CS 210

Introduction to Computer Networks

application
transport
network
data link
physical

Packet Switching & Overview of Network

Security
Adapted from “Computer Networking – a Top-Down Approach”
© 1996-2012 by J.F Kurose and K.W. Ross, All Rights Reserved

Questions
• How does PS work? What is store-and-
forward?
• What is hop-by-hop routing?
• Why does losses and delays occur? What
are the 4 sources of packet delays?
• What is throughput?
• What/why of network security?

1
 The Internet – Recap
PC mobile network
• millions of connected
server computing devices:
wireless – hosts = end systems global ISP
laptop
smartphone – running network apps
home
❖ communication links network
regional ISP
wireless ▪ fiber, copper, radio,
links satellite
wired
links ▪ transmission rate:
bandwidth

❖ Packetswitches: forward
router packets (chunks of data) institutional
network
▪ routers and switches
3

Host: Sends Packets of Data

host sending function:
• takes application message
• breaks into smaller two packets,
chunks, known as packets, L bits each
of length L bits
• transmits packet into
access network at 2 1
transmission rate R R: link transmission rate
– link transmission rate, host
aka link capacity, aka
link bandwidth

packet time needed to L (bits)

transmission = transmit L-bit =
delay packet into link R (bits/sec)
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2
 The Network Core
• mesh of interconnected
routers
• packet-switching: hosts
break application-layer
messages into packets
– forward packets from one
router to the next, across
links on path from source
to destination
– each packet transmitted at
full link capacity
– hop-by-hop

Packet-switching: Store-and-Forward

L bits
per packet

3 2 1
source destination
R bps R bps

• takes L/R seconds to transmit one-hop numerical example:

(push out) L-bit packet into
link at R bps ▪ L = 7.5 Mbits
• store and forward: entire ▪ R = 1.5 Mbps
packet must arrive at router ▪ one-hop transmission
before it can be transmitted delay = 5 sec
on next link
❖ end-end delay = 2L/R (assuming
more on delay shortly …
no other delay)
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3
 Packet Switching: Queuing Delay, Loss

R = 100 Mb/s C
A
D
R = 1.5 Mb/s
B
queue of packets E
waiting for output link

queuing and loss:

❖ If arrival rate (in bits) to link exceeds transmission rate of link
for a period of time:
▪ packets will queue, wait to be transmitted on link
▪ packets can be dropped (lost) if memory (buffer) fills up

How do Loss and Delay Occur?

packets queue in router buffers
• packet arrival rate to link (temporarily) exceeds output link
capacity
• packets queue, wait for turn
packet being transmitted (delay)

B
packets queueing (delay)
free (available) buffers: arriving packets
dropped (loss) if no free buffers
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4
 Four Sources of Packet Delay
transmission
A propagation

B
nodal
processing queueing

dnodal = dproc + dqueue + dtrans + dprop

dproc: nodal processing dqueue: queueing delay

▪ check bit errors ▪ time waiting at output link
▪ determine output link for transmission
▪ typically < msec ▪ depends on congestion
level of router
9

Four Sources of Packet Delay – cont’d

transmission
A propagation

B
nodal
processing queueing

dnodal = dproc + dqueue + dtrans + dprop

dtrans: transmission delay: dprop: propagation delay:

▪ L: packet length (bits) ▪ d: length of physical link
▪ R: link bandwidth (bps) ▪ s: propagation speed in medium
▪ dtrans = L/R (~2x108 m/sec)
dtrans and dprop ▪ dprop = d/s
very different
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5
 Caravan Analogy
100 km 100 km
ten-car toll toll
caravan booth booth

• cars “propagate” at ▪ time to “push” entire

100 km/hr
• toll booth takes 12 sec to
service car (bit transmission
time)
• car~bit; caravan ~ packet
• Q: How long until caravan is
lined up before 2nd toll booth?
caravan through toll
booth onto highway =
12*10 = 120 sec
▪ time for last car to
propagate from 1st to
2nd toll both:
100km/(100km/hr)= 1 hr
▪ A: 62 minutes
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Caravan Analogy – cont’d

100 km 100 km
ten-car toll toll
caravan booth booth

• suppose cars now “propagate” at 1000 km/hr

• and suppose toll booth now takes one min to service a car
• Q: Will cars arrive to 2nd booth before all cars serviced at first
booth?
▪ A: Yes! after 7 min, 1st car arrives at second booth; three
cars still at 1st booth.

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6
 Queuing Delay Revisited

average queueing
• R: link bandwidth (bps)

delay
• L: packet length (bits)
• a: average packet arrival
rate
traffic intensity
= La/R
❖ La/R ~ 0: avg. queueing delay small La/R ~ 0

❖ La/R -> 1: avg. queueing delay large

❖ La/R > 1: more “work” arriving
than can be serviced, average delay infinite!

La/R -> 1
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“Real” Internet Delays and Routes

• what do “real” Internet delay & loss look like?
• traceroute program: provides delay measurement
from source to router along end-end Internet path
towards destination. For all i:
– sends three packets that will reach router i on path
towards destination
– router i will return packets to sender
– sender times interval between transmission and reply.

3 probes 3 probes

3 probes

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 “Real” Internet Delays and Routes
traceroute: gaia.cs.umass.edu to www.eurecom.fr
3 delay measurements from
gaia.cs.umass.edu to cs-gw.cs.umass.edu
1 cs-gw (128.119.240.254) 1 ms 1 ms 2 ms
2 border1-rt-fa5-1-0.gw.umass.edu (128.119.3.145) 1 ms 1 ms 2 ms
3 cht-vbns.gw.umass.edu (128.119.3.130) 6 ms 5 ms 5 ms
4 jn1-at1-0-0-19.wor.vbns.net (204.147.132.129) 16 ms 11 ms 13 ms
5 jn1-so7-0-0-0.wae.vbns.net (204.147.136.136) 21 ms 18 ms 18 ms
6 abilene-vbns.abilene.ucaid.edu (198.32.11.9) 22 ms 18 ms 22 ms
7 nycm-wash.abilene.ucaid.edu (198.32.8.46) 22 ms 22 ms 22 ms trans-oceanic
8 62.40.103.253 (62.40.103.253) 104 ms 109 ms 106 ms
9 de2-1.de1.de.geant.net (62.40.96.129) 109 ms 102 ms 104 ms link
10 de.fr1.fr.geant.net (62.40.96.50) 113 ms 121 ms 114 ms
11 renater-gw.fr1.fr.geant.net (62.40.103.54) 112 ms 114 ms 112 ms
12 nio-n2.cssi.renater.fr (193.51.206.13) 111 ms 114 ms 116 ms
13 nice.cssi.renater.fr (195.220.98.102) 123 ms 125 ms 124 ms
14 r3t2-nice.cssi.renater.fr (195.220.98.110) 126 ms 126 ms 124 ms
15 eurecom-valbonne.r3t2.ft.net (193.48.50.54) 135 ms 128 ms 133 ms
16 194.214.211.25 (194.214.211.25) 126 ms 128 ms 126 ms
17 * * *
18 * * * * means no response (probe lost, router not replying)
19 fantasia.eurecom.fr (193.55.113.142) 132 ms 128 ms 136 ms

* Do some traceroutes from exotic countries at www.traceroute.org

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Packet Loss
• queue (aka buffer) preceding link in buffer has finite
capacity
• packet arriving to full queue dropped (aka lost)
• lost packet may be retransmitted by previous node, by
source end system, or not at all

buffer
(waiting area) packet being transmitted
A

B
packet arriving to
full buffer is lost

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8
 Throughput
• throughput: rate (bits/time unit) at which bits
transferred between sender/receiver
– instantaneous: rate at given point in time
– average: rate over longer period of time

server
server,sends
with bits pipe that can carry
link capacity pipe that can carry
link capacity
(fluid)
file of Finto
bitspipe fluid at rate
Rs bits/sec fluid at rate
Rc bits/sec
to send to client Rs bits/sec) Rc bits/sec)

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Throughput – cont’d
• Rs < Rc What is average end-end throughput?

Rs bits/sec Rc bits/sec

❖ Rs > Rc What is average end-end throughput?

Rs bits/sec Rc bits/sec

bottleneck link
link on end-end path that constrains end-end throughput

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9
 Throughput: Internet Scenario

• per-connection end-
end throughput: Rs
min(Rc,Rs,R/10) Rs Rs
• in practice: Rc or Rs is
often bottleneck R

Rc Rc

Rc

10 connections (fairly) share backbone

bottleneck link R bits/sec
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Network Security Overview

• Field of network security:
– how bad guys can attack computer networks
– how we can defend networks against attacks
– how to design networks that are resilient to attacks
• Internet not originally designed with (much)
security in mind
– original vision: “a group of mutually trusting users
attached to a transparent network” ☺
– Internet protocol designers playing “catch-up”
– security considerations in all layers!

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 Bad guys: put Malware into Hosts via Internet
• malware can get in host from:
– virus: self-replicating infection by receiving/executing
object (e.g., e-mail attachment)
– worm: self-replicating infection by passively receiving
object that gets itself executed
• spyware malware can record keystrokes, web
sites visited, upload info to collection site
• infected host can be enrolled in botnet, used for
DDoS attacks

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Bad guys: attack Server, Network

Infrastructure
Denial of Service (DoS): attackers make resources (server,
bandwidth) unavailable to legitimate traffic by overwhelming
resource with bogus traffic
1. select target
2. break into hosts around
the network (see botnet)
3. send packets to target from
compromised hosts
target

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11
 Bad Guys Can Sniff Packets
packet “sniffing”:
– broadcast media (shared ethernet, wireless)
– promiscuous network interface reads/records all packets
(e.g., including passwords!) passing by

A C

src:B dest:A payload

B

❖ wireshark is a (free) packet-sniffer

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Bad Guys Can Use Fake Addresses

IP spoofing: send packet with false source address

A C

src:B dest:A payload

… lots more on security later!

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12
 CIA
• Confidentiality
– Information must not be disclosed to unauthorized
entities
• Integrity
– Information must not be altered or injected
• Authenticity or Availability
– The source of information must be authentic
– Network services must be available all the time

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Quote of The Day

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