CHAPTER 4: CHEMICAL BOND

You have learnt a different kind of chemical bonds

a) Metallic Bond
b) Ionic Bond
c) Covalent Bond & Compounds

4.7 Comparing Ionic and Covalent compounds

1) Ionic compounds are formed between two oppositely charged
ions by giving and receiving electrons. Covalent compounds are
formed by sharing electrons.
2) Ionic bonded compounds are much stronger than covalently
bonded compound. This causes ionic compounds to have relatively
high melting & boiling points compared to covalent.
3) Ionic compound (i.e,. NaCl) is soluble in water, but covalent
compounds (i.e., CO2) are insoluble in water.
4) The lattice of ionic compounds is made out of ions, whereas
covalent compounds’ lattice is made out of molecules.
5) Ionic compounds can conduct electricity in liquid form (but not
in solid). However, covalent compounds cannot conduct
electricity.
**Ionic compound can only conduct electricity in liquid form
because in liquid form it has free ions and electrons that are mobile
(free to move). In solid it does not have free moving ion &
electrons.
***Substance can conduct electricity ONLY when it has free
moving ion/electron.

4.8 Giant Covalent Molecule

Mostly covalent molecules are molecular, they have low melting
point, low boiling point, cannot conduct electricity and insoluble in
water.

However, some covalent molecules have giant structure. This is

called giant covalent molecule. They have:
- Extremely high melting & boiling point
- Can be a good electrical conductor
- they have continuous structure.

For IGCSE, two elements have a giant covalent structure:

a) Carbon b) Silicon

a) Carbon Macromolecular
Carbon macromolecular structure can exist as (1) diamond and (2)
graphite. Their structures are:

*All of the atoms in the image are all carbons.

 Diamond Graphite

Properties & Uses of Diamond:

- Extremely very hard (we can use them as drill)
- Shiny (use it as jewelry)
- Diamond cannot conduct electricity, why?
Because, each carbon atom in its structure is connected to 4 other
carbons. So, there is no free moving electron.

Properties & Uses of Graphite:

- Soft and slippery (it has layered structure that can slide), can be
used as pencils.
- Because it is slippery, it can be used as lubricant
- It is a good electrical conductor, why?
Because, in graphite each carbon atom is only connected to 3 other
carbons. This produces 1 free electron per carbon atom, so it is free
to move.
Both diamond and graphite are just made out of carbon atoms, that
are connect together by a strong giant covalent bond. However,
they have different structure.

When a substance of the same element has different structure, this

is called allotropes.

b) Silicon
It exists as a giant covalent in the form of silica (SiO2) – this is
called quartz or normally called it sand.
From the structure, we can see that;
1 silicon atom is attached to 4 oxygen atoms
and 1 oxygen atom attached to 2 silicon atoms.

Because it has a giant covalent structure, it also has extremely high

melting & boiling points.
Uses: sandpaper

4.9 Bond in Metal (Metallic Bond)

Metals they have:
1) high melting & boiling points
2) good electricity & heat conductor
3) are malleable
4) are ductile
All metals have these properties and they all connected in a
metallic lattice. Metals in the periodic table likes to give their
electrons.

As there are only metals, all of the atoms

Will give their electrons

This will create a sea of electrons.

These seas of electrons are electrons

that are free to move, because of that
they can conduct electricity.

The metallic bond is formed between the negative charge electron

in the sea of electron, with the positive nucleus of the metal.

Q3) (a) Gas because its boiling point is -67oC, lower than 20oC
(b) Molecular – because it has a low melting & boiling
points.
(c) (i) Covalent
(ii)
 (d) H+ + Br- = HBr
(e) (i) Water or carbon dioxide
(ii) H2O or CO2

Q4 & Q6 - Homework
Q4) (a) D & G it has high melting point & good electrical
conductor.
(b) B & E, because it is soluble in water, poor conductor in
solid but good in liquid.
(c) A & C cannot be ionic because they are non-conductive
in liquid and not soluble in water.
*Ionic compounds cannot conduct electricity in solid
because it doesn’t have free moving electrons & ions.
But it has in liquid form.
(d) A & C these are covalent molecular compounds
(e) (i) D&F
(ii) Giant covalent structure = Macromolecular
(f) (i) B – Ionic bond
(ii) C - Covalent
(iii) E – Ionic bond
(iv) F – Giant covalent structure (macromolecular)
Q6) (a) Both of C & Si are solid, because the melting points are
3730 and 1410oC.
(b) Giant covalent
(c) Giant covalent
(d) CO2 – gas
SiO2 – solid
*oxides = substance that is bonded to oxygen atom(s).
(e) (Covalent) molecular
(f) No, they are different.
in SiO2, every Si attached to 4 O & each O attached to 2
Si. However, in CO2, carbon attached to 2 O atoms only.
CHAPTER 5: Chemical Nomenclature & Reaction Prediction

*Nomenclature: How to name things.

A. Poly-ionic Substances
Ions such as Na+, Cl-, Al+3 are called typical or normal ions,
because they only have a single element forming ions.

Poly-ionic substances = ions that have more than 1 element. The

few examples that you need to know are:
a) OH- = hydroxide ion
b) NH4+ = ammonium ion
c) NO2- = nitrite ion
d) NO3- = nitrate ion
e) SO32- = sulfite/sulphite ion
f) SO42- = sulfate/sulphate ion
g) PO33- = phosphite ion
h) PO43- = phosphate ion
i) CO32- = carbonate ion
B. Chemical Nomenclature
1) Metallic bond compounds:
To name: Just say the metal’s name + the word “metal”
i.e. Al(s) the name is aluminum metal
*Metallic compounds are always in solid at room temperature & pressure
(except mercury).

2) Ionic Compounds
2.1 Ionic with Typical Metals (Metals from GI, II & GIII)
To name: say the metal name + non-metal name + the
suffix “-ide”
i.e. NaCl the name is sodium chloride
i.e. MgF2 the name is magnesium fluoride
i.e. Al2O3 the name is aluminum oxide
i.e. NaNO3 the name is sodium nitrate
*(If we have poly-ion, we don’t need the suffix “-ide”)
i.e. Ca3(PO3)2 the name is calcium phosphite
* poly-ions are also ionic compounds

2.2 Ionic with Transition Metal

To name: say the metal name + metal’s charge number in
roman + non-metal name + the suffix “-ide”
i.e. FeCl3 the name is iron (III) chloride
 i.e. CuO the name is copper (II) oxide
i.e. Ni3N4 the name is nickel (IV) nitride
i.e. Ag2S the name is silver (I) sulfide
i.e. FeSO4 the name is iron (II) sulphate
i.e. Fe2(SO4)3 the name is iron (III) sulphate
i.e. Ni(OH)2 the name is nickel (II) hydroxide
i.e. Ti(CO3)2 the name is titanium (IV) carbonate

3) Covalent compounds
To name: say the number of the first non-metal in Greek
number* + first non-metal name + say the number of the second
non-metal in Greek number + second non-metal name + the
suffix “- ide”
*if the first non-metal is only 1, do not need to say its Greek
number.
i.e. CO2 = mono Carbon dioxide
Greek number:
1 – mono 6 – hexa
2 - di 7 – hepta
3 – tri 8 – octa
4 – tetra 9 – nona
5 – penta 10 – deca
 Example:
PCl5 = Phosphorous pentachloride
P2O5 = Diphosphorous pentaoxide
Br2Cl = Dibromine monochloride (dibromo monochloride)
BrCl4 = Bromine tetrachloride
Dinitrogen Pentoxide = N2O5
Diphosphor trioxide = P2O3
Chlorine tetrafluoride = ClF4
Carbon disulphide = CS2

C. Predicting a chemical reaction & Balancing

C.1 Metal + acid → salt + hydrogen gas

Example:
1) Magnesium metal reacts with hydrochloric acid, write the
chemical reaction.
Mg(s) + HCl(aq) → MgCl2(aq) + H2(g) [un-balanced]

Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq) → MgCl2(aq) + H2(g) [Balanced]

H/W
Make a balance reaction equation for the reaction between:

1) sodium metal with nickel (III) sulphate

2) Aluminium oxide with hydrogen nitride

States of chemical:
(s) = solid
(l) = liquid (i.e.; melted salt)
(g) = gas
(aq) = aqueous [with water] – salt in water

Diatomic molecules (molecules with two atoms):

They are normally gases (except noble gas).
H2, O2, Cl2, F2, N2, Br2

Difference in writing atoms and molecule:

MgCl2= 1 MgCl2 molecule each molecule has 2 Cl atoms
2HCl= 2 HCl molecules, each has 1 Cl atom (total is 2)

B.2 Double displacement reaction (Most in IGCSE)

Example - write the balance chemical reaction for:
1) Sodium chloride reacts with magnesium hydroxide.
2NaCl + Mg(OH)2 → MgCl2(aq) + 2NaOH(aq)

If it’s difficult, break them

into ions and match

*Positive ion from the first compound, will find negative

ion from the second compound.
*Negative ion from the first compound, will find positive
ion from the second compound.

2) Hydrogen sulphate (sulphuric acid) – H2SO4, reacts with

sodium carbonate.
Sulphate: SO4-2 Carbonate: CO3-2

H2SO4 + Na2CO3 → Na2SO4 + H2CO3 [Wrong]

*H2CO3 is unstable, it will break into H2O & CO2
H2SO4 + Na2CO3 → Na2SO4 + H2O + CO2 [Correct]

3) Ammonium chloride reacts with aluminum hydroxide

 3NH4Cl + Al(OH)3 → AlCl3 + 3NH4OH [wrong]
*NH4OH is unstable, it will break into H2O & NH3
3NH4Cl + Al(OH)3 → AlCl3 + 3NH3 + 3H2O [correct]

Basics of IGCSE Chemistry:

Chapter 1 – States of matter & Diffusion
Chapter 2 – Pure substance & Separation processes
Chapter 3 – Atoms & Its structure
Chapter 4 – Chemical Bonds
Chapter 5 – Chemical Nomenclature
Chapter 1: States of Matter & Diffusion
>> Materials can exist in 3 different states:
a) Solid
- Particles are touching each other
- Particles are vibrating
- Particles cannot be compressed
b) Liquid
- Particles can move by sliding between each other
- Particle are still touching each other
- It takes the shape of its container
c) Gas
- Particles can be compressed
- Particles are far away from each other
- It has larger volume than solid and liquid

>> Particles at any state (when they can move) they are moving
randomly; this movement is called Brownian Motion.
>> Particle can also move from a high concentration area to a low
concentration area, this process is called Diffusion.
i.e.; spraying perfume from one side of the room can be smelt
from the opposite side of the room
>> Speed of particle is affected by a few factors:
(i) Temperature
 At higher temperature, particle moves faster = rate of
diffusion is also faster.
(ii) Mass
Lighter particles can diffuse much faster than heavier
particles.
For example: Between HCl and NH3, who will move
faster?
Atomic mass of; H is 1, Cl is 35.5 and N is 14.
For HCl the total mass is 36.5, for NH3 (faster) it is 17.

Chapter 2: Pure Substances & Separation Processes

>> Pure substance: Substance that consists of only a single type of
elements/molecules.
>> For example; water, oxygen gas, etc.
Example of not pure substance are: air, orange juice, etc.
>> Testing for pure water:
- Boil it, if it boils at 100oC, we know it is a pure substance.
- Freeze it, if it boils at 0oC, we know it is a pure substance.

Different terms in chemistry:

> Solute = (normally solid) that dissolves in solvent.
> Solvent = (normally liquid) it dissolving solute.
> Mixture = when 2 substances are mixed without chemical
reaction (example: mixing sand and salt).
> Solution = when 2 substances are mixed with chemical reaction.

H/W please explain:

Minjun: Crystallization & Fractional Distillation
Dongha: Filtration & Simple Distillation

Process of changes of States

Temperature Curve

H2O(l) → H2O(g)

H2O(s) → H2O(l)
Separation Processes:
(i) Solid-solid separation
>> When there is a mixture of solids, we need to add solvent
that can dissolves one of the solid.
>> Adding water to a mixture of sand and sugar; this will
dissolve sugar but not sand.
>> Now we have a mixture of solid sand in a sugar water.
(ii) Solid-liquid separation (filtration)
>> The solid sand in a sugar water can be separated using
filtration.
>> We normally use filter paper and filter funnel.

>> The residue that we get (solid sand), but it is still wet, how
can we get a dry sand? Dry the wet sand in oven.
>> How we can get solid sugar back from the sugar water?
Boil & evaporate the sugar water, to release all of the
water as water vapor.
(iii) Fluid-fluid separation (Fluid = liquid and/or gas)
(a) Crystallization
We use it so separate a liquid mixture, to get solid.
- Boil the mixture until all the solvent evaporates (until
the level of the liquid is constant – saturation point).
- Transfer a small amount of liquid to a dish and cool it,
to observe if crystal can be formed (glass rod test).
- Then cool the mixture to room temperature to allow
crystal to form.
- Not all of the mixture will turn to crystal; the crystal
formed is separated from the mixture using filtration.
- If the crystal is insoluble in water, wash it with distilled
water. If it is soluble in water skip this step.
*distilled water = water that has been boiled once.
- Dry the crystals in oven and cool it to room temperature.
(b) Simple distillation
We use it to separate solid that is dissolved in liquid and
at the end, to get solid AND liquid separately.
Example:
Simple distillation of sugar water, will give us solid sugar
in the flask, and pure water in the beaker.
 (c) Fractional distillation
It is used to separate two liquid mixtures to get liquid A
and liquid B. It can also be used to separate mixtures of
gases (i.e., air).
> No solid will be obtained.
> Fractional distillation is used & applied based on the
substances’ difference in boiling points.

Example: separating a mixture of alcohol and water using

fractional distillation, we will obtain water and the
alcohol separately.

(iv) Separation for identification (chromatography)

>> Orange dye comes from red dye and yellow dye.
>> In chromatography, we need “chromatograph paper”

Steps on doing chromatography:

- Prepare a chromatograph paper, and draw a baseline
using a 2B pencil.
- Put a drop of your sample on the base line using pipette.
- Immerse your chromatograph paper with ethanol in a
beaker until the solvent touches the paper, but not above
the baseline.
- Wait, until your sample moves and end (no longer
moving)
- Measure and calculate the distance using the formula;
distance travelled by sample
Rf =
distance travelled by solvent

- After calculating, refer to references to identify the

substance.
**Some samples are colorless, so we can’t see them
(i.e., protein, amino acid, carbohydrates and fats), if
this is the case we need to use “Locating Agent”.
H/W
Dongha:
find the 3 chemical properties and 3 physical properties of metals.
Minjun:
find the 3 chemical properties and 3 physical properties of non-
metals.
Chapter 3: Atom and Elements
3.1 Atomic Structure
3.2 Electron Arrangement in an Atom
3.3 Isotropy and Radioactivity
3.4 Metals and Non-metals in Periodic Table

3.1 Atomic Structure

Atom is smallest particle that cannot be divided further by any
chemical reactions.
Elements is a substance consisting of 1 type of atoms.

Atom actually can be further divided into smaller particles; this is

called sub-atomic particles. Atom has 3 sub-atomic particles:
Subatomic particles Charge Mass
Proton (+1) 1
Neutron 0 1
Electron (-1) 1/1840

Structure of atom looks like:

Particle can exist in 3 different forms:
- Atom
- Ion = an atom that has charge.
When the charge is positive, the ion is called cation (i.e., Na+)
When the charge is negative, the ion is called anion (i.e., Cl-)
- Molecule = is a substance that consists of more than 1 type of
atoms (i.e., NaCl)
In the periodic table we can see, for example:

Relative atomic mass (or nucleon number),

the unit is in gr/mol

Atomic Number

 The atomic mass = total of proton and neutron.

 Atomic number = proton number.
 So, atomic mass - atomic number = neutron number.
 In neutral atom (no charge); electron number = proton number.

Example:
Atom Proton Electron Neutron Nucleon
24
12 Mg 12 12 12 24
52
24 Cr 24 24 28 52
80
35 Br 35 35 45 80
When an atom has positive charge(s), it means it has lost electron(s).
When an atom has negative charge(s), it means it has gained electron(s).
It doesn’t affect proton and neutron, ONLY affect electron.

23
11 Na 11 protons; 11 electrons and 12 neutrons
Na+ 11 protons; 10 electrons and 12 neutrons
23
11

There are 11 positive charge and 10 negative charge

That’s why after losing 1 electron, Na becomes Na+.

35.5
17 Cl 17 protons; 17 electrons and 18.5 neutrons
Cl- 17 protons; 18 electrons and 18.5 neutrons
35.5
17

17 positives, 18 negatives, so total is (-1) charge.

Example:
Atom Proton Electron Neutron Nucleon
Mg2+ 12 10 12 24
24
12

Cr 3+ 24 21 28 52
52
24

S 2- 16 18 16 32
32
16
3.2 Electron Arrangement in an Atom
We have seen that an atom has electron shells. However, the
number of shells varies depending on the atom. Each shell can only
fit a certain number of electrons.

The number of electrons that can fit into the shell, follow [2n2]
rules:
Shell number (n) Max number of electrons
1 2
2 8
3 18
4 32

Because of the number of electron fits into the electron shell

depends on the shell number, we need to arrange the electron. This
process is called “electronic structure” or “electron configuration”.

Determining the electronic configuration of an atom:

We only need the number of electrons.

Na it has 11 electrons
11

So, the electronic configuration is: 2, 8, 1

Sodium atom has 3 shells (it is in period 3 of periodic table)
The last electron, also called electron valence, is 1. This
means it is in group I.
Example:
Element Configuration Group Period
17Cl 2, 8 ,7 7 3
9F 2, 7 7 2
20Ca 2, 8, 8, 2 2 4
*From shell number 3 onwards, if maximum number of electrons
for that shell cannot be fulfilled. The previous maximum number
of electrons must be taken.

Group VIII & Formation of Ions

Group VIII or group 0, is called noble gas.
This is because they are very stable as they have 8 as the final electrons.
10 Ne = 2, 8
18 Ar = 2, 8, 8

All other elements want to be stable just like group VIII.

To be stable, they need to lose/gain electron to have 8 electron valences.
11 Na = 2, 8, 1 (Now, it has 11 proton and 11 electron)
It is easier for Na to lose 1 electron to have electron valence 8.
When Na loses 1 electron, its new configuration becomes: 2, 8.
Having 1 more proton than electron and 11Na changes to 11Na+.
9 F = 2, 7 (Now, it has 9 proton and 9 electron)
It is easier for F to receive 1 electron to have electron valence 8.
When F receive 1 electron, its new configuration becomes: 2, 8.
Having 1 more electron than proton and 9F changes to 9F-.
Exercise:
Particle Electron Configuration Group Period
+
11Na 28 I 3
-
17Cl 288 VII 3
2+
12Mg 28 II 3
2-
8O 28 VI 2
3+
13Al 28 III 3
3-
15P 288 V 3
*When we have ion, to determine the group and period, see the
electron configuration before it get/lose electrons.

3.3 Isotropy and Radioactivity

Some atom can exist like the example below (all of the atoms are
carbon):

These carbons all have the same proton and electron numbers, but
different neutron numbers, this is called isotopes.
So, isotopes = atoms with same proton and electron numbers,
but different neutron or nucleon number.

Some isotope can have an unstable nucleus (14C6), this type of

atom is called radioisotope and its radioactive.
Being radioactive, means it can break down in half for a certain
time.
Advantages/uses of radioisotopes:
 It can be used to treat cancer
 It can be used for X-ray
 It can be used to detect leaks in pipe

Radio-isotropy causes atom to have more than 1 masses, but in the

periodic table we can only 1 mass of carbon which is 12, why?
The mass shown in the periodic table is the average mass of all
C’s, we calculate the average mass using the following equation:

Relative atomic mass = Σ (%abundance x atomic mass)

*Σ (sigma) means total
*%abundance means total percentage it has in the world.

Example:
In the whole world 12C has the abundance of 98.89%, 13C has the
abundance of 1.09% and 14C has the abundance of 0.02%.
Calculate the average mass of carbon.
Relative mass of C = Σ (%abundance x atomic mass)
Relative mass of C = (98.89% x 12) + (1.09% x 13) + (0.02% x 14)
Relative mass of C = 12.0099 gr/mol
3.4 Metals and Non-metals in Periodic Table

Every element to the left of zig-zag line are metals.

Every element to the right of zig-zag line are non-metals.
Elements in the box, Si, As and Te, are called semi-metals
(metalloids) = half metal and half non-metal.

Metallic Elements:
Physical Properties Chemical Properties
Good heat and electrical React explosively or vigorously
conductor with water
Relatively high density Prefer to give/lose electrons
High melting and boiling React with oxygen gas to form
points metal oxide
Hard React with acids to form salt
They are/can ionically bonded
Malleable (can be shaped)
with non-metal
Alone, they form/have metallic
Ductile (can be made to wire)
bond
Non-metallic Elements:
Physical Properties Chemical Properties
Poor electrical and heat
High ionization energy
conductors
Not malleable High electronegativity
They normally form covalent
Not ductile
bond
They (except oxygen) can react
Soft and dull with oxygen to form acidic
oxide
They are brittle (easy to break) They are acidic
*Ionization energy = energy needed to lose 1 electron.
* electronegativity = attracting electron
Chapter 4: Chemical Bonds
Chemical bond is an attraction force that happens between
particles in order for them to be stable. In IGCSE, we will see
three types of chemical bond:
4.1 Metallic Bond
4.2 Ionic Bond
4.3 Covalent Bond

4.1 Metallic Bond

S

S
4.2 Ionic Bond
S
4.3 Covalent Bond
S
CHAPTER 5: Chemical Nomenclature & Reaction Prediction

*Nomenclature: How to name things.

A. Poly-ionic Substances
Ions such as Na+, Cl-, Al+3 are called typical or normal ions,
because they only have a single element forming ions.

Poly-ionic substances = ions that have more than 1 element. The

few examples that you need to know are:
a) OH- = hydroxide ion
b) NH4+ = ammonium ion
c) NO2- = nitrite ion
d) NO3- = nitrate ion
e) SO32- = sulfite/sulphite ion
f) SO42- = sulfate/sulphate ion
g) PO33- = phosphite ion
h) PO43- = phosphate ion
i) CO32- = carbonate ion
B. Chemical Nomenclature
1) Metallic bond compounds:
To name: Just say the metal’s name + the word “metal”
i.e. Al(s) the name is aluminum metal
*Metallic compounds are always in solid at room temperature & pressure
(except mercury).

2) Ionic Compounds
2.1 Ionic with Typical Metals (Metals from GI, II & GIII)
To name: say the metal name + non-metal name + the
suffix “-ide”
i.e. NaCl the name is sodium chloride
i.e. MgF2 the name is magnesium fluoride
i.e. Al2O3 the name is aluminum oxide
i.e. NaNO3 the name is sodium nitrate
*(If we have poly-ion, we don’t need the suffix “-ide”)
i.e. Ca3(PO3)2 the name is calcium phosphite
* poly-ions are also ionic compounds

2.2 Ionic with Transition Metal

To name: say the metal name + metal’s charge number in
roman + non-metal name + the suffix “-ide”
i.e. FeCl3 the name is iron (III) chloride
 i.e. CuO the name is copper (II) oxide
i.e. Ni3N4 the name is nickel (IV) nitride
i.e. Ag2S the name is silver (I) sulfide
i.e. FeSO4 the name is iron (II) sulphate
i.e. Fe2(SO4)3 the name is iron (III) sulphate
i.e. Ni(OH)2 the name is nickel (II) hydroxide
i.e. Ti(CO3)2 the name is titanium (IV) carbonate

3) Covalent compounds
To name: say the number of the first non-metal in Greek
number* + first non-metal name + say the number of the second
non-metal in Greek number + second non-metal name + the
suffix “- ide”
*if the first non-metal is only 1, do not need to say its Greek
number.
i.e. CO2 = mono Carbon dioxide
Greek number:
1 – mono 6 – hexa
2 - di 7 – hepta
3 – tri 8 – octa
4 – tetra 9 – nona
5 – penta 10 – deca
 Example:
PCl5 = Phosphorous pentachloride
P2O5 = Diphosphorous pentaoxide
Br2Cl = Dibromine monochloride (dibromo monochloride)
BrCl4 = Bromine tetrachloride
Dinitrogen Pentoxide = N2O5
Diphosphor trioxide = P2O3
Chlorine tetrafluoride = ClF4
Carbon disulphide = CS2

C. Predicting a chemical reaction & Balancing

C.1 Metal + acid → salt + hydrogen gas

Example:
1) Magnesium metal reacts with hydrochloric acid, write the
chemical reaction.
Mg(s) + HCl(aq) → MgCl2(aq) + H2(g) [un-balanced]

Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq) → MgCl2(aq) + H2(g) [Balanced]

States of chemical:
(s) = solid
 (l) = liquid (i.e.; melted salt)
(g) = gas
(aq) = aqueous [with water] – salt in water

Diatomic molecules (molecules with two atoms):

They are normally gases (except noble gas).
H2, O2, Cl2, F2, N2, Br2

Difference in writing atoms and molecule:

MgCl2= 1 MgCl2 molecule each molecule has 2 Cl atoms
2HCl= 2 HCl molecules, each has 1 Cl atom (total is 2)

B.2 Double displacement reaction (Most in IGCSE)

Example - write the balance chemical reaction for:
1) Sodium chloride reacts with magnesium hydroxide.
2NaCl + Mg(OH)2 → MgCl2(aq) + 2NaOH(aq)

If it’s difficult, break them

into ions and match
 *Positive ion from the first compound, will find negative
ion from the second compound.
*Negative ion from the first compound, will find positive
ion from the second compound.

2) Hydrogen sulphate (sulphuric acid) – H2SO4, reacts with

sodium carbonate.
Sulphate: SO4-2 Carbonate: CO3-2

H2SO4 + Na2CO3 → Na2SO4 + H2CO3 [Wrong]

*H2CO3 is unstable, it will break into H2O & CO2
H2SO4 + Na2CO3 → Na2SO4 + H2O + CO2 [Correct]

3) Ammonium chloride reacts with aluminum hydroxide

3NH4Cl + Al(OH)3 → AlCl3 + 3NH4OH [wrong]
*NH4OH is unstable, it will break into H2O & NH3
3NH4Cl + Al(OH)3 → AlCl3 + 3NH3 + 3H2O [correct]
CHAPTER 6: Stoichiometry
Calculation in chemistry for chemical reactions.

A. Mole calculations
mole (n) = mass (gr) / molecular weight (gr/mole) = m/Mr
mole (n) = gas volume (dm3) / VRTP
*VRTP = constant of 24 dm3/mol/, when gas is
measured at room temperature & pressure.
mole (n) = liquid volume (dm3) x concentration (mol/dm3)
=VxC
mole (n) = X / L
* X is the number of particles (atom, ion, molecule)
* L is Avogadro’s number = 6.02x1023 particles/mole.
* So, 1 mole = 6.02x1023 particles.
B. Percentages
%Yield = (Actual mass / calculated mass) x 100
How much you actually produce over what you calculated.

%purity = (mass of pure substance/total mass) x 100

How pure is your substance.
 %composition in molecule =
[(#atom x atomic weight of atom)/Mr] x 100
i.e. NH3, how much % of N in ammonia?
%N = (1 x 14)/(14+1+1+1) x 100 = (14/ 17) x 100 = 82.35%

C. Empirical & Molecular Formula

Empirical Formula means the simplest formula of a compound
based on its elemental mole ratio.
Molecular formula means the actual formula of a molecule.
CHAPTER 7: REDOX REACTION

Reduction and oxidation (Redox).

Reduction:
- losing oxygen
i.e., MgO + HCl → MgCl2 + H2O
Mg lost its oxygen from this reaction
- gaining electron
i.e., F + e- → F-
- decrease in oxidation state (charge number)
i.e., F + e- → F-

Oxidation:
- gaining oxygen
i.e., Mg + O2 → MgO
- losing electron
i.e., Na → e- + Na+
- increase in oxidation state (charge number)
i.e., Na → e- + Na+
More terms to remember:
Reduction = Oxidator = Oxidizer = Oxidizing agent
Oxidizing agent is a substance that oxidize other, but itself get
reduced.

Oxidation = Reductor = Reducer = Reducing agent

Reducing agent is a substance that reduce other, but itself get
oxidized.

1.1 Writing Half-Reaction

A half reaction is a reaction that involves the receiving or losing
electron. When a few half-equations are sum up together, we will
have a full equation.

Example:
2Na + Cl2 → 2NaCl [Total of full reaction equation]
To balance half-reaction
The 2 half-equations are: equation we need to balance:
1) the atom
Cl2 + 2e- → 2Cl- 2) the total charge on the left
2Na → 2e- + 2Na+ and right

Make the electrons the same

and eliminate them
Prove the following reactions using their half-equations:
a) Mg + F2 → MgF2
Their half-reactions are:
Mg → Mg+2 + 2e-
F2 + 2e- → 2F-
Mg + F2 → Mg+2 + 2F-
Mg + F2 → MgF2 (proven)

b) 4Al + 3O2 → 2Al2O3 Do not write the number in front of the

compound first when writing the half-equation
Their half-reactions are:
Al → Al+3 + 3e-
O2 + 4e- → 2O-2
4Al + 3O2 → 2Al2O3 (proven)

c) 6Li + N2 → 2Li3N

Their half-reactions are:

Li → Li+ + e-
N2 + 6e- → 2N-3
6Li + N2 → 2Li3N

1.2 Determining Oxidation State (charge number)

NaCl;
The charge of Na here is (+1)
The charge of Cl here is (-1)
[Lose 1 and gain 1 electrons]
We know from
periodic table
Mg3N2;
The charge of Mg here is (+2)
The charge of N here is (-3)
[Mg lose 2, N gain 3]

Transition metal has more than 1 oxidation state or charge, so

we cannot determine its charge from periodic table. There’s a
method to find it.

Example:

FeCl3
Transfer the big number

What is the charge of Fe? (+3)

CrO2
What is the charge of Cr? (+4)

Cr2O3
What is the charge of Cr? (+3)

Exercise 1:
Find the oxidation state of the bolded atom in the following
compounds:

(i) Manganate Ion – MnO4-

(ii) Chromate Ion – CrO32-

(iii) Dichromate Ion – Cr2O72-

(iv) Ammonium Ion – NH4+

(v) Oxalate Ion – C2O42-

(vi) Antimonite Ion – SbO43-

1.3 Determining REDOX in a reaction

Exercise 2:
Show the redox reaction alongside with its oxidizer and reductor by
identifying their oxidation state (if any).

(i) Mg + 2AgNO3 → Mg(NO3)2 + 2Ag

Reduction/Oxidator: AgNO3
Oxidation/Reductor: Mg
(ii) Sn + 4HNO3 → SnO2 + 4NO2 + 2H2O

Reduction/Oxidator: HNO3
Oxidation/Reductor: Sn
(iii) PbO2 + H2SO4 → PbSO4 + 2H2O

Reduction/Oxidator: PbO2
Oxidation/Reductor: N/A
(iv) KMnO4 + H2C2O4 + H2SO4 → K2SO4+ MnSO4 + CO2 + H2O
 Reduction/Oxidator: KMnO4
Oxidation/Reductor: H2C2O4

(v) MnO2 + 2H2SO4 + 2NaI → MnSO4 + Na2SO4 + 2H2O + I2

Reduction/Oxidator: MnO2
Oxidation/Reductor: NaI
CHAPTER 8: ELECTROCHEMISTRY
Electricity basically is a moving/mobile/delocalized electron(s).
Conductor: Materials that can transfer electricity
Example: Metals

Insulator: Materials that cannot transfer electricity

Example: Plastic/rubber

There are two parts of this chapter:

8.1 Simple Cell
8.2 Electrolysis Cell

8.1 Simple Cell

e- e-

Definition: is a setup to produce electricity from a chemical

reaction.
Electrolyte got 3 types:
(i) Strong electrolyte:
is a substance that can ionize completely 100%.
(ii) Weak electrolyte
is a substance that cannot ionize completely <100%.
(ii) Non-electrolyte
Substance that cannot electricity.

Electrode, we have 2 types:

(i) Cathode (positive), here reduction reaction happens.
(ii) Anode (negative), here oxidation reaction happens.

In terms of electron:
Reduction – receive electron
Oxidation – giving electron
>> From here, electron flow from anode to cathode.

In the example above, Zn is (-) and Cu is (+).

But how we know which one is anode or cathode?
To know this, we need to know metal’s reactivity series.

Typical reactivity Series:

More reactive (Oxidation, -) Less reactive (reduction, +)

Li-K-Na-Ca-Ba-Mg-Al-Mn-Zn-Cr-Fe-Cd-Co-Ni-Sn-Pb-Sb-Bi-Cu-Hg-Ag-Pt-Au
Example #1: determine which metal is anode and cathode in the
following simple cell.
(i) Mg-Pt cell
Mg is anode, Pt is cathode – because Mg is more reactive than Pt
(ii) K-Al cell
K is anode and Al is cathode – because K is more reactive than Al
(iii) Ni-Cu cell
Ni is anode, Cu is cathode – because Ni is more reactive than Cu

When simple cell reaction occurs, we need to know what are produced at both
anode and cathode through a reaction. There are 2 rules in simple cell:
Rule#1: Metal (at oxidation state of 0) can only be oxidized.
Rule#2: Polyions [NO2-; NO3-; SO3-2; SO4-2 ; PO3-3; PO4-3] have no reactions.

Example #2:
Write the half-reaction equation at anode and cathode for simple cell using
Magnesium and Copper electrodes, in HCl electrolyte.

Step 1: Know what we have.

Here we have Mg(s), Cu(s), H+(aq) and Cl-(aq).

Step 2: Determine the anode and cathode.

Mg(s) is the anode (oxidation) and Cu(s) is the cathode (reduction).

Step 3: Write the half-reaction equation at both anode and cathode.

C (+) : 2H+ + 2e- → H2

(1) Metal (at oxidation state of 0) cannot have reduction reaction, because metal
likes to give electrons. So, copper has no reaction at cathode.
(2) Cathode is (+), so positive H+ will go to the cathode.

A (-): Mg(s) → Mg+2(aq) + 2e-

(1) We know that the anode is Mg(s). Anode is oxidation or give electron. So, can
a metal oxidise? Yes.

In conclusion, we will produce hydrogen gas at the cathode and the anode will
decrease in mass because the magnesium turns to ions.

Example #3:
Write the half-reaction equation at anode and cathode for simple cell using
Aluminium and lithium electrodes, in H2SO4 electrolyte

Answer:
Al is cathode and Li is anode.
C (+) : Al cannot be here, because it can only give electron. Reduction is receive.
SO4-2 also cannot be here, because it has no reaction (Rule#2)
Our only choice is H+.
Li cannot be placed here, because Li is an anode.
2H+(aq) + 2e- → H2(g)
A (-) : Li → Li+ + e-

Example #4:
Write the half-reaction equation at anode and cathode for simple cell using
Copper and Sodium electrodes, in Cu(NO3)2 electrolyte.

Answer:
Anode is Na. Cathode is Cu.
C (+) : Cu+2(aq) + 2e- → Cu(s)
Tips: In simple cell, when we do cathode, what goes to the cathode is the
cation from the electrolyte.
A (-) : Na(s) → Na+(aq) + e-

Example #5:
Write the half-reaction equation at anode and cathode for simple cell using copper
and Beryllium electrodes, in Ni3(PO4)2 electrolyte.

Answer:
Anode is anode. Cathode is copper.
C (+) : Ni+2(aq) + 2e- → Ni(s)
A (-) : Be(s) → Be+2(aq) + 2e-

Example #6:
Write the half-reaction equation at anode and cathode for simple cell using
Manganese and silver electrodes, in ZnCO3 electrolyte.

Answer:
Anode is Mn. Cathode is Ag. If the question doesn’t
tell you the transition
C (+) : Zn+2(aq) + 2e- → Zn(s) metal charge, always
write as +2
A (-) : Mn(s) → Mn+2(aq) + 2e-

Example #7:
Write the half-reaction equation at anode and cathode for simple cell using
Potassium and Chromium electrodes, in AlCl3 electrolyte.

Answer:
Anode is K. Cathode is Cr.
C (+) : Al+3(aq) + 3e- → Al(s) Do not write “gap” in
exam. Write as
A (-) : Cr(s) → Cr+2(aq) + 2e-
electrode potential

Determining the voltage produce in simple cell.

(1) In a simple cell, when the electrode potential (the gap between metal) in the
reactivity series is larger. We will produce more electricity.

Typical reactivity Series:

More reactive (Oxidation, -) Less reactive (reduction, +)

Li-K-Na-Ca-Ba-Mg-Al-Mn-Zn-Cr-Fe-Cd-Co-Ni-Sn-Pb-Sb-Bi-Cu-Hg-Ag-Pt-Au

For instance:
Simple cell with Li-Na will produce less electricity, compare to Li-Fe simple cell.

Predicting Cell Voltage using Simultaneous Equation

We have the following voltages of 2 simple cells.
Li-Na simple cell = 0.5 V
Li-Fe simple cell = 2.0 V
So, Na-Fe simple cell what is the voltage?

Step 1: look at the first given cell and identify which is anode and which is
cathode.
Li-Na; the cathode is Na and Li is the anode.
So we can make an equation, (+Na) + (-Li) = 0.5 V

Step 2: look at the second given cell and identify which is anode and which is
cathode.
Li-Fe; the cathode is Fe and Li is the anode.
So we can make an equation, (+Fe) + (-Li) = 2.0V

Step 3: look at the questioned cell and identify which is anode and which is
cathode.
Na-Fe; the cathode is Fe and Na is the anode.
So we can make an equation, (+Fe) + (-Na) = ??? V

Step 4: solve
(-Na) + (+Li) = -0.5 V (times first equation with -1)
(+Fe) + (-Li) = 2.0V (No change, take it as it is.)
(+Fe) + (-Na) = 1.5 V

Example #8: Predict the voltage of the simple cell Fe-Cu, if we know the
following voltages; (1) Al-Fe is 1.0 V; (2) Al-Cu is 3.5 V

Ans:
2.5V

Example #9: Predict the voltage of the simple cell Na-Ag, if we know the
following voltages; (1) Na-Al is 0.85 V; (2) Ag-Al is 5.3 V
Ans:
(-Na) + (+Al) = 0.85 V
(+Ag) + (-Al) = 5.3
(-Na) + (+Ag) = 6.15 V

Application of Simple Cell

Simple cell can be used for hydrogen fuel cell.
Hydrogen fuel cell basically uses H2(g) and O2(g), to produce electricity.
The waste is only water.

So compared to combustion process that produces CO2 and H2O.

Combustion also produces energy. But energy production using simple
cell is more environmentally friendly.

Comparison between combustion and hydrogen fuel cell.

Combustion Hydrogen Fuel Cell

Produces CO2 and it is not
environmentally friendly
Energy produced is less
Combustion is cheap
Combustion is non-renewable
Combustion can cause acid rain
Only produces water as the waste, so,
environmentally friendly
Energy produced is more
Fuel cell is expensive
Renewable
Is a clean energy
8.2 Electrolysis Cell

Definition: Breakdown of ionic substances by using electricity.

Electrolysis also has 2 important things:
(1) Electrolyte
(2) Electrodes are metals;
Anode = positive = oxidation reaction.
Cathode = negative = reduction reaction.

Electrolysis has 3 types:

(a) Electrolysis using dilute electrolyte
(b) Electrolysis using molten electrolyte
(c) Electrolysis using concentrated/aqueous electrolyte.

(a) Electrolysis of Dilute Electrolyte

Dilute: Too much water (mostly the chemical is water only)
When we electrolyze dilute electrolyte, the half-reaction at anode
and cathode is ALWAYS the following:
Rule#1: Whenever
dilute electrolyte is
A (+): 4OH-(aq) → O2(g) + 2H2O(l) + 4e- electrolyzed, the
reaction is always this
C (-): 2H+ + 2e- → H2(g) at anode and cathode

(b) Electrolysis of Molten Electrolyte

When we electrolyze molten electrolyte, the half-reaction at anode
and cathode are followed by the opposite ions in the electrolyte.
Example: (l) this means molten

Electrolysis of NaCl(l) using carbon electrodes.

Two ions present: Na+ and Cl-
Cl at room temperature is gas
A (+): 2Cl-(l) → Cl2(g) + 2e-
C (-): Na+(l) + e- → Na(s)

Electrolysis of CuCl3(l) using carbon electrodes. Write the half

reaction equations.
Two ions present: Cu+3 and Cl- Anode is (+), negative
ion will react there
A (+): 2Cl-(l) → Cl2(g) + 2e-
Cathode is (-), positive
C (-): Cu+3(l) + 3e- → Cu(s) ion will react there

Electrolysis of Fe3N2(l) using carbon electrodes. Write the half

reaction equations.
A (+): 2N-3(l) → N2(g) + 6e-
C (-): Fe+2(l) + 2e- → Fe(s)

Electrolysis of NiO2(l) using carbon electrodes. Write the half

reaction equations.
A (+): 2O-2 → O2 + 4e-
C (-): Ni+4 + 4e- → Ni(s)

(c) Electrolysis of concentrated/aqueous electrolyte

This means that the electrolyte has enough water. So, water can
react depending on the condition. There are a few rules we need to
know for concentrated/aqueous.
Rule #1: Cation from group I, II, Al and Mn, will not be
reduced at the cathode. But H+ will following the reaction of;
2H+ + 2e → H2.

Rule #2: Anion from salts [NO2-, NO3-, SO3-2, SO4-2, PO3-3 and
PO4-3] will have no reactions at anode. But OH- will have the
reaction of; 4OH- → O2 + 2H2O + 4e-.

Example #1:
Using carbon electrodes, write the half-reaction equations for
concentrated NaCl(aq).
The ions that present are: Na+, Cl-, H+ and OH-
A (+): 2Cl-(aq) → Cl2(g) + 2e-
C (-): 2H+ + 2e → H2

Because we did not use Na+ and OH-, they can react forming
NaOH in the electrolyte.

Example #2:
Using carbon electrodes, write the half-reaction equations for
concentrated Mg(NO3)2(aq).
The ions that present are: Mg+2, NO3-, H+ and OH-
A (+): 4OH- → O2 + 2H2O + 4e-
C (-): 2H+ + 2e → H2

Example #3:
Using carbon electrodes, write the half-reaction equations for
concentrated CuBr2(aq).
A (+): 2Br- → Br2 + 2e-
C (-): Cu+2 + 2e- → Cu(s)

In aqueous/concentrated, normally we use carbon as the electrode.

This is because Carbon is not reactive (inert).
There are 3 inert elements that we need to know; carbon, platinum
and gold.
But sometimes we may use a reactive electrode (not inert).
Example of reactive electrodes are elements other than the inert
element.

Rule #3: when the electrode is not-inert (reactive), the

electrode will oxidize at the anode, but doesn’t affect the
cathode.
Example:
Write the half-reaction equations when aqueous CuCl3(aq) is
electrolyzed using copper electrodes.
A (+): Cu(s) → Cu+2(aq) + 2e-
C(-): Cu+3(aq) + 3e- → Cu(s)
Example:
Write the half-reaction equations when aqueous FeSO4(aq) is
electrolyzed using Nickel (III) electrodes.
A (+): Ni(s) → Ni+3(aq) + 3e-
C(-): Fe+2(aq) + 2e- → Fe
Example:
Write the half-reaction equations when aqueous NaNO3(aq) is
electrolyzed using Iron electrodes.
A (+): Fe(s) → Fe+2(aq) + 2e-
C(-): 2H+(aq) + 2e- → H2(g)
When we use a not-inert electrode, we can see that the metal is
reacting (Fe(s) → Fe+2(aq) + 2e-). What would happen to the iron
anode after some times? Explain.
Ans:
After some times, the iron anode will be lost in its mass (the mass
will decrease). This is because the iron anode oxidizes and form
ion. So, after some time we need to change/replace the anode.

Application of Electrolysis
(1) Refining (increase the purity of a metal)
(2) Electroplating (coat a metal with another metal)

Example:
(1) Write the half reaction equation at anode and cathode for the
electrolysis of aqueous CuSO4(aq) using copper electrode.
A (+): Cu(s) → Cu+2(aq) + 2e- Electroplating
C (-): Cu+2(aq) + 2e- → Cu(s) reaction

(2) Explain what happen to the anode after some time and what can
you suggest.
Its mass will decrease because it oxidizes and become ion.
Suggestion: to replace the Cu(s) with a new Cu(s)
(3) Explain why there is no change in copper’s concentration in the
electrolyte after some time.
A (+): Cu(s) → Cu+2(aq) + 2e-
C (-): Cu+2(aq) + 2e- → Cu(s)

because the Cu+2 that is produced at the

anode, will be equally used at the cathode.

CHAPTER 9: THEMOCHEMISTRY/ENERGY &

EQUILIBRIUM

9.1 Thermochemistry / Equilibrium

When a chemical reaction happens, energy can change between the
product and the reactants. The types of energy change:
a) Endothermic = Substance receives energy (the surrounding
temperature will decrease).
i.e., photosynthesis, A/C room

b) Exothermic = Substance releases energy (the surrounding

temperature will increase).
i.e., burning/combustion
In a chemical reaction, substance need to break their chemical
bond first, before a new product is formed. After the product
formed, energy will be released back.

So, when a chemical reaction happens:

1) Reactants will absorb energy to break their chemical bond
2) When product formed, energy is released.

*If the amount of energy absorbed is more than released, the total
reaction will be endothermic.
*If the amount of energy absorbed is less than released, the total
reaction will be exothermic.

So, the is an energy change (entalphy, ΔH) in reactant and

product. Thus, we can draw their energy level diagram.

Exothermic Endothermic
Ea (activation energy) = the minimum amount of energy needed for
a reaction to occur.

Calculate the amount of energy needed for a reaction to occur

The equation that we use is:
Total energy change (ΔH )=∑ bond energy of reactant−∑ bond energy of a product

*Σ means summation or total

Example:
2H2 + O2 → 2H2O
Sources of energy:
a) Non-renewable energy
The energy cannot be renewed, when it is used up, no more
energy is produced.
Example: Fossil Fuel
Types of fossil fuel:
(i) Natural gas / methane (gas form)
(ii) Petroleum (liquid form)
(iii) Coal / coke (solid form)

b) Renewable energy
The energy cannot deplete, it can be generated continuously.
Example: Solar, wind, hydro, bio-mass energy, Hydrogen fuel
cell and etc.
9.2 Equilibrium