International Journal of Forest Engineering

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Analysis of variables influencing the cost of wood

freight: the case of southeastern Brazil

Thainar Rodrigues da Silva, Stanley Schettino, Roldão Carlos Andrade Lima,

Rafael dos Santos Figueiredo & Maria Fernanda Lousada Antunes

To cite this article: Thainar Rodrigues da Silva, Stanley Schettino, Roldão Carlos Andrade Lima,
Rafael dos Santos Figueiredo & Maria Fernanda Lousada Antunes (2023): Analysis of variables
influencing the cost of wood freight: the case of southeastern Brazil, International Journal of
Forest Engineering, DOI: 10.1080/14942119.2023.2255360

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/14942119.2023.2255360

Published online: 06 Sep 2023.

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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF FOREST ENGINEERING
https://doi.org/10.1080/14942119.2023.2255360

Analysis of variables influencing the cost of wood freight: the case of southeastern
Brazil
Thainar Rodrigues da Silva a, Stanley Schettino a
, Roldão Carlos Andrade Lima b
, Rafael dos Santos Figueiredo a
,
and Maria Fernanda Lousada Antunes a
a
Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Federal University of Minas Gerais (UFMG), Montes Claros, Brazil; bSchool of Agriculture, São Paulo State University
(UNESP), Botucatu, Brazil

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

This study aimed to analyze the variables that influence freight cost in the forest supply chain and to fit Received 16 April 2023
nonlinear regression models to estimate the freight cost of wood transportation from the production Accepted 30 August 2023
areas to the processing units. The data used for cost analysis considered the following variables: volume of KEYWORDS
wood (m3); average fuel consumption (km/l) and average speed of the complete journey (km/h) per round Forest sector; wood supply
trip. The results showed that there is a strong positive correlation between the variables transport distance chain management; wood
and the freight cost of the wood, as well as between the moisture content of the wood and the freight cost transportation; road modal;
of the wood. The load capacity of the vehicle combinations showed a mean negative correlation with the freight cost; nonlinear
freight cost of the wood, and the length of the wood did not show a correlation with the cost of the regression analysis
transported wood. The fitted models for estimating the value of wood freight showed a high degree of
adjustment of the dependent variable, indicating a good capacity for extrapolating the results from these
variables. Such results emphasize the importance of optimizing transport routes, controlling wood
moisture, maximizing vehicle volumetric load capacity, and using cost forecast models in order to make
correct and efficient decisions in the forest supply chain context.

Introduction improving coordination between the different links in the chain.

In the supply chain, transport is a fundamental activity for the
global economy, which consists of the movement of loads from
one place to another. This activity is responsible for approximately
60% of the total cost of logistics and can cost up to 10% of the
gross cost of the forest base final product (Machado et al. 2006;
Frisk et al. 2010; Soares et al. 2010). Furthermore, wood is
a product with a relatively low specific value, that is, the volume
transported is very high and the value of the load is low, which
makes transport one of the main problems in a forest company. In
the forest sector, transport consists of moving wood from forest
plantations to the final consumer, to sales yards, or to processing
factories. The high cost of transport motivates conducting studies
and planning to reduce costs and optimize yield (Machado et al.
2009; Schettino et al. 2022).
As the transport of wood represents a significant part of the
logistic costs in the forest supply chain, understanding and
analyzing such costs allows making the best decisions related
to transport routes, transport modes, vehicle selection and oper­
ating cost estimates, aiming to optimize its operations and plan
actions that lead to greater operational and financial efficiency.
This analysis enables an assessment of the economic viability of
forestry projects, including the determination of wood transport
costs in relation to market prices, as well as the analysis of different
scenarios. Thus, it is possible to analyze the efficiency and profit­
ability of the entire supply chain, which includes identifying
logistical bottlenecks, seeking improvement solutions and
Also, the efficient transport of wood can reduce carbon emissions
and fuel consumption, minimizing environmental impact.
There are several types of transport modes, such as rail,
most used in countries like Russia (81%), Canada (46%),
United States and Australia (43%); waterway, river or lake,
most used in the United States (25%); the pipeline and air
modes; and, finally, the road mode, which is the main type of
wood transport used in Brazil, responsible for 59% of the
transported wood (EPL and ONTL 2021). Since the country
has an extensive road network, several types of vehicles are
available and they can transport large volumes of wood, redu­
cing freight prices. This type of transport system is also respon­
sible for 65% of the total cargo transport of the country (Jiang
et al. 2019; Simões et al. 2022; Khajavi and Rastgoo 2023).
Among the various factors that can influence the efficiency
of wood transport and the performance of trucks, road infra­
structure, methodology adopted, human factors and the types
of vehicles used stand out. The variables that can affect the cost
of shipping wood are the distance of transport, load capacity of
trucks, time, equipment for the loading and unloading process,
and the size of the wood, expressed by the length of the logs
(Varol et al. 2019; Asher et al. 2020; Schettino et al. 2021;
Soranso et al. 2022).
The analysis of wood transport costs is a crucial topic in the
management of the forest supply chain. Regarding cost analy­
sis, studies have focused on identifying the key components

CONTACT Roldão Carlos Andrade Lima roldao.carlos@outlook.com School of Agriculture, São Paulo State University (UNESP), 3780 Universitária Ave., Botucatu,
Brazil
© 2023 Forest Products Society
2 T. RODRIGUES DA SILVA ET AL.
that contribute to transport costs, such as labor, fuel, vehicle
maintenance and logistics. This detailed analysis allows com­
panies to assess the cost structure and identify opportunities to
reduce spending.
Through mathematical models and optimization techni­
ques, researchers have sought to determine the most efficient
routes, the proper allocation of resources and the optimized
scheduling of transport activities. These optimization
approaches aim to minimize transport costs while ensuring
efficient and timely delivery of wood (Kogler and Rauch
2018; Rocha et al. 2022).
Another important aspect of wood transport cost analy­
sis is the consideration of uncertainty factors. Changing
conditions such as fluctuations in fuel prices and changes
in road conditions can affect transportation costs.
Therefore, models that incorporate probabilistic scenarios
or simulation techniques are used to assess the risks and
uncertainties involved in transportation costs and to
develop robust strategies to deal with these situations
(Acuna et al. 2019).
The state of the art in wood transport analysis involves
analyzing and understanding the current advancements and
research findings in the field of wood transport, specifically
focusing on different transport modes. Unimodal transport
refers to the use of a single transport mode, such as trucks or
railways, for transporting wood. Multimodal transport involves
the combination of multiple modes, such as trucks, trains, and
ships, to transport wood. Lastly, multi-echelon wood transport
corresponds to the use of a single transport mode with multiple
intermediate locations or echelons involved in the transport
process (Kogler and Rauch 2019). According to Malinen et al.
(2014), by analyzing and explaining the state of the art in wood
transport analysis for these different transport modes,
researchers and industry professionals can have insights into
the latest trends, challenges, and opportunities for the efficient
and effective transport of wood within the forestry supply
chain.
Given this scenario, this study aimed to analyze the variables
that influence the freight cost of transported wood and,
through these variables, fit nonlinear regression models to
estimate the value of wood freight considering different types
of vehicle combinations.
Materials and methods
A summary of the methodology used for this study is presented
in the form of a flowchart (Figure 1).
Study area
Data were collected from a forestry company located in the State
of Minas Gerais, in southeastern Brazil, between the meridians
from 42º48’00“to 43º43’00” longitude West of Greenwich and
the parallels from 16º49’00“to 17º42’ 00” latitude South of the
Equator. The altitude varies between 600 and 1,100 m, with an
average of 872 m, and relief is composed of ups and downs.
About 60% of the relief is undulating, with a low slope of up to
10º, which allows the mechanization of foresty operations; 30%
Data collect
Data Acquisition
Data treatment
Variables defini"on
Data Processing
Methodology defini"on
Literature Review
Sta"s"cal analysis
Interpreta"on of results
Results analysis
Discussion of results
Conclusions and recommenda"ons
Figure 1. Flowchart of the methodology used to develop this study.
is mountainous, which favors the appearance of several stream
sources; and 10% is flat, characterized by floodplains.
The region covers areas with an average annual rainfall
ranging from 750 mm to 1,400 mm. According to the Köppen
climate classification, the predominant climate types in the
region are Aw – tropical savanna climate, that is, dry winter
and maximum rainfall in the summer, with the rainy season
occurring between the months of October and March
(Nascimento et al. 2011), and Cwb – subtropical highland
climate, with a preponderance of rain in mild to hot summers
(Junior MS de et al. 2016). As the predominant soil is the red-
yellow latosol and the forest areas have a low slope, harvesting
and wood transport operations take place throughout the 12
months of the year, with no operational losses during the rainy
season.
The transported wood comes from forests planted with hybrid
eucalyptus clones (Eucalyptus urophylla × E. grandis) with an
average productivity of 245 m3/ha, in a high forest system with
a seven-year rotation, 3 × 3 m spacing, in a flat to gently wavy
relief. Thus, at seven years of age, the wood has an average basic
density of 0.650 g/cm3 (or 0.65 t/m3). Harvesting was performed
using the full-tree system, a system in which the tree is felled and
taken to the side of the road or intermediate yard, where it is
processed in the form of small logs, of less than six meters long,
according to Camargo et al. (2022). To determine wood moisture
after harvesting and processing, during the drying period at the
margins of the stands, it was assumed that the daily moisture loss
of eucalyptus wood is 0.1288% (Eufrade-Junior 2019), based on
60% humidity at the time of felling.
Wood transport distances ranged from 25 to 170 km, with
an average of 55 km, or 110 km considering the total cycle, of
trip empty and return loaded. The roads in the study region are
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF FOREST ENGINEERING 3

divided into unpaved without primary coating (29%), unpaved
with primary coating (37%) and paved with single carriage­
way (34%).
Wood transport vehicle combinations
In Brazil, the most used vehicles in road forestry transport are
classified according to their load capacity, which can be light
vehicles (up to 10 tonnes), heavy vehicles (from 30 to 40
tonnes) and extra heavy vehicles (more than 40 tonnes), with
several models according to the combinations of types and
quantities of trailers and semi-trailers applicable to different
operational realities (Kogler et al. 2020; Yun et al. 2020).
For the purposes of this study, truck, semi-trailer truck,
B-train truck and Tri-train truck vehicle combinations for
wood transport were evaluated (Figure 2).
The types of wood transport vehicle combinations, as well as
their specifications, are listed in Table 1.
In order to determine the average travel times and speeds of
the vehicle combinations, as well as the number of trips
per day, a study of transport time and movements was carried
out using the continuous time method, with the use of a digital
stopwatch and a form for data recording. Under the conditions
of this study, the transport operational cycle was subdivided
into the following partial components: travel empty; loading;
travel loaded; unloading; and pauses and interruptions.
The wood transport trips of 16 trucks were monitored from
January to December 2020, totaling 1,387 round trips, consid­
ering the following average data per vehicle combination:
volume of wood (m3) per trip; average fuel consumption
(km/l), average speed of the complete round trip, round trip
speed (km/h), and travel time (hours) (Table 2). Based on these
data, other analyses were carried out to calculate wood freight
cost.
Wood transport cost
The cost of transporting wood (BRL/m3) was calculated for
each type of vehicle combination using the Cargo Transport
Operation Cost Simulation Worksheet, developed by ANTT –
Brazilian National Land Transportation Agency (ANTT 2017).
The worksheet considers monthly fixed and variable cost
values per kilometer traveled as inputs, in addition to opera­
tional variables. With regard to fixed costs, the following are
reported: vehicle and implement acquisition and depreciation
costs, labor (wages and charges), taxes and insurance. In turn,
variable costs refer to the sum of fuel and lubricants, main­
tenance, tires and washing/lubrication. Finally, operational

Figure 2. Types of wood transport vehicular combinations analyzed in the study.

Table 1. Specifications of wood transport vehicle combinations used to assess wood transport costs.
Types of wood transport Diesel Load Average Acquisition
vehicle combinations Brand/Model Traction consumption (km/l)c capacity (t)1/ speed (km/h)c value (BRL)c
C1 (Truck) Mercedes Attego 2426 6 × 2 3.00 15 45 479,157.00
C2 (Semi-trailer truck) Mercedes Axor 2536 LS 6 × 2 2.50 30 40 648,524.00
C3 (B-train truck) Mercedes Axor 3344 6×4 2.00 37 35 736,699.00
C4 (Tri-train truck) Mercedes Axor 4144 K 6 × 4 1.50 51 30 839,287.00
a
Manufacturer data.
b
Considering the complete cycle (travel loaded and empty return), obtained from the study of times and movements.
c
New vehicle combinations, based on FIPE Table – Fundação Instituto de Pesquisas Econômicas, on 04/25/2022.

Table 2. Descriptive statistics of the data used to calculate the cost of wood freight (average and minimum and
maximum values).
Wood volume Diesel consumption Average speed Total cycle travel
Vehicle type (m3/trip) (km/l) (km/h)b time (h)b
C1 11.54 3.05 46.4 4.71
(9.23–13.85) (2.79–3.16) (40.9–52.1) (3.42–9.67)
C2 23.08 2.49 38.9 7.50
(18.46–27.69) (2.31–2.59) (34.2–43.5) (5.96–13.41)
C3 28.46 2.03 35.1 8.89
(22.77–34.15) (1.89–2.35) (30.9–39.5) (7.18–15.45)
C4 39.23 1.36 31.5 11.44
(31.38–47.08) (1.10–1.55) (27.9–35.1) (9.54–18.74)
a
Considering the round trip (travel loaded and empty return).
b
Considering the total cycle: round trip plus loading and unloading time.
4 T. RODRIGUES DA SILVA ET AL.
variables are composed of loading and unloading time, average
speed, load capacity and transport distance. As output, the
spreadsheet provides the freight costs per trip, per km and
per tonne, which is converted into m3 according to the moist­
ure content of the wood.
Statistical analysis
It was evaluated whether the values found for freight cost
(BRL/m3) are associated with each other and with wood length
(m), transport distance (km), wood moisture content (%) and
load capacity of vehicle combinations (m3). For this, the degree
of association was obtained by analyzing the Pearson correla­
tion coefficient matrix (r) using the t-test at 5% probability.
Thus, the correlation can be considered strong when r ≥ |0.50|,
medium when |0.50| > r > |0.30| and low when r ≤ |0.30|,
according to Cohen (1988).
The nonlinear regression technique used was developed by
Seber and Wild (2003) and its adjustment was carried out for
the wood freight cost, aiming to establish a relationship
between this dependent variable and the transport distance,
the moisture content of the wood and the load capacity of the
vehicle combinations, having been adjusted for each type of
vehicle combination analyzed (Equation 1).
β1 β in the content of wood moisture and a consequent increase of
FC ¼ β0 þ þ 2 þ β3 � LC
TD WM
where: FC is the freight cost (dependent variable); TD is the
transport distance; WM is the wood moisture; LC is the load
capacity (independent variables); and β0 , β1 , β2 , β3 are model
parameters.
The model fits were evaluated using the coefficient of deter­
mination (R2), the coefficient of variation (CV%) and the
correlation coefficient between the observed and estimated
values squared (Ryŷ2), using the STATISTICA for Windows
software (STATSOFT, Inc 1995). To verify the results of resi­
dual assumptions, Anderson-Darling test (A2) and Fischer’s F-
test were applied for normality and for variance, respectively,
both at 5% probability.
Results
To verify the association between the freight cost, the length of
the wood, the moisture content of the wood and the load
capacity of the vehicle combinations of wood transport, the
results of the analysis of the matrix of the Pearson correlation
coefficient (r) using the t-test at 5% probability are presented in
Table 3.
Table 3. Matrix of Pearson’s linear correlation coefficients (r) between the study
variables and the wood freight cost.
Variables
Freight cost
Wood length
Transport distance
Wood moisture content
Load capacity of vehicle combinations
Note: * is significant at 1% probability; ns is not significant, by the t-test with n-2
degrees of freedom.
The results indicate that the transport distance variable has
a strong positive correlation with the wood freight cost
(r = 0.92), emphasizing that the increase in the distance traveled
directly increases the freight costs of the transported wood. The
variable wood moisture content showed a positive and median
correlation (r = 0.32), indicating that a decrease in wood moist­
ure content, individually, improves transport efficiency and
reduces freight costs. The load capacity variable of the vehicle
combinations presented a mean negative correlation (r=-0.32),
indicating that an increase in the volume of transported wood
represents a reduction in the wood freight cost, although not
very pronounced. And finally, the variable length of wood did
not correlate with the cost of transported wood.
The results of these analyses indicate the existence of
a strong correlation between the evaluated variables and the
value of wood freight, demonstrating the importance of under­
standing the behavior of such variables to improve operational
transport costs. This strong negative correlation indicates that
the drying of wood in the field (before transport to the con­
sumer units), the reduction in the transport distance and the
increase in the volumetric load capacity in the trucks contri­
bute, alone or jointly, to the reduction of wood freight cost.
With this, it is possible to infer that every 10 days of drying
the wood in the field, starting from a moisture content of 60%
at the time of harvest, represents an average reduction of 2.0%
(1) 1.5% in the volumetric capacity of the trucks. Thus, the value of
the wood freight is indirectly reduced by 3.0%, keeping the
other conditions constant.
In turn, an average increase of 15% is observed in the value of
wood freight for every 50% increase in transport distance regard­
less of the type of truck, keeping the other variables constant.
After analyzing data that indicated the variables that influ­
ence the freight price of transported wood, nonlinear regres­
sion models were fit to determine the freight prices of
transported wood for different types of vehicle combinations
evaluated (Table 4).
The results refer to the statistical parameters obtained by the
fitted models for determining the price of wood freight from
data observed in a forestry company. The values of the coeffi­
cients of determination (R2), ranging from 97 to 98%, indicate
a high degree of adjustment of the dependent variable (wood
freight price) to the independent variables (transport distance,
wood moisture and volumetric load capacity). The coefficient
of variation (CV%), comprised between 10.17 and 13.67%,
indicates low data variability and good ability to extrapolate
results from them.
The results of the Anderson-Darling test prove the normal
distribution of the data used for the regression analyses and
according to the p values the variances of the original data are
statistically equal to those of the estimated values by the
models.
Freight cost The graphic representation of the high adherence of the
1 fitted models to the observed data (Figure 3) made it possible
−0.02ns to verify the same behavior for all four types of vehicle combi­
0.92* nations evaluated, according to the correlation values between
0.32*
−0.32* the observed and estimated squared values. Those values were
constantly very close to the unit, which provides a good indica­
tion of a high fit of the models to the observed data.
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF FOREST ENGINEERING 5

Table 4. Fitted model for determining the price of wood freight.

Vehicle combination type Fitted model R2 CV Ryŷ2 A2 p
C1 (Truck) 533.67 - (13536.90 ÷ TD) + (9301.56 ÷ WM) - (33.53 × LC) 0.97 10.17 99.61 2.758* 1.699*
C2 (Semi-trailer truck) 338.32 - (8516.67 ÷ TD) + (5758.82 ÷ WM) - (10.49 × LC) 0.98 12.58 99.65 3.679* 1.725*
C3 (B-train truck) 312.27 - (7973.65 ÷ TD) + (5411.59 ÷ WM) - (7.97 × LC) 0.98 13.67 99.63 2.548* 1.415*
C4 (Tri-train truck) 273.75 - (6859.95 ÷ TD) + (4679.74 ÷ WM) - (4.98 × LC) 0.97 10.93 99.62 1.977* 1.691*
Where: TD is the transport distance; WM is the wood moisture content; LC is the load capacity of vehicle combinations; R2 is the coefficient of
determination; CV is the coefficient of variation (in %); Ryŷ2 is the correlation coefficient between observed and estimated values squared; A2 is the
Anderson-Darling normality test; and p is the Fisher’s F test for variance.
*Significant at 5% probability.

Figure 3. Representation of the behavior of observed and estimated values of wood freight (BRL/m3) using the fitted models in this study.

The results of the statistical adjustment models were satis­
factory, indicating their adequacy, as very interesting statistics
were presented (R2 and Ryŷ2 close to unity and low coefficient
of variation). Therefore, the fitted models can be used as an
auxiliary tool in making decisions involving the variables that
directly or indirectly interfere in the composition of wood
freight value.
Discussion
The results of this study indicated that transportation distance was
the variable that most affected wood freight cost, demonstrating
an increase in the cost of transporting wood to the consumer unit
with the increase in the distance traveled by vehicle combinations.
Thus, the greater the distance traveled, the higher the cost of
transporting the wood, as already demonstrated by Mokhirev
et al. (2019) under other operational conditions. Peyrov et al.
(2021) highlighted that the distance traveled interferes with the
productivity of vehicle combinations, as longer distances result in
longer forest operation durations, fewer trips, reduced productiv­
ity, and increased transportation costs.
The use of high-capacity vehicle combinations for long
distances can be an alternative to reduce wood transport
costs, as it increases the average load of each truck combi­
nation and reduces the total number of wood loads
required, consequently reducing fuel consumption and
increasing the energy efficiency of wood transportation
(Schettino et al. 2022; Kärhä et al. 2023), which inevitably
leads to a reduction in wood transportation costs.
Furthermore, it is important to highlight the subsequent
reduction in CO2 emissions (Sauna-Aho 2021; Schettino
et al. 2022).
Such gains are increasingly important as global climate
change continues to advance. Although environmental costs
were not assessed in this study, their indirect reduction is a key
factor for the sustainability of the forestry business. From this
perspective, the findings of Souza et al. (2019) are noteworthy,
as they concluded that wood transportation is responsible for
15% of all CO2 emissions in the eucalyptus supply chain,
considering all stages from planting to wood delivery to the
consumer unit. Hence, it highlights the real need to seek
technical and operational alternatives to reduce emissions of
this and other greenhouse gases, which contribute to climate
change (Väätäinen et al. 2021).
Furthermore, it is necessary to consider that when planning
to increase truck load capacity, compliance with the specific
regulations of each country and/or region must be mandatory
(Thompson and Taniguchi 2017), as well as considering topo­
graphical restrictions, urban center crossings, and road condi­
tions (existence or absence of pavement, soil type, and bridges)
along the routes to be traveled (Demir et al. 2011; Strandgard
6 T. RODRIGUES DA SILVA ET AL.
et al. 2021), as well as possible weather or forest disaster
restrictions (Kogler and Rauch 2020).
In turn, the moisture content of wood affects the volume
and logistics costs, since it determines the volumetric weight
ratio of the cargo to be transported. The higher the moisture
content of the wood or biomass, the higher the weight per unit
volume, thus increasing transportation costs and other impor­
tant activities for the forestry industry, such as wood storage
and processing (Chen et al. 2020; Palander et al. 2020).
From the perspective of maximizing the volume of wood to
be transported, this study highlights that the lower the moist­
ure content of the wood, and consequently the higher the
volume per unit weight, the lower the freight cost per unit of
volume transported. However, among the various items pro­
duced by the forestry chain, some may be dependent on and
limited by the moisture content of the wood. It is necessary to
determine the optimal moisture content limit for each wood
utilization purpose, to avoid deterioration of the raw material
(Monedero et al. 2015; Zhou et al. 2015; Lopes-Junior et al.
2017; Lestari et al. 2019; Canal et al. 2020).
From this perspective, in the production of wood for energy
biomass or charcoal, the more water contained in the wood, the
more energy is required for its evaporation. A longer drying
time in the field is desirable, favoring the improvement of
biomass quality and reducing freight costs (Canal et al. 2020;
Lima et al. 2022). Furthermore, substantial indirect gains can
be achieved by using vehicles with large volumetric capacity in
this context, as evidenced by Väätäinen et al. (2021).
In the manufacture of panels and boards, the necessary
dimensional stability for the process is directly affected by
moisture. Additionally, the higher the water content in the
wood, the heavier it becomes, which can compromise its sale
in the market, resulting in a lower value due to the lower wood
volume per unit (de et al. 2021; Strandgard et al. 2021). For the
production of cellulose fiber, the storage time of logs can vary
from a few weeks to several months. To maintain wood quality
for the process, Giesel et al. (2020) suggest that the maximum
storage time for Pinus wood in the field is 30 days. On the other
hand, Gomes et al. (2015) state that eucalyptus wood remains
suitable for pulping processes even with a minimum moisture
content of 15%.
Under the conditions of this study, the length of the wood
did not correlate with the price of wood freight. However,
Machado and Lopes (2000) showed that wood size is
a variable that influences productivity and transportation
costs. Increasing the length from 5 meters to 6 meters
improved the performance of vehicle transport combinations
by 10% and reduced the cost of transported wood by 11.1%.
Therefore, from this perspective, vehicle combinations will
make better use of their capacity if the wood is longer, as it
represents an increase in the volume of wood transported,
thereby reducing transportation costs. Nonetheless, although
loading and unloading activities were not analyzed in this
study, Arcego et al. (2019) pointed out that the length of
Eucalyptus and Pinus logs affects the duration of these activ­
ities, which can subsequently impact the productivity and
operational costs of wood transportation by influencing truck
cycle time.
Although the results of this study have proven to be robust
from an economic standpoint, it is important to consider that
potential transportation bottlenecks, climate crises and forest
calamities such as fires and strong winds have the potential to
significantly impact future scenarios in the forestry sector and
consequently influence wood freight costs.
Transportation capacity constraints, represented here as
inadequate infrastructure and logistical limitations (Soliani
2015), regulatory restrictions (Stolarski et al. 2021), and com­
plications at land borders (Ngarachu et al. 2019), can hinder
the efficient flow of wood. This can result in delivery delays,
increased transportation costs and reduced profitability for
forestry companies. Moreover, a lack of adequate transporta­
tion capacity can affect the availability of wood for consumers,
which can disrupt market supply and demand.
In turn, climate crises such as forest fires, storms, and insect
infestations (Kogler and Rauch 2020) can have devastating
effects on forests, destroying extensive forest areas and result­
ing in the loss of timber resources and significant environmen­
tal damage. This reduces the availability of quality wood and
hampers forest productivity. It can lead to increased wood
prices, supply shortages, and the need to relocate forestry
operations to other areas.
To address these challenges, forestry companies and indus­
tries need to develop adaptation and resilience strategies. This
may involve implementing sustainable forest management
practices, investing in transportation infrastructure, diversify­
ing the wood supplier base, developing emergency plans to
address climate crises, and adopting more efficient and resili­
ent technologies and production methods.
Conclusions
Study results indicate the importance of understanding the
variables and how they both individually and collectively influ­
ence the cost of wood freight, in order to provide insights for
planning operations related to wood harvesting and transpor­
tation while ensuring cost reduction and improved perfor­
mance in operations in the forest supply chain. Additionally,
the nonlinear regression model fit proved to be an auxiliary
tool of great value for this planning, allowing the extrapolation
of this study.
The impacts arising from wood transport surpass the scope
of the forest supply chain and also affect other sectors. It is
crucial to ensure an efficient and economical transport of wood
to guarantee a stable supply of this fundamental resource in
several industries that use it as a raw material. Optimizing
logistics and reducing costs in the forestry sector can contri­
bute to the competitiveness and profitability of downstream
industries, such as construction, furniture manufacturing and
paper production.
Possible future research directions and extensions can dee­
pen our understanding of wood freight costs and their implica­
tions. One area of study could focus on exploring innovative
technologies and methods to improve transport efficiency,
such as the use of advanced tracking systems, algorithms for
route optimization or alternative modes of transport.
Furthermore, investigating potential synergies between differ­
ent industrial sectors and developing collaborative supply

chain models could result in more sustainable and cost-
effective wood transport practices.
Furthermore, in view of the growing importance of envir­
onmental sustainability, future studies may deepen the assess­
ment of the environmental impact of wood transport and
identify mitigation strategies. This may involve analyzing the
carbon footprint of transporting wood and exploring ways to
reduce greenhouse gas emissions, such as promoting the use of
renewable energy sources or implementing carbon offset initia­
tives. Incorporating environmental considerations into trans­
port planning and decision-making processes can contribute to
the long-term viability and sustainability of the forestry
industry.
The analysis of future scenarios in the forestry sector should
consider potential logistical and climate impacts and incorpo­
rate mitigation and adaptation measures to ensure long-term
sustainability and viability of the industry. Collaboration
among companies, governments, local communities, and for­
estry management experts plays a crucial role in building
a resilient forestry sector in the face of these challenges.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).
ORCID
Thainar Rodrigues da Silva http://orcid.org/0009-0007-3302-6425
Stanley Schettino http://orcid.org/0000-0001-8085-1910
Roldão Carlos Andrade Lima http://orcid.org/0000-0002-7239-2555
Rafael dos Santos Figueiredo http://orcid.org/0000-0002-3781-7861
Maria Fernanda Lousada Antunes http://orcid.org/0000-0003-0933-
6435
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