INTRODUCTION TO

AIRCRAFT
BY DR.SEEKHARIN KOMONHIRUN
LECTURER PROFILE
Dr. Seekharin Komonhirun
LECTURER PROFILE
Dr. Seekharin Komonhirun

Bachelor degree: Mechanical Engineering (KMUTNB)

Master degree: Mechanical Engineering (KMUTNB)

Ph.D : Mechanical Engineering (KMUTNB)

Lecturer’s Major : Aircraft maintenance engineering technology (ACET)

Lecturer’s Department : Power engineering technology

Lecture Subject : Introduction to aircraft maintenance, Aircraft tools and materials,

Aircraft covering and sheet metal, Non-destructive evaluation
Gas turbine engine fundamental, Gas turbine maintenance and installation
Aerodynamics

Research fields : Combustion, CFD (Computational fluid dynamics), Aerodynamics,

Non-destructive evaluation
PRINCIPLE OF
FLIGHT
INTRODUCTION TO AIR CRAFT MAINTENANCE
AIRCRAFT 4 FUNDAMENTAL
FORCES
WING SECTION TERMINOLOGY
WING SECTION TERMINOLOGY
WING SECTION TERMINOLOGY
EQUATION OF CONTINUITY
The equation of continuity applies only to streamlined or steady flow. It states that, if a fluid flows
through a pipe its mass flow remains constant, since mass can neither be created nor destroyed.
If air flows through a pipe of varying cross-sectional area (venturi tube), the mass of air entering
the pipe in a given time equals the mass of air leaving the pipe in the same time (Fig. 4.5).
EQUATION OF CONTINUITY
This shows that velocity is inversely proportional to the cross-sectional area, with any reduction in
area resulting in an increase in velocity and vice versa. This effect can be illustrated using streamline flow
patterns (stream tube), where converging streamlines indicate an increase in velocity and vice versa (Fig. 4.6).
BERNOULLI'S THEOREM
When considering airflow at a given height, changes in potential energy are negligible, and can
be essentially ignored. Total energy therefore equals the sum of the pressure energy and kinetic
energy.

Pressure Energy + Kinetic Energy = Total Energy

In aerodynamics, it is the mass airflow per unit volume that is of most interest to us, so the
Conservation of Energy equation is better stated in terms of pressure. At any point in a pipe, the
total pressure is the sum of the static pressure and dynamic pressure measured in Pascals.

Static Pressure (PS) + Dynamic Pressure (½ ρV²) = Total Pressure (PT)

BERNOULLI'S THEOREM
BERNOULLI'S THEOREM
The flow over the upper surface is representative of a convergent section (1), whilst the flow over
the lower surface is representative of a divergent section (2). The static pressure likewise varies
and the resulting pressure differential produces lift.
CHORDWISE PRESSURE DISTRIBUTIONS
ABOUT AN AEROFOIL SECTION
The actual pressure distribution over the upper and lower surfaces varies with changes in angle
of attack, as does the pressure differential and the amount of lift developed. To appreciate these
effects it is useful to display the actual pressure distribution diagrammatically
ANGLE OF ATTACK
The angle of attack (α) is the angle between the free stream relative airflow and the chord line of
an aerofoil section (Fig. 4.9).
Changes in the angle of attack cause the velocity and pressure of the flow to vary as the air
passes over the upper and lower surfaces. This in turn affects the pressure differential that exists
and hence the amount of lift developed.
ANGLE OF ATTACK
CHORDWISE PRESSURE DISTRIBUTIONS
ABOUT AN AEROFOIL SECTION
CHORDWISE PRESSURE DISTRIBUTIONS
ABOUT AN AEROFOIL SECTION
VARIATION OF COEFFICIENT OF LIFT
WITH ANGLE OF ATTACK
DRAG FORCE
DRAG FORCE

PARASITE DRAG INDUCED DRAG

INTERFERCE DRAG PRESSURE DRAG SKIN FRICTION DRAG

PROFILE DRAG
Turbulent flow is also called ‘unsteady’ or ‘eddying’ flow and results in wasted energy.
This is undesirable in most phases of flight (Fig. 4.4).
PROFILE DRAG
During flight, all the parts of an aircraft exposed to the airflow produce an aerodynamic force,
which opposes the forward motion of the aircraft. This force is known as drag, and is the air
resistance experienced by an aircraft as it moves through the air
PROFILE DRAG
Drag acts parallel to and in the same direction as the relative airflow. In steady level flight (SLF),
drag is directly balanced by the thrust produced by an engine or propeller. For a given airspeed, it
follows that the lower the drag, the less thrust is required to balance it
SKIN FRICTION DRAG
The Effect of Speed causes the transition point to move progressively toward the leading edge
with increasing forward airspeed. This results in a larger turbulent boundary layer and causes
greater skin friction drag.
SKIN FRICTION DRAG
The Effect of Surface Roughness causes a premature transition from a laminar to a turbulent
boundary layer if a wing has a rough surface. For example, an accumulation of ice could cause
surface roughness (Fig. 5.15).
INTERFERENCE DRAG
FAIRING PANEL
WING TIPS AND WINGLETS
The wing tip of a conventional wing acts as an aerodynamically shaped cover to the wing
structure. In many light aircraft, they are made of GFRP to save weight and complication or light
alloy. However, as detailed in the following paragraphs, the design of the wing tip radically affects
the airflow across the wing, which in turn alters the lift produced by the wing.
WING TIPS AND WINGLETS
INDUCED DRAG
Whenever a wing produces lift, concentrated vortices form at the wing tips. The vortices are
strongest at the wing tips and become progressively weaker toward the centre-line of the aircraft
(Fig. 5.17).
INDUCED DRAG
So far, the pressure distribution around an aerofoil has been considered purely in the chordwise
direction. To fully understand how an aerofoil or wing develops lift, the spanwise pressure
distribution must also be considered. As previously established, the airflow around an aerofoil
section sets up a pressure differential between the upper and lower surfaces (Fig. 4.25).
INDUCED DRAG
INDUCED DRAG
At the wing tips, a pressure gradient causes the air to flow toward the upper surface and, in
conjunction with the forward velocity of the aircraft, large concentrated vortices form, known as
wing tip vortices. These vortices rotate in opposite directions, becoming progressively weaker
toward the centre-line of the aircraft (Fig. 4.27).
EFFECT OF INDUCED DRAG
INDUCED DRAG
The Effect of Airspeed relates to the changes in induced drag with the variation of airspeed.
Induced drag is most significant at low airspeeds and high angles of attack (i.e. during take-off
and landing, when it can account for approximately three-quarters of the total drag). To maintain
steady level flight, as the airspeed decreases and the angle of attack increases, the slower
passage of air rearward over the wing increases the spanwise flow of air around the wing tip. This
results in larger wing tip vortices and greater induced drag (Fig. 5.23).
INDUCED DRAG
WING TIPS AND WINGLETS
AIRCRAFT SYSTEM
INTRODUCTION TO AIR CRAFT MAINTENANCE
AIRCRAFT SYSTEM

FLIGHT
AIRFRAME AND
STRUCTURE CONTROL
SYSTEM
AVIONICS
SYSTEM

ENVIRONMENTAL
SYSTEM ELECTRICAL
SYSTEM

POWER PLANT HYDRAULICS

SYSTEM
LANDING GEAR
AIRCRAFT SYSTEM:
FLIGHT CONTROL
INTRODUCTION TO AIR CRAFT MAINTENANCE
DRAG FORCE
FLIGHT CONTROL
SYSTEM

PRIMARY FLIGHT SECONDARY FLIGHT

CONTROL CONTROL

AILERON ROLL TRAILING EDGE FLAP

LIFT

ELEVATOR PITCH LEADING EDGE FLAP

DRAG
RUDDER YAW SPOILER
AXES AND PLANES ROTATION
PRIMARY FLIGHT CONTROL SURFACE
CONTROL SURFACE RANGE OF
MOVEMENT
CONTROL SURFACE LEVER ARM
FIN FUSELAGE RELATION
The horizontal stabilising surface that is fitted at the rear of conventional aircraft can be referred
to as the tailplane or horizontal stabiliser. Conventional aircraft require tailplanes due to the
pitching moment created by the four forces of flight — lift and weight, and thrust and drag. The
location of these two pairs acts to either pitch the aircraft’s nose up or down.
CONTROL SURFACE STRUCTURE
CONTROL COLUMN AND PEDALS
CONTROL COLUMN AND PEDALS
CONTROL COLUMN AND PEDALS
CONTROL COLUMN AND PEDALS
CONTROL CABLE
CONTROL SYSTEM
POWER CONTROL UNIT
AIRCRAFT FLIGHT
CONTROL II
INTRODUCTION TO AIR CRAFT MAINTENANCE
HIGH LIFT DEVICE
PLANE FLAPS
The plain flaps, as used on some light GA aircraft, are mounted inboard of the ailerons and have
the same cross-section as the wing to which they are attached. The hinge line of these flaps
passes through the flap structure, just aft of the flaps’ leading edge. This results in the flaps’
trailing edge aligning with the wings’ trailing edge when the flaps are selected up.
SPLIT FLAPS
DOUBLE SLOTTED FLAPS
DOUBLE SLOTTED FOWLER FLAPS
LEADING EDGE DEVICES
The original leading edge devices were slots let into the aircraft’s wing, aft of the leading edge,
and in line with the ailerons, as in diagram 6.10. These ensured that when the wings were at high
angles of attack, there was a laminar airflow across the ailerons, which maintained the ailerons’
effectiveness.
SLOT
MOVEABLE SLAT: CONTROLLED SLAT
Diagram 6.13 illustrates moveable, controlled slats. In this design, the pilot operates the slat. Its
operation is linked to that of the trailing edge flaps to ensure that the aircraft is not subject to the
nose up pitching action that slats on their own can create. In cruise, they are held against the
wings, forming the leading edge.
KRUGER FLAPS
BASIC FLAP SYSTEM FOR A LIGHT
AIRCRAFT
FLAP CONTROL
ADVANCED FLAP CONTROL FOR A
LIGHT AIRCRAFT
POWER DRIVEN UNIT
SPEED BRAKES AND LIFT DUMPER
SPEED BRAKES AND LIFT DUMPER
SPEED BRAKES AND LIFT DUMPER
HYDRAULICS
SYSTEM
BY SEEKHARIN KOMONHIRUN
SINGLE-ACTING ACTUATOR
These actuators work hydraulically in one direction only. They require a mechanical force to
return them to the original position. In diagram 9.9, the single-acting actuator makes use of a
spring force.
DOUBLE-ACTING UNBALANCED
ACTUATOR
Double-acting unbalanced or uncompensated actuators operate hydraulically in both directions.
As these actuators only have one ram attached to the piston, the surface area of each side of the
piston varies. The variation is equal to the area of the ram. This results in the actuator producing
a larger force on extension (ram extending) than on retraction (ram retracting) for a given
pressure, see diagram 9.10.
DOUBLE-ACTING BALANCED
ACTUATOR
Double-acting balanced or compensating actuators have a ram of equal area attached to each
side of the piston, as per diagram 9.12. For an equal pressure, they generate an equal force on
both extension and retraction. This type of actuator can be used to move a loop of cable, operate
two items in opposite directions simultaneously, or have a service operated by one ram only.
SELECTOR
To control the operation of the hydraulic actuators, selector valves are used. These control the
flow into and out of the actuators. These selector valves are fitted throughout the aircraft and
therefore have to be operated remotely, either mechanically or electrically. Selectors come in two
basic styles, rotary and linear.
Rotary Selectors come in three types:
• Two-port
• Four-port
• Open-centred
These are covered in the open-centred system explanation.
TWO PORT SELECTOR
A two port rotary selector, as shown in diagram 9.15, has one fluid path and is for use with a
single-acting actuator.
HAND PUMPS
Hand pumps are used for maintenance activities such as raising brake pressure without starting
the engines, opening cargo doors, and can be used for emergency power in flight. They always
take their supply of fluid from the bottom of the reservoir.
Two types of hand pump are used, single-acting and double-acting. Single-acting pumps only
move fluid on one stroke of the handle, whereas double-acting pumps move fluid on both strokes
of the handle.
HAND PUMPS
SPUR GEAR PUMPS
CLOSED CENTRED SYSTEM
ACCUMULATOR
FLUID RESERVIOR
POWER TRANFER UNIT
Modern hydraulic systems make use of power transfer units. A hydraulic motor located in one
system drives a hydraulic pump in another system. This enables a system where an EDP has
failed to be brought back on line.
RAM AIR TURBINE
LANDING GEAR
UNDERCARRIAGE
BY SEEKHARIN KOMONHIRUN
AN OLEO PNEUMATIC SHOCK
ABSORBER
Oleo-pneumatic shock absorbers, generically referred to as oleos, function on the principle that
fluid is considered incompressible, and that gas can be compressed. The pressure raised in the
gas is equal to the force exerted in compressing it.

As the gas is compressed, raising its pressure, energy is absorbed and converted into heat. This
is dissipated into the enclosing container by conduction and then to atmosphere by convection
and radiation. Controlling the rate at which the gas can compress and expand allows the landing
load and recoil action to be controlled. Oleo shock absorbers can only absorb vertical loads.
AN OLEO PNEUMATIC SHOCK
ABSORBER
GAS CHARGE/ OIL CHARGE
The gas charge, normally nitrogen as it is inert (can be compressed air for light G.A. aircraft),
supports the weight of the aircraft. The reason for using an inert gas is to prevent dieseling. If air
is used in place of an inert gas, as the mineral fluid is kerosene based, there is a danger that the
oil vapour within the leg will explode should the temperature and pressure reach a sufficient
value. Aircraft operated in the air transport role must use nitrogen or another suitable inert gas for
the gas charge.

An oil charge acts as a damper to control both the rate of compression during initial touchdown
landing load and the recoil action of the leg. As the gas pressure increases, so does the pressure
within the oil column.There are two main designs for oleos: separated and unseparated. This
refers to whether the oil and gas interface or have a physical separator between them.
Unseparated oleos are cheaper to manufacture and are frequently used on light aircraft with both
fixed and retractable landing gear. One of the disadvantages of this system is that the gas/oil
charges can mix, leading to poor damping (spongy operation).
SEPARATED OLEO
Medium and large aircraft use the separated oleo system not only for safety against dieseling, but
also because the system is more able to cope with the greater recoil force that these aircraft
produce. Diagram 7.10 shows the basic component parts of this design. In this system, the upper
and lower legs form a cylinder that is divided into two separate chambers by a free floating piston
or separator. Above the separator is the fluid chamber, and below the separator is the gas
chamber.

Attached to the lower leg, but in the fluid chamber, is a piston. This has a simple non-return valve
that opens and closes a series of ports, and a fixed metered orifice allowing fluid to pass from one
side to the other, at two differently controlled rates. The internal operation of the oleo in four
situations is shown in diagram 7.11 and explained in the following paragraphs.
SEPARATED OLEO
TORQUE LINK
STEERABLE NOSE WHEEL
STEERABLE NOSE WHEEL: TILLERS
BOGIES
Small aircraft retractable system
BRAKE SYSTEM
BY SEEKHARIN KOMONHIRUN
BASIC BRAKE MASTER CYLINDER
SLIDING DISC FIXED HOUSING
BASIC POWER BRAKE SYSTEM
ANTI-SKID SYSTEM: ON-OFF
MULTI-DISC BRAKE
PRESSURIZATION
BY SEEKHARIN KOMONHIRUN
BASIC PRINCIPLE FOR AIRCRAFT AIR
CONDITIONING SYSTEM
As aircraft are going to be operated at different flight levels in different temperature zones around
the world, the aircraft’s air conditioning system must be capable of taking extremely cold air and
warming it, or extremely hot humid air and cooling and dehumidifying it. As the ambient
temperature is a variable, these systems use heated ambient air. The heating of the ambient air
is either by dedicated means, or hot bleed air is taken from a gas turbine’s compressor. This
heated air, often referred to as charge air, is then split and a proportion cooled, before it is mixed
together to achieve the required temperature.
Cooling the charge air is a major function of the pack. There are two different methods in which
this can be achieved, the use of air as a cooling medium referred to as air cycle, or the use of a
refrigerant referred to as vapour cycle.
AIRCYCLE AIR CONDITIONING
SYSTEM
AIRCYCLE AIR CONDITIONING
SYSTEM
AIRCYCLE AIR CONDITIONING
SYSTEM
AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEM SCHEMATIC
 THANK YOU
FOR YOUR ATTENTION
Q/A