Physical layer

1
Overview
l Physical layer is responsible for transmission
of a stream of bits
l Put bits from a machine to a medium
l Pick bits from the medium give to receiver
l Some issues
l Medium
l Line Encoding: representing the digital logic
levels using the physical attributes associated
with the media.
l Multiplexing 2
From signal to packet
Analog Signal

“Digital” Signal

Bit Stream 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1
0100010101011100101010101011101110000001111010101110101010101101011010111001
Packets
Header/Body Header/Body Header/Body

Packet
Transmission Sender Receiver
3
Model of data transmission
system

4
Data Communication networks

5
Direct Data transmission
system

Transmitter/ medium Applifier or medium Transmitter/

Receiver Repeater Receiver

1 or more

6
Communication Media
l Wired media: cable guides signals
l Twisted Pair
l Coaxial Cable
l Fiber Optics
l Wireless media: no cable guides signal
l Radio
l Infra red
l Light
l …
7
Twisted pair

(a) Category 3 UTP.

(b) Category 5 UTP.
8
Twisted pair
l Contains several pairs of copper,
cable in the one pair is twisted
together.
l Two kinds of twisted pair:
l STP-Shielded Twisted Pair:
l There is a metal coat, not popular
l UTP-Unshielded Twisted Pair:
l No metal coat, popular
9
Evaluation
l Cheap, simple
l Widely used
l Weak resistance to noice
l Short Transmission
distance
l Need amplification after
each 5km in analog
transmission
l In digital transmission
l Need repeater after each 2
km
l In Ethernet LAN
deployment < 100m
l Limited speed (100Mbps)
10
II. Coaxial

Category Impedance Use

RG-59 75 W Cable TV
RG-58 50 W Thin Ethernet
RG-11 50 W Thick Ethernet
11
Coaxial
l Structure:
o Inner conduct is coated by an insulator enviroment
o Shielded by a metal grill
o A plastic cover for protection.

12
Application
l Using in TV transmission l For digital transmission
l For transmission of l Repeater should be
telephone signal used after each 1km
l 10,000 calls in the same l More repeater is needed
time for high speed
l Is being replaced by fiber transmission
optics
l Linking the computers of
the short distance
l LAN 10BaseT, 100BaseT,
…

13
Optical fiber

(a) Single core

(b) Cable with 3 cores
14
Optical fiber transmission
mode

15
Optical fiber

16
Optical fiber
l Multimode stepped index :
l Several beam travel in slightly different direction
l Beams arrive in different delay
l Pulse can easily distort
l Multimode graded index:
l Index reduce gradually from the center to cladding.
l Beams closed to center travel slower than cladding.
Beams travel in curve form.
l Reduce pulse distortion.

17
Optical fiber
l Single mode:
l Index change less from center to cladding in
comparison with multimode.
l Beams travel along the center axe.
l Pulses experience less distortion.

18
Application of optical fiber
l Used for long distance l Advantage in comparison
transmission
l Used for
communication in
metropolitan networks
l Used for connecting
routers of ISP
l Used in backbone part
of a LAN
with other cables
l Large data rate
l Small and light cable
l Low attenuation
l Better isolation from
electromagnetic
environment
l Large distance between
repeaters
l Multimode à10km
l Singlemode à40 km
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Wireless media
l Terrestrial microwave
l Used for metropolitan connection, for cellular
network
l Microwave satellite
l Used in TV, Long distance telephone
communication
l Radio broadcast
l Infrared
l Small scope, low data rate, unable to travel
through the wall 20
Wireless media
l Radio wave:
l Wavelengths: 1mm – 100.000km
l Frequencies: 3 Hz – 300 GHz
l Ex: Bluetooth, WIFI
l Microwave:
l Wavelengths: 1mm-1 m
l Frequencies: 300 MHz-300 GHz
l Terrestrial microwave : metro connection, cellular
communication
l Satelite microwave: TV, long distance telephone 21
Wireless media
l Infra red:
l Wavelengths: 700 nm- 1 mm
l frequency: 300 GHz-430 THz
l Small scope, no wall penetration
l Ex: use in remote controls
l Free Space Optics
l Wavelengths: 850nm, 1300nm, 1550 nm

22
Frequency range of transmission
chanels

23
Transmission methods
l Simplex: Data is trasmitted in one direction
l Full Duplex: Data can be transmitted in both
directions in the same time
l Half duplex: Data can be transmitted in both
directions but one direction at a time.

24
Transmission format
l Sequent transmission: Transmit 1 bit at a moment (over a signal
line)
l Parallel transmission: Trasmit multiple bits in the same time (over
multiple signal lines)
1

0
1010 A B
A B 1

0
25
Topology
l Point-to-point
l Star
l Ring
l Mesh
l Point-to-multipoint
l Bus
l Ring
l Star

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Point -to-Point

1 2 3 4 5 N-2 N-1 N
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Point-to-point
o A transmission line connects two devices
o Link between two devices:
o 1 line (half duplex) or
o 2 lines (duplex)
o In case of half duplex transmission, there may be
collision if two devices on the same link send data
in the same time

28
Point-to-multipoint

29
Point-to-multipoint
l Common character of point-to-multipoint
topo is to use an unique medium to
connects multiple nodes.
l Data is broadcasting over the medium
l Collision when two nodes transmit signal in
the same time
l Need a control mechanism to allow a single
node to transmit àmultiple access method
à see in Datalink layer.
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Medium interface
l Data terminal equipment (DTE)
l Have data to transmit but has no feature for transmission
l Need an additional device for accessing the media
l Data circuit terminating equipment (DCE)
l Transmit bits on the media
l Transmit data and control information with other DCE
through the media
l Need a clear interface standard between DTE, DCE

31
DTE-DCE

32
Media interface
l Mechanism
l Define the form of the interface, number of pins for assuring the
interfaces match together
l Electrics
l Define the level of voltage to be used
l Define the length of pulse (frequency)
l Define enconding method
l Functionalities
l Functionality of each pins
l There are 4 groups of pins: data, control, synchronization,
ground
l Procedure
l Lists of events to perform for transmitting data

33
Example: EIA-232-E/RS-232
l Define for serial communication
l Mechanism: ISO 2110
l Electrics: V. 28
l Functionality: V. 24
l Procedure: V. 24

34
Example: V.24 /EIA-232-E
l Mechanic:
l 25 or 15 pins
l Transmission distance 15m
l Electrics
l Digital data
l 1=-3v, 0=+3v (NRZ-L)
l Data rate 20kbps
l Transmission distance<
15m

35
 Data to Signals
representations
Introduction
Digital data - digital signal
Digital data - analogical signal
Analogical data - digital signal
Analogical data - analogical signal

36
Basic ideas
l Representing data by symbols
l A symbol is an elementary signal:

l Set of mapping is the Encoding scheme

Ex: 1: , 0: or 1: 0:

l Encoding could be performed by bit or by a group of bits

e.g., 2 or 4 or 8 bits.

Ex: 00: 01: 10: 11:

37
Basic ideas
Encoding and Modulation

38
Line coding: represent digital
data by digital signals

l Use different digital signals at different voltage levels to represent

digital data (bits 0 and 1)
l “A digital signal is one in which the signal intensity maintains a constant level for
some period of time and then abruptly changes to another constant level”
(Data and Computer Communications, 8th Edition, William Stallings)
l An element signal / A symbol/ A pulse of signal
l shortest signal maintaining a constant level
l Senders encodes a flow of bits à flow of symbols
l Receiver: picks signals, detects symbols, decodes to bits 39
Line coding: represent digital
data by digital signals
l Receiver should know when a symbol starts or ends:
clock synchronization between sender and receiver
l There are many ways to represent 0 and 1 à different
encoding methods

40
Some line codes

l NRZ l Biphase encoding

l NRZ-L,NRZI l Manchester
l Bipolar l Differential Manchester
l Bipolar alternate mark
inversion
l Pseudoternary

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 NRZ-L Non Return to Zero Level

l During bit time, signal does not go back to 0 level

l Signal level is not changed during bit time.
l NRZ-L Non return to zero level
l Bit 1 signal is in low/high level
l Bit 0 signal is in high/low level
l 1 bit à 1 symbol

Signal baseline

Signal baseline
10/19/23 42
NRZ-I Non return to zero invert

l Bit 0: signal level is not changed at the begining of bit time

l Bit 1: signal level is changed at the begining of bit time
l A differential encoding method :
l 0 and 1 are represented by the signal level change, not by the level
itself.
l Reliable/ simple.

Signal baseline

Signal baseline
10/19/23 43
Line code consideration
l 3 aspects should be considered in any encoding method:
l Data speed: number of bits could be sent per second given
symbol rate
l Clock recovery on receiver side: If the clock recovery is
correctly at receiver side, the received signal can be incorrectly
seperated into symbols è cause error in the received data.
l DC-component: Directed Current vontage
component.
l DC-component makes recepter mistakenly detect level of
signal (by wrongly detect signal baseline)
l Encoding should avoid DC-component by maintaining signal
mean amplitude around 0.

44
NRZ
l NRZ Advantage
l Simple, utilise the maximum capacity of the line
l NRZ Weakness
l NRZ does not contain factors supporting clock synchorization
l Example: when sending a suit of 20 bits 1s, the signal is maintain in one
level and can be detected at receivers as 19 bits 1s.
l Contain DC-component when sending a suit of 1.
l Application
l Encoding data on magnetic storage
l Not popular in data transmission

10/19/23 45
Bipolar AMI
l Use more than 2 signal levels for 1 bit
l Bipolar alternate mark inversion
l 0 : No signal
l 1: Presence of signal. Two consequent 1s have two different
signal levels
l pseudoternary
l 1 : No signal
l 0 : Presence of signal. Two consequent 0 have two different signal
levels

Baseline

Baseline
10/19/23 46
Bipolar AMI
l No DC component
l Mean of signal lever is always 0
l Good synchronization when there are many bit 1s, lost
of synchronization when there are many bit 0s
l 3 possible signal levels for 1 bit:
l Not optimal in transmission line usage.

l Receiver needs to distinguish 3 levels of signal

10/19/23 47
Biphase: Manchester
l Manchester: Always change signal level in the middle of bit
time
l Bit 1: Signal change from low level to high level.
l Bit 0: Signal change from high level to low level

l Level change provides a synchonisation mechanism.

l Differential Manchester:
l 0: signal level change at the begining of bit
l 1: no signal level change at the begining of bit
l Always change signal level in the middle of bit time for
synchronization purpose

10/19/23 48
Manchester encoding

10/19/23 49
Manchester encoding

10/19/23 50
Units in transmitting digital
data in digital transmission

Term Units Definition

Data unit bit A single bit, Value 0 or 1

Data rate bit/s Rate transmitting bit

Pulse
voltage of
Signal element constant Part of a signal that occupies the
/Symbol amplitude shortest interval of a signal code
Number of
Symbol rate/pulse symbol/s Number of symbols generated in a
rate (baud) unit of time
10/19/23 51
 Symbol rate
l Number of symbol changes, waveform changes, or
signaling events across the transmission medium
per unit of time
l Unit: Baud/s = symbol/s

10/19/23 52
Nyquist rate
l Nyquist rate: 2 times bandwidth of a
transmission line
l Bandwidth: B (Hz)
l Nyquist rate = 2B (Hz)
l The maximum pulse rate for
a baseband channel is the Nyquist rate, and is
double the bandwidth
l Bandwidth B (Hz)à max pulse rate is 2B pulse/s
l Data rate (bps) = pulse rate * number of
bits represented by a symbol/pulse.
l Data rate using NRZ-L?
l Data rate using Manchester encoding?
l Baseband transmission: signal is directly sent
using its original frequency
l Passband transmission: signal is shifted to
53
frequency around carrier frequency.
Line codes

10/19/23 54
Ex-01
l Draw the signal generated when we encode
following data using different encodings:
l 11000000 11001101
l NRZ-L
l Bipolar AMI
l Manchester

10/19/23 55
Ex-02
l We know that the following signal is
generated from some data using standard
Manchester encoding, assume that you act
as receiver, please
l Identify the starting and ending points of signal
corresponding to bits
l Identify the original data sent

10/19/23 56
Modulation of digital data to
analog signal
l Example: data transmission over telephone line
l Telephone line accept signal with frequencies between 300Hz - 3400Hz
l Digital data from the source must be modulated to analog signal to
transmit over telephone line.
l 3 modulation technics:
l Amplitude-Shift Key
l Frequency-Shift Key
l Phase-Shift Key

10/19/23 57
Amplitude-Shift Key (ASK)

Varying the amplitude of the 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝜋𝑓𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 1

l 𝑠 𝑡 =$
carrier wave to represent 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 0
digital data
l Carrier original wave
function:
𝐴 cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑡)
l 0 and 1 are represented
by signals of two different
amplitudes. Ex:
l Amplitude A for 1
l Amplitude 0 for 0
l Usually used in optical fiber

10/19/23 58
On-Off Keying (OOK)
l Used in optical fiber
l A kind of ASK.
l 1: having light during the bit time (turn on the light
source).
l 0: no light during the bit time (turn off light
source).
l OOK may be realized in two forms:
l NRZ: light is on during all bit time of bit 1.
l RZ (return-to-zero): light is on only in a part of 1.

59
Mã On-Off Keying (OOK)

On off key observed from optical intensity (upper figure)

And optical field (lower figure)
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 Frequency-shift key (FSK)

l Varying the frequency of the

carrier wave to represent
digital data
l Two symbols to represent
bit 0 and 1 are two carrier
signals of different
frequencies.
l Lower error rate
l Used for transmiting data
over telephone line (low
frequency) or wireless
network (high frequency)

10/19/23 61
 Phase-shift key (PSK)
l Carrier signal at different
phases to represent bit 0
and 1
l A symbol is a signal with
one phase

l By using more than 2

phases, more than two
symbols can be generated.
l A symbol may be used to
represent more than one bits.
l May be combined with other
modulation methods.
10/19/23 62
PSK is used in combination
with ASK
Constellation diagram

10/19/23 63
Digital to analog modulation

10/19/23 64
Analog data to digital signal
l Converting the analog data to digital data then
l Encode digital data to digital signal
l Using line codes: NRZ-L, Manchester etc…
l Two methods for converting analog data to digital data
l Pulse Code Modulation
l Delta Modulation

10/19/23 65
 Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
l Pulse Code Modulation
l Sample signal according to
Nyquist–Shannon sampling
theorem
l If sample a signal with
frequency >= 2 *max frequency,
the original signal can be
recovered fidely from the
samples.
l Ex: human voice has greatest
frequency of 4300Hz, it should
be sampled with at least 8600
sample/s.
l Sample are then quantized
l Approximate the amplitude of
the sample by some digital
values
l 4 bit quantization è 16 diffrent
10/19/23 possible sample amplitudes. 66
l More bits, more precise.
Delta Modulation
l Weakness of PCM: generate a lot of dataà
l Delta modulation: Use a single bit for each
sample
l Idea: Instead sending the real value of the
sample 𝑥(𝑡), send the variation in sample
value in comparison with the last sample:
approximative value 𝑥(𝑡).
%
l If x t > 𝑥(𝑡)
$ : send bit 1
l If x t > 𝑥(𝑡)
$ : send bit 0
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Delta Modulation
l Nếu 𝑥 𝑡 > 𝑥% 𝑡 → 𝑥% 𝑡 ≔ 𝑥% 𝑡 + 𝛿
l Output = 1
l Nếu 𝑥 𝑡 < 𝑥% 𝑡 → 𝑥% 𝑡 ≔ 𝑥% 𝑡 − 𝛿
l Output = 0
𝑥 𝑡 > 𝑥0 𝑡
+𝛿
Output: 1

𝑥 𝑡 < 𝑥0 𝑡
−𝛿
Output: 0

68
Transmitting 1 1 1 0 00 0 011
signal:
Delta Modulation
l Parameters of the
modulation
l Step delta
l Sampling rate
l Errors:
l When the signal
varies slowly:
quantizing noise
l When the signal
varies quickly:
overloaded noise

69 10/19/23
 Analog data – analog signal
l Integrate signal m(t) to carrier
wave with Fc frequency to a
signal with frequency around Fc
l Technic is used to shift signal to a
frequency appropriate to the
frequency of the transmission
channel
l 3 methods
l Amplitude modulation
l Frequency modulation
l Phase modulation

10/19/23 70