2 then attraction.
Field due to p1 at p2
2𝑘𝑝
𝐸 = 3 1 = 2 𝑘𝑝1 𝑟 −3 ; 𝑑𝐸 = 2 𝑘𝑝1 (−3𝑟 −4 )𝑑𝑟 =
𝑟
𝑘𝑝1
−6 4 𝑑𝑟
𝑟
𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑎𝑡 − 𝑞2 ; 𝐸1 = 𝐸 + |𝑑𝐸 | ; 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑑𝑠 𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡
𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑎𝑡 + 𝑞2 ; 𝐸2 = 𝐸 − |𝑑𝐸 | ; 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑑𝑠 𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝐹 = 𝑞2 𝐸1 − 𝑞2 𝐸2 = 𝑞2 (𝐸1 − 𝐸2 )
𝐹 = 𝑞2 [ (𝐸 + |𝑑𝐸 |) − (𝐸 − |𝑑𝐸 |)] = 𝑞2 2|𝑑𝐸 |
𝑘𝑝1 𝑘𝑝1 𝑝2
𝐹 = 𝑞2 2 × 6 4 𝑑𝑟 = 6 ; ∵ 𝑝2 = (2 𝑑𝑟) 𝑞2
𝑟 𝑟4
𝑘𝑝1 𝑝2 1
𝐹 = 6 ; 𝐹 ∝
𝑟4 𝑟4

42
 Suraj Dewan (9729960045)
Electric field due to a uniformly charged disc at a point P distance
x on its axis:
a

x P
r d
a
a r
dr x
x θ dθ
d d

1 𝑞𝑥
𝐸⃗⃗ = 𝑛̂
4𝜋𝜖𝑜 (𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 )3⁄2
The disc is made up of rings
Electrical field due to the elemental ring
𝑑𝑞 𝑥
⃗⃗
𝑑𝐸 = 𝑘 𝑛̂ ; 𝑑𝑞 = 𝜎 2𝜋𝑟 𝑑𝑟
(𝑥 2 + 𝑟 2 )3⁄2
𝜎 2𝜋𝑟 𝑑𝑟 𝑥
⃗⃗
𝑑𝐸 = 𝑘 𝑛̂
2
(𝑥 + 𝑟 ) 2 3⁄ 2
𝑎
2𝑟 𝑑𝑟
⃗⃗ ⃗⃗
𝐸 = ∫ 𝑑𝐸 = 𝑘 𝜎 𝜋 𝑥 ∫ 𝑛̂
(𝑥 2 + 𝑟 2 )3⁄2
0
𝑎
𝑑𝑢
= 𝑘𝜎𝜋𝑥 ∫ 3⁄2
𝑛̂
0 ( 𝑢 )
1 𝑎
𝐸⃗⃗ = 𝑘 𝜎 𝜋 𝑥 [ ] 𝑛̂
1
(𝑥 2 + 𝑟 2 )1⁄2 × − 0
2

43
 Suraj Dewan (9729960045)

1 0
𝐸⃗⃗ = 2 𝑘 𝜎 𝜋 𝑥 [ 2 ] 𝑛̂
(𝑥 + 𝑟 2 )1⁄2
𝑎
1 1
⃗⃗
𝐸 =2𝑘𝜎𝜋𝑥 [ − ] 𝑛̂
𝑥 (𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 )1⁄2
𝑥
⃗⃗
𝐸 = 2 𝑘 𝜎 𝜋 [1 − ] 𝑛̂
(𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 )1⁄2
When very close to the disc a >> x
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 ; 𝐸⃗⃗ = 2 𝑘 𝜎 𝜋 [1 − 0] 𝑛̂
1 𝜎
𝐸⃗⃗ = 2 𝑘 𝜎 𝜋 𝑛̂ = 2 𝜎 𝜋 𝑛̂ ; 𝐸⃗⃗ = 𝑛̂
4𝜋 𝜀𝑜 2 𝜀𝑜

44