THE USE OF THEORY

 DEFINITION OF THEORY:
o A scientific prediction or explanation – a set of interrelated constructs (or
variables), definitions and propositions, or hypotheses, that presents a
systematic view of phenomena by specifying the relationship between
variables and allows the comprehension or prediction of phenomena that
occur in the world;
o This systematic view might be presented in form of argument, discussion
or a rationale;
 Finds its roots in quantitative research;
 Hypotheses and research questions are often based on theories the researcher
seeks to test;
 Theory provides an explanation for the variables in questions and hypotheses:
“Why does X influences or affects Y?”, “Why and how X is expected to predict or
explain Y?”;
 Theories develop when researchers test a prediction multiple times, by combining
variables into different settings so that they obtain a particular result.
 Example:
o The following hypothesis is stated: “The greater the centralization of power
in leaders, the greater the disenfranchisement of the followers”
o The hypothesis Is tested repeatedly in different settings and with different
populations – e.g.: the Boy Scouts, a Presbyterian church, the Rotary Club
and a group of high school students).
o A theory emerges and is given a name – e.g.: the Attribution Theory;
o “Thus, theory develops as explanation to advance knowledge in particular
fields” (apud G. Thomas, 1997).
 Theories vary in breadth of coverage. According to Neuman (2000), they can be
split into three levels:
o Micro-level: provides explanations limited to small slices of time, space or
numbers of people;
o Meso-level: links the previous and the following levels;
o Macro-level: refers to larger aggregates;
 FORM OF THEORIES:
o Hypotheses;
 The theory of influence of Hopkins (1964), based on a series of
hypotheses;
1. The higher her rank, the greater her centrality.
2. The greater his centrality, the greater his observability.
3. The higher her rank, the greater her observability.
4. The greater his centrality, the greater his conformity.
5. The higher her rank, the greater her conformity.
6. The greater his observability, the greater his conformity.
7. The greater her conformity, the greater her observability.

o “If … then” logic statements”;

 The theory of interaction of Homans (1950): “If the frequency of
interaction between two or more persons increases, the degree of
their liking for one another will increase and vice versa. […] The
more frequently persons interact with one another, the more alike in
some respects both their activities and their sentiments tend to
become.”

o Visual models:
 Causal modeling as explained by Blalock (1969, 1985, 1991)

 QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

o PLACEMENT:
 In a quantitative dissertation, an entire section of the research
proposal might be dedicated to the discussion and explanation of
theory.
  This section might be presented as: theory-base, theoretical
rationale, or theoretical perspective.
 This section is generally placed at the beginning of the study, setting
the theory as a framework for the research as a whole, what would
lead to data collection and would end with the confirmation or the
disconfirmation of the theory in the section dedicated for the results.
 To this end, the deductive approach is used.
 There are some alternative placements for the theory explanation in
a quantitative research study. Nevertheless, Creswell vows for
placing theory into an exclusive section of the text.

o MODEL FOR WRITING A QUANTITATIVE THEORETICAL

PERSPECTIVE:
  In short, Creswell establishes a task and some steps of procedure
for developing a clever theoretical perspective section:
 TASK: Identify a theory that explains the relationship between
independent and dependent variables.
 PROCEDURE:
o 1. Look in the discipline-based literature for a theory.
o 2. Look at prior studies that address the topic or a
closely related topic.
o 3. Provide the question that would link the
independent and the dependent variables.
o 4. Script out the theory section. (A standard sentence
structure is detailed by Creswell) It must include: the
theory to be used, the central hypotheses or
prepositions of the theory, information about past use
of the theory and its application, and statements that
reflect how the theory relates to a proposed study.

 QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
o Theory might be generated along the development of the research, and
then be placed at the end of the project;
o In some cases, might come at the beginning, “providing a lens that shapes
what is looked at and the questions asked, such as in ethnographies or in
advocacy research”,
o “Qualitative inquirers use different terms, such as theories, patterns, and
naturalistic generalizations, to describe the understandings developed in
the studies;
o Theory can be employed in several ways in qualitative studies. One of
these uses is as a broad explanation

 MIXED METHODS RESEARCH

o Researchers may both test theories or generate them;
o May contain a theoretical lens with a particular focus that would guide the
study;