● Hormone release can also be under neural control

Endocrine System ● Following action potentials, neurons release a

Cell secretion types neurotransmitter into the synapse with the cells that
Autocrine: produce the hormone
- released by cells and have a local effect on same cell type ● Hormone release can also be controlled by other
ex) eicosanoids hormones
Paracrine: ● It occurs when a hormone is secreted that, in turn,
- released by cells that affect other cell types in close proximity stimulates the secretion of other hormones
ex) somatostatin ● The same three types of stimuli (humoral, neural, and
Neurotransmitter and neuromodulators: hormonal) can stimulate or inhibit hormone release
- secreted by nerve cells (fig 10.2, 3, 4)
ex) nervous system function
Hormones and neurohormones: Inhibition of hormone release
- secreted into blood and bind to receptor sites ● Humoral inhibition of hormone release generally
ex) epinephrine and insulin involves the actions of companion hormones
● Usually each of the companion hormones performs
Endocrine system functions an opposite function
1. Metabolism ● For ex, to raise blood pressure, the adrenal cortex
2. Control of food intake and digestion secretes the hormone aldosterone in response to low
3. Tissue development blood pressure, but to lower it the heart atria secrete
4. Ion regulation atrial natriuretic peptide
5. Water balance ● They work together to maintain homeostasis of blood
6. Heart rate and blood pressure regulation pressure (aldosterone, atrial natriuretic peptide)
7. Control of blood glucose and other nutrients ● Neurons inhibit targets just as often as they stimulate
8. Control of reproductive functions targets
9. Uterine contraction and milk release ● If the neurotransmitter is inhibitory, the target
10. Immune system regulation endocrine gland does not secrete its hormone
● In control of hormone release by other hormones,
Characteristics some hormones are inhibitory hormones, that reduce
● The endocrine system is composed of endocrine the release of the hormones being controlled
glands and specialized endocrine cells located ● For ex, thyroid hormones can control their own blood
throughout the body levels by inhibiting their anterior pituitary tropic
● Endocrine glands and cells secrete minute amounts hormone
of chemical messengers called hormones into the
bloodstream, rather than into a duct Regulation of blood hormone levels
● Hormones then travel through the general blood ● Two major mechanisms maintain hormone levels in
circulation to target tissues or effectors the blood within a homeostatic range: negative
● The target tissues have receptors for a specific feedback and positive feedback
hormone ● Most hormones are regulated by a negative feedback
● Hormones produce a particular response in the target mechanism, whereby the hormone’s secretion is
tissues inhibited by the hormone itself once blood levels have
reached a certain point
Types of hormones ● Some hormones are regulation by positive feedback,
Water-soluble hormones: as exemplified by tropic hormone action
- includes proteins, peptides, amino acids (fig 10.5)
- most common
ex) growth hormone, antidiuretic, prolactin Hormone receptors
Lipid-soluble hormones: ● A hormone can stimulate only the cells that have the
- includes steroids and eicosanoids receptor for that hormone
ex) LH. FSH, androgens ● The portion of each receptor molecule where a
-> it can get through the cell membrane because it is made of hormone binds is called a receptor site
lipids ● The receptor site has specificity, allowing only one
hormone to bind to it
Control of hormone release ● Some hormones, such as epinephrine, can bind to a
● blood-borne chemicals can directly stimulate the “family” of receptors that are structurally similar
release of some hormones ● This specificity is due to molecular shape and
● These chemicals are referred to as humoral stimuli chemical characteristics
because they circulate in the blood ● Lipid-soluble and water-soluble hormones bind to
● Humoral refers to body fluids, including blood their own classes of receptors
 ● Lipid-soluble hormones bind to nuclear receptors
due to their lipid solubility and small molecular size
allowing to easily pass through the cell membrane
● Water-soluble hormones bind to membrane bound
receptors. Are polar molecules and cannot pass
through the cell membrane
Lipid-soluble hormone receptors
● bind to nuclear receptors due to their lipid solubility
and small molecular size, allowing to easily pass
through the cell membrane and nuclear membrane
● Nuclear receptors can also be located in the
cytoplasm, but then move to the nucleus when
activated
● When hormones bind to nuclear receptors, the
hormone-receptor complex interacts with nuclear
DNA to regulate specific gene transcription
Water-soluble receptors
● Such as protein and peptide types, cannot pass
through the cell membrane
● Interactions are with membrane-bound receptors, that
are proteins that extend across the cell membrane,
with their hormone-binding sites exposed on the cell
membrane’s outer surface
● When the hormone binds to the receptor, it turns on
intracellular enzymes that ultimately cause the
response dictated by the hormone-receptor
interaction
(Fig 10.6, 7)
Action of nuclear receptors
● Lipid-soluble hormones stimulate protein synthesis
● Lipid-soluble hormones diffuse across the cell
membrane and bind to their receptors, with the
complex now binding to hormone-response
elements on DNA
● This action regulates the transcription of specific
messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA) molecules and
protein synthesis occurs
(fig 10.8)
Membrane receptor actions
● Act in two ways, either altering the activity of G
proteins on the inner surface of the cell membrane or
directly altering the activity of intracellular enzymes
● Activation of G proteins, or intracellular enzymes,
elicits specific responses in cells, including the
production of molecules called, second messenger
● Second messenger molecule is produced inside a
cell once a ligand binds to its membrane-bound
receptor
● A second messenger, such as cyclic adenosine
monophosphate (cAMP), then activates specific
cellular processes inside the cell in response to the
hormone
G-protein activation
● Many membrane-bound receptors produce responses
through the action of G proteins, which consist of 3
subunits
● The G proteins are so named because one of the
subunits binds to guanine nucleotides
● G-proteins, after several sequential auctions, interact
with adenylate cyclase, an enzyme that converts
ATP to cAMP (cyclic adenosine monophosphate)
● cAMP binds to protein kinases and activates them
● Protein kinases are enzymes that, in turn, regulate
the activity of other enzymes
● Depending on the other enzyme, protein kinases can
increase or decrease its activity
● Phosphodiesterase, an intracellular enzyme, breaks
down cAMP and thus results in no further cell
stimulation
(fig 10.9, 10)
Signal amplification
● Hormones that stimulate the synthesis of second
messengers act quickly and have an amplification
effect
● Each receptor produces thousands of second
messengers, leading to a cascade effect and
ultimately amplification of the hormonal signal
● With amplification, a single hormone activates many
second messengers, each of which activates
enzymes that produce an enormous amount of final
product
● The efficiency of this second-messenger amplification
is virtually unparalleled in the body
(fig 10.11)
Pituitary gland
● Small gland in brain
● Controlled by hypothalamus
● Divided into 2 regions: anterior and posterior
● Secretes at least 6 hormones
(fig 10.12)
Anterior pituitary gland actions
● It synthesizes hormones, that is under the control of
the hypothalamus
● Neurons of the hypothalamus secrete releasing
hormones that stimulate the production and secretion
of a specific hormone
● Inhibiting hormones decrease the secretion of a
specific anterior pituitary hormone
(fid 10.13)
Anterior pituitary hormones
Growth hormone:
- target tissues: most
- functions: stimulates growth of bones, muscles, and organs
- abnormalities:
Too much GH causes gigantism
Too little GH causes pituitary dwarfism
Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH):
- Target tissues: thyroid gland
- functions: regulates thyroid gland secretions Thyroid hormone disorders
- abnormalities: Hypothyroidism: Hyperthyroidism:
Too much TSH, thyroid gland enlarges - decreased metabolism - increased metabolism
Too little TSH, thyroid gland shrinks - weight gain, reduced appetite, - weight loss, increased
(fig 10.16) Fatigue appetite, nervousness
● Gonadotrophin hormone LH - low temp.and pulse - higher temp. and pulse
LH (luteinizing) for females: - dry, cold skin - warm, flushed skin
- target tissue: ovaries - myxedema in adults - graves’ disease (leads
- function: promotes ovulation and progesterone production - cretinism in infants to goiter)
LH for males:
- target tissue: testes
Parathyroid gland
- function: sperm production and testosterone
Parathyroid hormone (PTH):
● Gonadotrophin hormone FSH
- target tissues: bones and kidneys
follicle-stimulating for females:
- functions: regulated blood Ca2+ levels (more than calcitonin)
- target tissue: follicles in ovaries
● If Ca2+ is low then osteoclasts break down bone
- function: follicle maturation and estrogen secretion
matric and less Ca2+ is lost in urine
FSH for males:
● If Ca2+ is high then osteoclasts don't break down
- target tissue: seminiferous tubules (testes)
bone matrix and more Ca2+ is lost in urine
- function: sperm production
(fig 10.17, 15)
Prolactin:
- target tissues: mammary glands and ovaries
- functions: milk production
Adrenal gland actions
Melanocyte stimulating hormone (MSH) ● Are two small glands located superior to each kidney
- target tissue: melanocytes in the skin ● Each has an inner part, called the adrenal medulla,
- functions: stimulate melanin production in melanocytes and an outer part, called the adrenal cortex
Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ATCH): ● The adrenal medulla and the adrenal cortex function
- target tissues: cells of adrenal cortex as separate endocrine glands
- functions: stimulate production of certain corticosteroids (fig 10.18)

Posterior pituitary actions Adrenal gland hormones

● It synthesizes and release hormones produced by Adrenal medulla hormones:
neuroendocrine cells in the hypothalamus ● epinephrine/norepinephrine
● The two hormones released form the posterior - target tissues: heart, blood vessels, liver, fat cells
pituitary are antidiuretic hormone (ADH) and - functions: released as part of fight or flight response
oxytocin (fig 10.19)
Antidiuretic hormone (ADH): Adrenal cortex hormone:
- target tissues: kidneys ● Aldosterone:
- functions: conserve water - type of mineralocorticoids
- abnormalities: diabetes insipidus - target tissues: kidneys
Low ADH - functions: causes Na+ and H2O to be retained and
Kidneys to produce large amounts of dilute K+ to be secretec, indirectly involved with blood pressure and
(water) urine blood volume
Can lead to dehydration and thirst (fig 10.20)
Oxytocin: Cortisol:
- target tissues: uterus - type of glucocorticoids
- functions: increases uterine contractions during labor - target tissues: most
(fig 10.14) - functions: increases breakdown of fat and
- protein for energy uses reduces inflammatory and immune
responses
Thyroid gland
(fig 10.21)
● One of the largest glands
Androgens:
● Requires iodine to function
- target tissues: most
● Secretes thyroid hormone and calcitonin
- functions:
Thyroid hormones secreted by follicular cells:
- males: secondary sexual characteristics
- target tissues: most
- females: sex drive
- functions: regulates metabolic rates and is needed for growth
Calcitonin secreted by parafollicular cells:
- target tissues: bone and some other tissues
Pancreas actions
- function: reduces blood calcium level when high ● Is a mixed gland, with an exocrine portion and an
endocrine portion
 ● Exocrine portion of the pancreas secretes digestive Pineal gland hormone
enzymes Melatonin:
● Endocrine part of the pancreas consists of pancreatic - target tissues: hypothalamus
islets (islets of langerhans), which are dispersed - functions: plays a role in onset of puberty and controls
throughout the exocrine portion of the pancreas circadian rhythms. Light affects its function
● The islets consist of three cell types, each of which
secretes a separate hormone
● Alpha cells secrete glucagon, beta cells secrete
insulin, and delta cells secrete somatostatin
● These three hormones regulate the blood levels of
nutrients, especially glucose
(fig 10.22)

Pancreas hormones
Insulin: *down arrow*
- target tissues: liver, skeletal muscle, adipose tissue
- functions:
- regulates blood glucose levels
- after a meal glucose levels are high and insulin is
secreted
- extra glucose os stored in form of glycogen

Insulin abnormalities
Diabetes mellitus:
- causes: too little insulin or faulty insulin receptors
- symptoms: exaggerated appetite, excess urine, dehydration,
thirst, fatigue
- type I: insulin dependent (daily injections required)
- type II: insulin independent, often found in obese people, can
be treated with diet but can turn into type I

Pancreas hormones
Glucagon: *up arrow*
- target tissues: liver
- function:
- regulates blood glucose levels
- between meals glucose levels drop and glucagon is
secreted
- glucagon allows glycogen to be broken down into
glucose
(fig 10.23)

Testes hormones
Testosterone:
- target tissues: most
- functions: aids in sperm and reproductive organ development
and function

Ovarian hormones
Estrogen/Progesterone:
- target tissues: most
- functions: involved in uterine and mammary gland
development and menstrual cycle

Thymus gland hormone

Thymosin:
- target tissues: immune system tissues
- functions: promotes immune system development and
function