Tribology International 186 (2023) 108586

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Tribology International
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/triboint

A method to analyze wear mechanisms on worn chute lining surfaces using

computer vision tools
C.C. Viáfara a ,∗, B. Valenzuela b , F. Martínez b , J.J. Penagos c
a
Grupo de Investigaciones en Corrosión, Escuela de Ingeniería Metalúrgica y Ciencia de los Materiales, Universidad Industrial de Santander, Cra. 27 Clle.
9, Bucaramanga, 680002, Santander, Colombia
b
Biomedical Imaging, Vision and Learning Laboratory (BIVL2 ab), Escuela de Ingeniería de Sistemas e Informática, Universidad Industrial de Santander, Cra. 27
Clle. 9, Bucaramanga, 680002, Santander, Colombia
c
Instituto Tecnológico Vale - Mineração, R. Prof. Paulo Magalhães Gomes, S/N. Conj. Laboratórios Escola de Minas-UFOP. Morro do Cruzeiro, Ouro
Preto, 35400-000, MG, Brazil

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords: Worn surfaces of the chute linings used under impact and sliding contact conditions in an iron ore plant were
Wear surface analysis characterized. A new method for wear surface analysis of chute linings supported by computer vision tools
Wear mechanisms was developed. The created machine learning model not only recognized and classified wear mechanisms but
Abrasive wear
also mapped and estimated their corresponding affected areas on the entire working surface of the sliding
Corrosive wear
contact lining. A combination of impact and abrasion wear modes took place for the impact contact lining,
while LSSA and corrosion wear modes were identified as acting simultaneously on the sliding contact lining.

1. Introduction mechanisms is not always objective, qualitative, and a highly demand-

Mining is among the industries with the most significant problems
regarding wear of machinery due to the comminution, transport, and
handling of ores in mining. Wear problems are expensive because of the
implicit costs of the consumption of energy, materials and time invested
in maintenance activities as well as the necessity of the replacement of
wear parts [1–3].
One of the most critical pieces of equipment used in the handling
and transport of ores is the transfer chute [4], which is a structure
often used, for example, to transfer ore particles between two conveyor
belts. Linings or wear plates cover the chute to protect against wear
and consequent leaks of the transported material [5]. Note that chute
linings suffer high wear rates as a consequence of the high tonnages
of transported ore and high sliding velocities exhibited during low-
stress sliding abrasion (LSSA) [5,6], despite the relatively low wear
rates characterizing this wear mode. In the specific case of Vale S.A.,
the costs associated with lining replacements account for approximately
40% of the maintenance costs in one mining plant, justifying the
importance of increasing the useful life of chute linings.
It is well known that the identification of the dominant wear mech-
anisms responsible for the failure of machine components is crucial for
the consequent development and/or selection of better wear-resistant
materials [7–9]. Wear surface analysis is usually performed by experts
to identify and characterize wear mechanisms. The description of wear
ing task [10–12]. In last twenty years, some studies have focused on
developing objective, quantitative and cost-effective methods for wear
mechanism analysis [10–16]. These methods use image processing
techniques such as fractal analysis [10,11], segmentation and thresh-
olding [13] and, recently, artificial intelligence (AI) [12,14–16]. The
works based on AI have successfully created automated machine learn-
ing models to recognize and classify wear mechanisms characterized by
images of worn surfaces [12,15,16]. However, to the best of our knowl-
edge, there is no wear surface analysis method to quantify and map
areas of different wear mechanisms on industrial-scale components.
In this work, the authors wonder if it is possible to develop a
machine learning model to recognize, classify, quantify and map wear
mechanisms acting at worn surfaces of chute linings used in mining
plants.
2. Tribosystems in chute linings
This section presents a description of the diverse tribosystems
present in the chute linings as a result of the varying operating condi-
tions. Additionally, the promoted wear modes and their corresponding
wear mechanisms are reviewed, as well as the lining materials and the
existing challenges to the simulation of the tribosystems in laboratory
tests.

∗ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: cviafara@saber.uis.edu.co (C.C. Viáfara).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.triboint.2023.108586
Received 7 March 2023; Received in revised form 5 May 2023; Accepted 7 May 2023
Available online 11 May 2023
0301-679X/© 2023 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
C.C. Viáfara et al.
2.1. Operating conditions
The process of transporting ore particles through a transfer chute
is mainly determined by three independent factors: the chute design,
stream rate of ore, and ore properties. In turn, these factors influence
other dependent factors that are relevant to the interaction between the
ore and lining surfaces from a tribological point of view: the stream
path of ore, points of contact and types of contact conditions, and
contact loads and velocities.
The chute design is an important variable defining the possible
tribosystems present in a transfer chute. The engineering design of this
structure aims to ensure the efficient transport of the ores, guaranteeing
a free and smooth stream, avoiding blockages, and minimizing the wear
of the discharge belt and chute linings [4,17]. The chute design can
also minimize the chute lining wear, diminishing the intensity of the
interactions between the ore and linings [18], but the low wear of
conveyor belts is a priority [17].
Two main contact conditions are present between the transported
ore and linings during chute operation: impact and sliding [5,19,20],
which are shown in Fig. 1 and constitute the first characteristic defining
the tribosystems in chute linings. The impact contact, at least for a
medium level of impact energy [21], occurs at the discharge points
of a belt conveyor, where the ore enters at the top of the chute and
experiences non-tangential contact with the lining surfaces [19]. Af-
terward, the ore usually experiences sliding contact during its passage
along the chute until discharging at another belt conveyor (see Fig. 1).
This sliding contact condition establishes the second and most common
type of contact along the chute. Close to the exit end of the chute
for some structure designs, impact contact conditions are also present
since the chute design tends to decrease the ore velocity to reduce the
impact damage on the belt and the spillage [4]. Additionally, eventual
impact can emerge depending on the three-dimensional path of the ore
stream or from misalignment between the linings’ contacting surfaces.
Variations in the contact conditions along the chute allow visualization
of the existence of wear gradients, at least from the top to the bottom
of the chute [22,23].
The stream rate of an ore depends on the demands of mining plant
production. Together with the chute design and ore properties, this
factor determines the stream path and the contact conditions between
particles and lining surfaces, such as the type, location, load and veloc-
ity. Generally, an optimum stream rate of ore is necessary to minimize
the impact conditions [20] and, consequently, the excessive wear of
linings. However, owing to the variations in a mining plant, the stream
rate of solids is variable during chute operation. Accordingly, a varying
stream rate typically changes the stream path and modifies the impact
and sliding contact points, normal and tangential loads, and impact and
sliding velocities. For instance, Thomas [24] reported sliding velocities
between 0.3 and 4 m/s for transported solids in a chute. Considering
the variation in the impact and sliding contact conditions at some
points of chute linings, these points will likely experience two different
wear modes in distinct periods of chute operation. In view of these
statements, the varying wear conditions in chute linings are envisaged.
As a direct consequence of the contact conditions, wear gradients can
be equally conceived in the longitudinal and lateral directions over
the chute linings, as has been reported by some authors regarding
mining applications [6,22,23]. The experimental results of field tests
by Xu and colleagues [25] confirm this behavior, where changing wear
mechanisms were identified in the analysis of worn linings at the top,
middle and bottom regions of a transfer chute.
Lastly, ore particles constitute the counterbody element in all pos-
sible tribosystems, and thus, their properties can be considered the
most relevant factor in the tribological behavior of chute linings. Hard
particle features such as shape, size and hardness have been recognized
as fundamental in the abrasion behavior of materials [26,27]. It is
widely accepted that these features may cause a transition in the
dominant wear mechanism and, thus, in the wear regime [26–28].
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Angular, larger and harder particles tend to promote more severe wear
than rounded, smaller and softer particles [5,27]. Other ore properties
of abrasives must be considered, such as the moisture and crushability.
The transportation of dry or wet ore is a typical process in the iron min-
ing industry, depending on the environmental or processing conditions.
The type and composition of the ore influences the shape and hardness
of the abrasive particles since ore is usually a mixture of minerals [18].
The ore particle size usually varies from large lumps to fine powders
during ore processing in a mining plant. For instance, we have observed
a wide variety of iron ore particle sizes transported through transfer
chutes in diverse stages at the same production plant. The transported
solids range from some lumps approximately 100 mm in diameter to
micrometer-sized particles. A large abrasive size variation of approxi-
mately three orders of magnitude can not only change the operating
wear mechanisms but also the wear modes.
2.2. Wear modes
Regarding the main types of contact between the ore and lining
surfaces, sliding abrasion or impact-abrasion (IA) wear modes are
expected to occur. Considering the most predominant type of contact
condition in chute linings, the main wear mode is low-stress abra-
sion [21,24], which is also called scratching abrasion [21], zero angle
erosion [29,30] and low-stress sliding abrasion (LSSA) [6]. This wear
mode is widely used in the mining industry to describe the abrasion
wear occurring when the abrasive particle is unconstrained and contact
stress is low since there is no counterface to apply a normal force [31].
IA wear has been cited as a critical operating wear mode in chute
linings [5,32] and is also called impingement erosion [29], high angle
erosion [30] and solid particle erosion [33]. The different names used
for the latter wear mode could be a consequence of the ore size
variation [34,35]. When small ore particles pass through the chute,
erosive wear is expected, as defined by Zum Gahr [26]. According
to the sliding velocities of particles reported for chutes [24], low-
velocity erosion is conceived. When large particles (ore lumps) or
abrasives are transported [36], dynamic and significant impact loads
appear. In this latter case, a combination of abrasion and impact that
can result in accelerated wear can occur [2]. According to several
authors [2,20,23,24,32], more severe wear is observed in chute linings
under impact (IA wear) than in those under sliding (LSSA wear) contact
conditions. In summary, LSSA, IA and solid particle erosion (referred to
hereafter as erosion) wear modes seem to occur when dry ore flows
through the chute, as displayed in the upper part of the scheme in
Fig. 2.
Other wear modes can arise when moisture is present in the ore
because of the environment or ore processing conditions. In addition
to the wear modes mentioned above, wet iron ores promote corrosive
and slurry erosion wear, as expressed in the lower part of the scheme in
Fig. 2. When sliding ore with moisture content is handled, joint action
between corrosion and abrasive wear occurs in chute linings [21,24,34,
37]. On the other hand, when impact is combined with wet conditions
in the ore or environment, slurry erosion–corrosion wear (small ore
particles) or IA-corrosion (large particles) occurs, as observed in Fig. 2.
In these wear modes where corrosion acts together with abrasion,
erosion, or IA wear, a synergism of the corresponding wear mechanisms
occurs that can result in severe wear.
2.3. Wear mechanisms
To date, very few works in the literature have carried out field trials
in transfer chutes [6,25,32,38–40]. To the best of our knowledge, Xu
and colleagues’ work is the only study that has characterized the wear
mechanisms acting on the surfaces of chute linings in detail [25]. They
found that microploughing and microcutting were the predominant
mechanisms from the passage of iron ore particles on linings of marten-
sitic white cast iron for eight months. Additionally, microcracking
C.C. Viáfara et al.
Fig. 1. Sliding and impact contact conditions in transfer chute linings.
and plastic deformation (ripples) were identified. These wear mecha-
nisms indicate that the LSSA wear mode was dominant. However, Xu
et al. [25] also pointed out that some worn linings exhibited impact
marks, suggesting that the IA wear mode was present.
In addition to those promoted by the LSSA wear, other wear mech-
anisms can be assumed to occur regarding IA and erosion wear modes.
Different types of plastic deformation have been reported regarding
erosion, such as indentations and platelet formation [41]. Considering
IA wear, impact craters have been observed, and synergistic wear mech-
anisms are expected, in which abrasion mechanisms promote impact
mechanisms and vice versa [2]. Notwithstanding, following Gore and
Gates [42], there is no evidence in the literature of this interaction.
Erosion and IA wear modes also promote the embedment of impact-
ing [43,44] or erodent particles in the material worn surface [26,41].
Eventually, when corrosion is present together with other wear modes,
synergistic mechanisms are predicted. For example, micropitting acts
together with microcutting.
The review above suggests that more than one wear mechanism acts
simultaneously in the LSSA and IA wear modes. This may also be true
for other wear modes. Tylczak stated that no one wear mechanism is
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responsible for the total mass loss in a tribosystem, demonstrating the
complexity of abrasive wear [45]. The simultaneous action of different
wear mechanisms and their relative predominance in the tribosystems
of chute linings can be considered one of the most significant challenges
for the optimal selection of lining materials.
A summary of the different tribosystems found in mining transfer
chutes, according to the above review, is displayed in Table 1. There,
wear modes established in Fig. 2 are shown and below the associated
wear mechanisms. Erosion and impact-abrasion wear were grouped
together since they both involve a component of sliding contact, in
which abrasion wear mechanisms are promoted. In this way, wear
mechanisms associated with LSSA can be produced in all the wear
modes. In the second line of wear mechanisms appear the synergistic
mechanisms, which are related to those wear modes involving inter-
action between two mechanical phenomena (impact and sliding) or
involving corrosion. Thus, only the LSSA is not expected to produce
synergy between their wear mechanisms. Thirdly, the wear mechanisms
related to the impact contact conditions are listed. Finally, the corrosion
mechanisms are established for the wet condition of the ores.
C.C. Viáfara et al. Tribology International 186 (2023) 108586

Fig. 2. Scheme representing the wear modes that can be present in transfer chute linings.

Table 1
Components of tribosystems in transfer chute linings.
Operating conditions Transfer chute design
Stream rate of ore
Ore properties
Type of contact Sliding Impact
Moisture condition of the ores Dry Weta Dry Weta
LSSA LSSA–corrosiona Erosion (small particles) Slurry erosion–corrosiona (small particles)
Wear modes
IA (big lumps) IA-corrosiona (big lumps)
Microploughing, microcutting, microcracking and microfatigue (LSSA)

Wear mechanisms Synergistic mechanisms

Plastic deformation and embedding of particles (Impact and erosion)
Corrosion mechanismsa Corrosion mechanismsa
Abrasive or erodent particles Ore properties (shape, hardness, size, etc.)
Lining materials Low alloy steels Low alloy steels
White cast irons White cast irons
Stainless steels Stainless steels
Ceramics Rubbers
Composites
Hardfacing alloys
a
Issues corresponding to the moisture conditions in the environment or the ore.

2.4. Selection of lining materials
Over several decades, many different types of materials have been
used to fabricate linings [1,32]: metals, ceramics, polymers and com-
posites. Depending on the operating conditions and wear modes present
at the lining surfaces, different materials are selected.
Examples of the selected materials for the most common wear
modes operating in chute linings, LSSA and IA wear, can be found in the
literature. Traditionally, low alloy quenched and tempered (Q&T) steels
have been used at chute locations with sliding contact conditions [5].
However, depending on the abrasive or erodent hardness, other mate-
rials may need to be employed. Under the same conditions, white cast
iron, hardfacing alloys, composites and ceramic materials are used and
seem to exhibit better wear behavior than Q&T steels [21,32,37]. This
behavior has been ascribed to the higher hardness of these materials in
comparison with that of low alloy steels [5,21,25,32]. In cases when
corrosion is present, stainless steels are used [24], and cost-effective
high chromium steels are recommended [37].
Increasing the hardness of the lining material is necessary to im-
prove the LSSA wear resistance [33]. However, an excessively hard
material is brittle and susceptible to macro- and microcracking; thus,
an optimal balance between hardness and toughness is reported as a
requirement [28]. When IA wear is considered, the impact resistance
becomes more relevant than the hardness. The impact contact condi-
tions in chute linings necessitate materials with high impact resistance.
In the case of steels, a tougher microstructure is needed, and pearlitic
and Q&T steels of low hardness can be used. The use of tougher
materials such as rubbers has also been reported [24,37]. Despite the
brittleness of white cast irons, Hocke [32] reported the outstanding
wear behavior of these materials under medium impact conditions
during field trials in an industrial chute. The lining materials reported
in the literature are also shown in Table 1.
A well-known strategy to effectively select materials for tribological
applications is based on the laboratory simulation of real tribosys-
tems and then the ranking of the candidate materials. Laboratory
wear tests have been considered useful for screening the selection of
wear-resistant materials [39].
Laboratory tests, however, also have some problems. The main
drawback of laboratory tests is their low correlation with the wear
conditions in industry [6,22,46,47]. In contrast, some authors have

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C.C. Viáfara et al. Tribology International 186 (2023) 108586

Fig. 3. Top view images of the LSSA (a) and IA (b) linings.

indicated that the real aim of model testing is to study the relation- Table 2
Chemical compositions of the lining materials.
ship between the microstructure and wear behavior of materials [48].
Furthermore, note that service life prediction is not the only aim of Lining Chemical composition [wt%]

laboratory tests but one of many [26,49]. C Si Mn P S Cr Ni Mo V

In the next sections, a detailed characterization of the worn surfaces LSSA 0.50 0.15 0.55 0.018 0.011 1.91 0.03 0.23 0.007
of chute linings is presented, which facilitates better explanations of IA 0.38 0.54 0.76 0.017 0.020 2.95 0.32 0.32 0.017

the wear processes taking place in an iron ore transfer chute and
the design of reliable experiments that can effectively simulate the
wear conditions and the wear modes and mechanisms produced in the
field [7,50].
3. Experimental procedure
The worn linings were obtained from an iron ore transfer chute in
an operating mining plant to be analyzed to study the wear mechanisms
responsible for short lifetimes. Two linings that were under sliding and
impact conditions were designated LSSA and IA, respectively. A top
view image of the LSSA lining is displayed in Fig. 3(a). A bright and
smooth surface, possibly due to the sliding contact conditions, and some
darker regions preferentially close to the left edge can be observed. This
region corresponds to the entrance of the lining, evidencing an edge
effect. Eventually, other small dark areas are found. The top view of
the IA lining can be seen in Fig. 3(b). In contrast to those of the LSSA
lining, all the IA lining surfaces are rough and dark, perhaps as a result
of the impact contact conditions.
3.1. Material characterization
The chemical compositions of both lining materials according to
arc/spark optical emission spectrometry, using a B2ADV model of an
Anacom Científica equipment, are shown in Table 2. C and S elements
were measured by combustion analysis using a LECO CS 300 carbon
analyzer. The results show that the linings were fabricated with low-
alloy steels, where the IA lining exhibited lower carbon content and
higher chromium content than the LSSA lining. The LSSA and IA lining
hardness values were 242 ± 7 and 469 ± 10 𝐻𝑉30 , respectively, which
were obtained with a Vickers Mitutoyo HV-100 hardness tester.
The microstructures of the linings were observed on an optical
microscope Olympus BX53M and are shown in Fig. 4. The samples of
lining materials were grounded with silicon carbide papers and wet
polished with alumina powder. The microstructures were revealed by
using Nital etchant. Fig. 4(a) shows that the LSSA lining has a pearlitic
structure, which is consistent with the measured hardness. Fig. 4(b)
shows that the IA lining has an acicular and fine microstructure that
is possibly tempered martensite, which is responsible for the relatively
high hardness of this lining.
3.2. Worn surface characterization
Possibly as a consequence of the variation in the ore stream path,
the linings displayed wear gradients in all directions. A more detailed
analysis of the wear gradients was performed through thickness mea-
surements based on cross-section profiles obtained at three different
locations: the inlet, middle and outlet regions. The sections at which the
profiles were taken are shown in Fig. 5. The profiles of the identified
sections of the linings were traced with a pen on paper and then
digitized using a generic image editing software. The reference point
to define the inlet region was the stream direction of the iron ore, as
presented in Fig. 3. Fig. 5 exhibits a scheme showing the approximate
dimensions of the linings. Furthermore, this scheme shows the method

5
C.C. Viáfara et al.
Fig. 4. Microstructures of the LSSA (a) and IA (b) worn linings.
Fig. 5. Lining dimensions, location of profile sections and scheme showing the image capture method at the inlet, middle and outlet regions. Units in millimeters.
used to capture the worn surface images for a representative landscape
of the wear mechanisms at the lining surfaces.
Stereoscopic analysis of the worn surfaces at low magnification
(x1.6) was executed in a Olympus SZX16 stereo microscope to charac-
terize the wear mechanisms. A complete characterization of the wear
mechanisms in all the different lining regions was obtained through
the method outlined in Fig. 5. Fourteen one-inch squares covered each
location of analysis (the inlet, middle and outlet regions). Four images
for each square were captured, as indicated in Fig. 5. Thus, a total of
168 images of the lining were taken to analyze the wear mechanisms.
From the worn surface images, two stages of analysis were car-
ried out. First, a conventional analysis was performed to establish
the different surface features corresponding to the wear mechanisms.
Stereoscopic data was the first stage for validation of the wear mecha-
nism categories. During this stage, a labeling process was performed,
where the wear mechanisms were identified and marked for use in
computer vision analysis (second stage). These labels serve as feedback
in the training step during the second stage, which is further described
in the next section. The labeling process consisted of selecting two (in
the middle and outlet regions) or three (the inlet region) images for
each region analyzed, thus a total of seven images of the lining. The
areas in the images with the same surface characteristics were labeled
with colors using image editor software. Approximately four percent
(7/168) of the images of each lining were employed in the labeling
process. The results showed that this percentage was enough for data
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with statistical significance. Because of the similar patterns found in
the middle and outlet regions of the worn linings, both regions were
grouped to implement computer vision analysis.
A detailed analysis of the wear mechanisms present at the worn sur-
faces was performed using Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) (JEOL
JSM-6010LA). SEM data was the second stage for validation of the
wear mechanism categories. Secondary electron (SE) and Backscattered
Electron (BSE) modes were applied to characterize the topography
and chemical composition of the worn surfaces, considering the likely
presence of adhered iron ore particles and corrosion products.
The strain-hardening behaviors in the surface and subsurface re-
gions of the materials were evaluated by means of microhardness
measurements with a 100 g load using a Shimadzu HMV-G microhard-
ness tester. Microhardness measurements were carried out at the top
surface in relatively flat areas where the indentation mark was not
distorted. For the measurements of subsurface microhardness, inden-
tations were performed at the cross sections of the samples of lining
materials. These measurements were taken at the outlet regions of both
linings, considering that this region experienced the most significant
thickness reduction. Between 10 and 15 indentations were carried out
for each condition following the recommendations of the ASTM E92
standard [51]. Measurements were taken at 70 and 50 μm from the
worn surfaces for the LSSA and the IA linings, respectively. These
distances were selected to comply with the recommendations of the
standard cited above.
C.C. Viáfara et al.
Fig. 6. Pipeline of the proposed computational approach. A set of images captured from the different regions are processed locally as a set of patches (a). The patches correspond
to local wear mechanisms, from which a function to discriminate among the different wear mechanisms is learned. Each patch is mapped to the first convolutional layers of a
general and previously trained convolutional network (b). The resulting set of activation regarding a particular patch constitutes the embedding wear mechanism descriptor used
to train an automatic learning algorithm (random forest) (c).
3.3. Computer vision analysis
A full characterization of an entire worn surface with human-based
inspection is tedious, time-consuming, and prone to extensive variation
and error. This kind of analysis can be supported with novel machine
learning and computer vision strategies. Automatic characterization of
the worn chute linings was implemented on a set of worn surface im-
ages with the main objective of recognizing and localizing the regional
wear mechanisms.
Figs. 6 and 7 summarize the two main steps (training and testing)
used to automatically recognize and predict wear mechanisms. In the
training step, a set of worn surface images (7) labeled with the previ-
ously identified wear mechanisms was used, as previously mentioned.
Then, the proposed strategy split the images with the labeled wear
mechanisms into a set of patches, as shown in Fig. 6(a). These patches
were described by a set of deep learning features that characterized
the color and gradient, among other features (see Fig. 6(b)). The deep
learning features, together with the labeled wear mechanisms, were
used to fit a machine learning strategy related to the specific wear
mechanisms, as exemplified in Fig. 6(c). During testing, each new
image was split into a set of patches and mapped from the previous
learning strategy to obtain a prediction, as schematized in Fig. 7(b).
Additionally, a reconstruction of a wear mechanism map was obtained
by slicing each new image (Fig. 7(b)). A rolling process was applied
along the image, with each pixel represented by the neighboring re-
gion patch. Each patch was characterized with deep features, and the
returned prediction, in turn, was drawn in the corresponding spatial
location in the evaluated image. The main components of the automatic
strategy are described in the following.
3.3.1. Deep feature wear representation
Each image was split into local regions (patches with size 𝐜 = 𝑐𝑤 ×
𝑐ℎ ), representing local wear mechanisms. During the machine learning
process (training step), only patches that were coded with just one wear
mechanism were taken into account.
Robust characterization of the set of patches was achieved by map-
ping 𝐜𝐢 onto layers of known and pretrained deep convolutional frame-
works. Each patch 𝐜𝐢 was represented with a bank of separated band
responses that spread information from high to low frequencies, with
some mid-frequency coverage. These filters allowed relevant wear fea-
tures such as gradient responses, orientations, color features and even
texture patterns related to wear mechanisms to be obtained. A convo-
lutional neural network (CNN), with 16 convolutional layers and three
fully connected relationships, was implemented to characterize each
particular surface [52]. From this architecture, the first block pooling
layer had a total of 𝐶 = 64 filter channels and responses of size 𝑊 = 40
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times 𝐻 = 40. Hence, each patch 𝐜𝐢 was represented by 64 features
with dimensions of 𝑐𝑤 × 𝑐ℎ . These features were summarized by using
a principal component analysis (PCA) that represents information from
the best-uncorrelated variables, resulting in a patch descriptor 𝐱 with
dimensions much smaller than 𝑁 ≪ 𝑐𝑤 × 𝑐ℎ × 64. Each of the sample
images has a dimensionality of 1225 × 1638, from which an average
of 1200 patches were computed. The final descriptor had a dimension
of 4096 scalar values to represent each patch.
3.3.2. Learning and classification of the wear mechanism patches{ }
The set of patch descriptors computed from training images 𝐱𝐣 𝑗
1…𝑚
with associated annotations 𝑦 = {0, 1, … , 𝑘} were used to automatically
learn and define the boundaries among the wear mechanisms. Herein, a
random forest (RF) classifier of the wear mechanisms was implemented,
assuming a discrete domain of a deep descriptor represented by a set of
decision trees (DTs). The conjunctions of the features on the descriptor
were represented by the branches of a particular learning tree 𝜃𝑏 =
(𝑗, 𝜏𝑚 ), and the wear mechanisms were represented by the leaves. There-
fore, each DT was learned by multiple 𝑗 splits from particular threshold
partitions 𝜏𝑚 . A hierarchical, optimal and discriminant analysis, the
CART strategy, was carried out to build relatively stable trees. Then,
the RF algorithm was defined as a set of DT classifiers grouped in an
ensemble learning strategy dealing with sensibility problems of simple
decision trees and achieving robust variability modeling in the feature
space [53,54]. For this purpose, a bootstrap aggregating strategy was
implemented, which consisted of random selection of a set of training
features to build a particular DT 𝜃𝑏 . This process was performed several
times to obtain 𝐵 different trees capable of performing wear mechanism
prediction 𝑦𝑖 from a set of reduced learning features. The proposed
strategy was run with a total of 𝐵 = 70 trees in the forest to ensure the
computational efficiency of the overall experiment. The final prediction
could be carried out by averaging the predictions of individual trees
or by taking the majority vote as expressed as 𝑦̂ = arg max{𝜃1 , … 𝜃𝐵 }.
This classifier’s main advantage lies in the description of the results and
the possibility of visual understanding of the label decision through the
feature branches.
3.3.3. Wear mechanism prediction and mapping
The main contribution of this automatic strategy is the capability of
reconstructing wear mechanism maps (see Fig. 7). A scanning process
was then carried out along the image, from which each pixel was
represented by the neighboring patches. The computed patch was
characterized by deep learning features and mapped to a previously
trained RF model. Thus, a wear prediction was drawn at the spatial
location of the original pixel. A pixel step was considered to quickly
obtain coarse reconstruction maps in the interest of time efficiency.
C.C. Viáfara et al. Tribology International 186 (2023) 108586

Fig. 7. The patch extraction phase is represented to carry out the local analysis (a). These patches are later mapped to one of the layers of a convolutional neural network to
apply a dimensionality reduction algorithm to the extracted filters, resulting in a descriptor associated with each patch. Finally, using a previously trained automatic learning
algorithm (random forest), a color label (a wear mechanism) is associated with each patch (b). Each of the predicted patches is spatially organized to obtain the associated wear
mechanism map (c).

Fig. 8. Macroscale worn profiles at the inlet, middle and outlet regions for the LSSA (a) and IA (b) linings.

3.3.4. Metrics for statistical validation
To evaluate the model performance, a cross-validation per image
was carried out at the inlet and middle-outlet regions. In this case, one
image was left for testing, while the rest were used for training the
model.
For quantitative analysis, two metrics were taken into account: the
global dice score (DSC) and the accuracy patch prediction (APP) per
evaluated image. On the one hand, the DSC defines the level of overlap
between the delineation given by the labeling process (Fig. 12) and
⋂
2‖𝐴 𝐵 ‖
the reconstructed map. The DSC is defined as ‖𝐴‖+‖𝐵‖ , where A is the
reconstructed area for a wear mechanism and B is the region delineated
by the labeling process. The APP determines the level of prediction
of the individual and independent patches mapped by the proposed
computational approach. In such cases, the number of true positive
patches over the total number of evaluated patches determines the
approach’s accuracy.
4. Results and discussion
4.1. Macroscale worn profiles
The results for the dimensional profiles taken from different regions
of the linings are shown in Fig. 8, where the upper surfaces correspond
to the working surfaces. These profiles show that wear gradients are
present in the longitudinal and transverse directions. Several authors
with experience in the wear processes of equipment in the mining
industry also found this behavior [6,22,25].
Along the longitudinal direction, the wear increases from the inlet
to the outlet region for both linings. Some hypotheses can be formu-
lated to explain the more considerable wear at the outlet regions. Xu
et al. [25] reported that field tests on chute linings suggested that the
load exerted by the streaming ore on the lining surfaces increased from
the top to the bottom. Consequently, higher loads could be applied to
the outlet regions of the linings. An edge effect could be responsible
for the significant embedment of iron ore at inlet regions of linings,
providing a self-protecting role and explaining the lower thickness
reduction in these regions.
In the transverse direction, some wear gradients appear, in partic-
ular on the LSSA lining (see Fig. 8(a)). In the upper-right part of the
profile, pronounced wear appears, perhaps due to a more concentrated
stream of iron ore passing over this side. For the IA lining, a slight wear
gradient was observed in the transverse direction, with the thickness
reduction on the left side being higher than on the right side.
Wear gradients constitute a significant challenge in the material
selection of lining materials. First, wear gradients are seen as one of the
greatest challenges the performance of field wear tests and obtaining
of significant results on the wear behavior of testing materials [22].
Second, the simulation of wear gradients in model laboratory testing
is problematic since it contradicts the advantages of controlling the

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Fig. 9. Images of the worn surfaces at different regions of the LSSA lining with the wear mechanisms (WM) identified. WM-I: Iron ore embedment, WM-II: Impact indentations,
WM-III: Microploughing/cutting overlapped with iron ore embedment, WM-IV: Corrosion pits and WM-V: Microploughing/cutting.
variables, such as the normal load, stream rate of particles and abrasive
size, characterizing these tests.
4.2. Wear mechanism characterization
4.2.1. LSSA lining
The stereoscopic images for the LSSA lining worn surface are in-
cluded in Fig. 9. Detailed visual characterization was performed to
identify the wear mechanisms present in each of the analyzed regions.
The inlet of the LSSA lining worn surface exhibits different surface fea-
tures than the other regions (middle and outlet), as already mentioned
in Section 3. In the inlet region, five different areas are recognized that
probably have distinct wear mechanisms. In the first region, denoted
WM-I in Fig. 9(a), orange areas with a particular morphology are noted,
which can also be found in a small region in Fig. 9(b). These areas are
probably associated with adhesion or embedment of iron ore particles.
In a second region, some black and dark areas appear with partic-
ular patterns, perhaps related to large indentations, that are denoted
WM-II in Fig. 9(a) and are also present in Fig. 9(b). In a third region,
identified as WM-III in Fig. 9(a), a dark orange area is seen, indicating
iron ore encrustation, over which the presence of scratching abrasion
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is observed. These features (WM-III) suggest two wear mechanisms:
microploughing or microcutting and iron ore embedment. This finding
correlates with the fact that in some lining locations, distinct wear
modes can operate, for example, IA and LSSA wear modes, as a function
of the chute operating time, as indicated in Section 2. In Fig. 9(b), two
additional wear mechanisms can be identified that are mostly found to
occur in the middle-outlet region (Fig. 9(c) to (f)). These wear mech-
anisms consist of corrosive wear (WM-IV in Fig. 9(c)) and scratching
abrasion mechanisms (WM-V in Fig. 9(d)). As mentioned in Section 2,
corrosion could be a consequence of the moisture conditions of the
iron ore. The LSSA wear mode can be considered responsible for the
microploughing and microcutting mechanisms. A qualitative analysis of
the areas affected by these assumed wear modes suggests that neither
is entirely dominant. The contributing areas were quantified by using
computer vision tools, as is discussed later (see Section 4.4).
SEM images of worn surfaces at the inlet and outlet regions for
the LSSA lining are shown in Figs. 10 and 11, respectively. The first
relevant feature in the inlet region of the LSSA lining is the fact that
approximately all the vision fields analyzed were gray, while the lighter
areas corresponding to the naked steel were tiny (see Fig. 10(b) and
(d)). This suggests that almost all the areas were covered by the em-
bedded iron ore, as assumed in the labeling process (Fig. 12). The inlet
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Fig. 10. SE and BSE SEM images of the worn surface of the LSSA lining at the inlet region.

Fig. 11. SE and BSE SEM images of the worn surface at the outlet region of the LSSA lining at low (a and b) and high (c and d) magnifications.

region exhibited indentation marks that sometimes overlapped with
microploughing or microcutting of a surface previously covered with
the embedded iron ore, as pointed out in Fig. 10(c). Other particles,
probably contained in the iron ore and chemically different from the
steel, seem to have adhered to the worn surface (Fig. 10(b) and (d)).
Fig. 11(a) shows evidence of microploughing and microcutting wear
mechanisms at worn surfaces of the outlet region for the LSSA lining,
as previously assumed from the stereoscopic characterization. In this
case, fewer and smaller areas appear to be covered with adhered iron
ore, while the naked steel area is significant, as seen in Fig. 11(b) and

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Fig. 12. Scheme showing examples of the labeled images of the worn surfaces at the inlet and outlet regions of the LSSA lining.
(d). Given that the outlet region also represents the middle region, the
LSSA wear mode can be assumed to have operated during the LSSA
lining service. As previously mentioned, the worn surface exhibits some
corrosion marks, as indicated by the arrows in Fig. 11(c). The corrosion
may be a consequence of chemical reactions between the wet iron
ores and the steel surface. Lastly, different small iron ore particles can
be found adhered to the worn surface, as suggested by the different
colors observed in Fig. 11(b). The SEM characterization confirmed the
interpretation of the results during the stereoscopic image analysis,
according to which two main wear modes were responsible for the LSSA
lining wear.
The interpretation of the wear mechanisms possibly acting on the
LSSA lining based on the observed surface characteristics or patterns
was used for the color labeling process, which served as feedback
for the computational vision algorithms through machine learning
and recognition of the wear mechanisms. Examples of the labeling
process are displayed in Fig. 12, where representative images of the
worn surfaces of the inlet and outlet regions are included and the
colored areas with one or a mixture of wear mechanisms are designated
from WM-I to WM-V. These examples were selected considering the
assumed wear mechanisms that were predominant in each region, with
the outlet region being representative of the middle region. Corro-
sive phenomena and microploughing/microcutting were the dominant
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wear mechanisms acting over most of the working area (middle-outlet
region).
The wear mechanisms associated with the LSSA were already found
in field wear tests of chute linings performed by Xu and coworkers [25].
According to Tylczak [45], iron ores such as hematite cut the pearlitic
microstructure but not the martensite, i.e., the LSSA lining material did
not have sufficient penetration resistance to inhibit the microcutting
mechanism. A material harder than pearlitic steel could be able to
inhibit at least the microcutting mechanism and the associated high
wear rate [26,27]. Reportedly, when iron ore particles are angular [20],
microcutting and microploughing wear mechanisms become more ef-
ficient at removing material from the surface [33]. White cast iron
offers a more optimized solution for LSSA applications since its carbide
hardness is higher than those of several minerals in iron ore [45].
Consequently, microcutting is largely avoided, and the penetration of
abrasives is reduced during microploughing, elevating the lining’s wear
resistance.
To the best of our knowledge, for the first time, a wear mechanism
related to corrosive wear was characterized in worn chute linings. This
wear mode contributed at least as much as the LSSA wear mode. The
corrosion products observed at the worn surface appear discontinu-
ous, and it is assumed that they could be Fe(OH2 ) formed from the
reaction of the hydroxyl ions of water with the iron of steel [27].
C.C. Viáfara et al.
Fig. 13. Images of the worn surface of the IA lining at different regions with the identification of the wear mechanisms (WM). WM-I: Iron ore embedment, WM-II: Impact
indentations and WM-VI: Microploughing/cutting overlapped with impact indentations.
A more detailed analysis is necessary to better understand the wear
mechanisms promoted by corrosion and their interaction with the LSSA
wear mechanisms. Phenomenological processes by which mechanical
wear enhances corrosion and vice versa have been proposed by some
authors [24,45]. Accordingly, severe wear from this joint action be-
tween the LSSA and corrosive wear modes is reasonably assumed and
probably contributed to the chute lining’s reduced lifetime.
4.2.2. IA lining
Fig. 13 shows stereoscopic images of the worn surfaces of the IA
lining. Similar to the observations of the LSSA lining, the inlet region
exhibited surface patterns different from those of the other regions
(middle and outlet). First, some orange areas suggest the embedment
of iron ore, identified as WM-I in Fig. 13(a). In addition, a dominant
pattern was found, with indentations smaller than those observed for
the LSSA lining, denoted WM-II in Fig. 13(a). This pattern exhibits a
dark gray color, which according to the SEM-BSE results below is due
to embedded iron ore. In Fig. 13(b), some small areas with a light
gray color that could correspond to the naked steel can be observed,
again, as supported by the SEM-BSE analysis. A characteristic surface
pattern was noted in the outlet region where indentations, together
with some scratches, were evidenced. Additionally, some indication
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of ore was found, as suggested by the colored surface and denoted
WM-III in Fig. 13(c). This finding suggests the operation of an IA
wear mode, as expected for the impact contact conditions. Scratches
of millimetric dimensions, in thickness and length, seem to have been
produced by large particles of iron ore, as observed in Fig. 13(c) to
(f). These wear mechanisms appeared to have overlapped, but regions
with the embedment of iron ores were indistinguishable from the naked
steel regions. The IA lining exhibited a uniform appearance in each
of the regions analyzed. At the inlet region, the impact indentations
on the embedded iron ore were predominant, while wear mechanisms
such as impact indentation, iron ore embedment, microploughing and
microcutting widely operated in the middle-outlet region. The latter
region covered most of the working surface, according to which the IA
wear mode was the main wear process.
It was difficult to determine well-separated and marked regions
corresponding to the IA lining wear mechanisms. This was due to a
limitation in computational terms, since the delineation of the embed-
ded iron ore in the stereoscopic images was not possible, and thus, the
labeling process was not performed for this lining. However, as shown
in the SEM analysis, distinct areas appeared corresponding to the naked
steel and iron ore embedment. For this reason, the computer vision
analysis was focused only on the LSSA lining.
C.C. Viáfara et al. Tribology International 186 (2023) 108586

Fig. 14. SE (a) and BSE (b) SEM images of the worn surface at the inlet region of the IA lining.

Fig. 15. SE (a) and BSE (b) SEM images of the worn surface at the outlet region of the IA lining.

Figs. 14 and 15 display SEM images of the IA lining worn surface at Table 3
Microhardness measurements for both linings at and below the worn surfaces in the
the inlet and outlet regions, respectively. In the inlet region, the worn
outlet regions.
surface appears mostly covered with different kinds of embedded iron
Lining Microhardness [𝐻𝑉0,1 kg ]
ores, as evidenced by Fig. 14(b). Some small areas of naked steel can
Initial Surface Subsurface
also be observed. The outlet region for the IA lining, representative
of the middle region, displays a considerable area covered with iron LSSA 252 ± 13 375 ± 24 266 ± 10a
IA 463 ± 43 546 ± 34 502 ± 14b
ores embedded at the worn surface, as shown in the BSE mode image
in Fig. 15. A morphology corresponding to indentations, microplough- a
At 70 μm from worn surface.
b
ing and microcutting is predominantly present at the worn surface, At 50 μm from worn surface.
suggesting the IA wear mode.
A combination of impact and abrasion occurs as a consequence
of the impact contact conditions of this lining. Synergistic effects are
usually associated with more severe wear, considering that impact strain hardening and the lower hardness of the pearlitic microstruc-
indentations promote more efficient abrasion wear mechanisms for ture (LSSA lining) compared to those of the martensite (IA lining).
material removal and vice versa [2]. Furthermore, it is well known The microhardness values measured below the worn surfaces of the
from the literature that linings subjected to impact contact conditions linings suggested poor hardening. For the LSSA lining, no considerable
present a higher wear rate than linings under sliding contact condi- increment in microhardness was observed, as expected regarding the
tions [2,20,23,24,32]. Hence, the characterized wear mechanisms at low-stress condition. On the contrary, the IA lining seemed to have
the worn surface correlate with the probable short service life of this a hardening depth of at least 50 μm. The magnitude of the impact
lining. loads depends on the size and kinetic energy of the ore fragments. It
is reasonable to assume that these impact loads were higher than the
4.3. Strain hardening behavior loads produced during the sliding contact conditions. As a result, the
impact loads produce a considerable hardened layer. This characteri-
The microhardness values measured at and below the worn surfaces zation of the strain-hardening behavior of worn surfaces is essential to
of the outlet region for both linings are displayed in Table 3, which the replication of this behavior in laboratory wear tests.
also includes those of the unhardened bulk materials to demonstrate
the hardening levels. As expected, values higher than the initial micro- 4.4. Computer vision analysis
hardness were found for both linings at and below their worn surfaces.
Strain hardening was probably promoted by plastic deformation caused From the results obtained during the wear mechanism characteriza-
during the sliding and impact contact conditions. From the viewpoint tion and the labeling process, the prediction and reconstruction of the
of hardening at worn surfaces, the increment of microhardness for wear mechanisms were carried out using a trained machine learning
the LSSA lining was approximately 50%, while that of the IA lining model. Two experiments were proposed. First, a wear mechanism
was only 18%. This behavior can be explained in terms of the better learning model that codes annotation from several images generates

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Fig. 16. Examples of the labeled worn surface images belonging to the (a) inlet, (b) middle and (c) outlet regions reconstructed using supervised learning.
a regional reconstruction from global information (see Section 4.4.1).
This method was named supervised mapping. Images of the inlet,
middle and outlet regions were taken to train and test the proposed
machine learning model. In a second experiment, from an independent
image, a minimal set of patches was taken to train a learning model,
and an automatic wear mechanism reconstruction was performed over
this image (see Section 4.4.2). This mapping was called a semisuper-
vised technique. This experiment allowed us to introduce a relevant
application, from which only some well-recognized patches of wear
mechanisms are identified, and the technique can reconstruct a wear
mechanism map for the entire image. The results of both experiments
are provided in the next subsections.
4.4.1. Supervised mapping of wear mechanisms
The supervised mapping results for the inlet, middle and outlet
regions of the LSSA lining are illustrated in Fig. 16. The first column
includes the original image. The second column shows the delineation
performed during the labeling process, and the automatic reconstruc-
tion is displayed in the third column. The proposed approach achieves,
in general, an appropriate representation of the wear mechanisms.
The delineation is almost perfect for the middle and outlet regions,
preserving the geometry and the areas related to each wear mechanism.
Regarding the inlet region, the automatic method correctly detects
the different wear mechanisms. The largest area corresponding to the
dominant wear mechanism is correctly localized. Some mistakes are re-
ported regarding the localization of the other wear mechanisms because
of the scarce information available (small affected areas) about these
classes for the training process. This performance is also associated with
the methodology’s probabilistic nature, which tends to favor the larger
learned regions of the corresponding wear mechanisms.
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In a second evaluation, the global performance of the computa-
tional approach was quantitatively assessed. Table 4 summarizes the
results obtained in this experiment. Note that the accuracy level is
related to the region available for training, i.e., larger areas with the
corresponding wear mechanisms have a greater probability of being
predicted. The microploughing/cutting and corrosive phenomena were
almost perfectly predicted at the patch level, taking into account the
middle-outlet region. Furthermore, the agreement with the labeling
process is above 68% with an APP close to 100% and a low standard
deviation. Since there were more samples for training in this region,
the wear mechanisms were better predicted and reconstructed. In the
inlet region, iron ore embedment was predicted with an overlap of 68%
between the labeled and reconstructed areas but with a low APP and
a high standard deviation. The latter behavior can be explained by the
corresponding smaller areas labeled for this wear mechanism.
4.4.2. Semisupervised mapping of the wear mechanisms
A second potential use of the proposed strategy is wear mechanism
reconstruction with the input of a smaller set of image patches of
the same image. This approach can help experts analyze complete
images by considering only some particular points of potential wear
mechanisms. The RF algorithm was trained with 20% of the patches of
the same image to evaluate the performance. The results are shown in
Fig. 17.
Interestingly, the proposed approach in this kind of configuration
achieved almost perfect results regarding the prediction, localization
and reconstruction of wear mechanisms in all regions. For the region
defined as the middle-outlet, the wear mechanism shapes were properly
identified from the reduced set of patches. A coarse segmentation and
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Fig. 17. Examples of the labeled worn surface images belonging to the inlet, middle and outlet regions reconstructed using semisupervised learning.

Table 5
Table 4
Average and standard deviation of the semi-supervised reconstruction metrics for the
Average and standard deviation of the supervised mapping metrics for the inlet (I) and
inlet (I) and middle-outlet (MO) regions of the lining.
middle-outlet (MO) regions of the lining.
Lining region Wear mechanisms DSC [%] APP [%]
Lining region Wear mechanisms DSC [%] APP [%]

Iron ore embedment 71 ± 13 88 ± 11

Iron ore embedment 68 ± 1 68 ± 35
Microploughing/cutting 69 ± 14 90 ± 10
Microploughing/cutting 25 ± 16 51 ± 41 I
I overlapping iron ore embedment
overlapping iron ore embedment
Impact indentations 66 ± 9 90 ± 6
Impact indentations 43 ± 18 48 ± 38
Corrosive phenomena 82 ± 3 94 ± 5
Corrosive phenomena 77 ± 7 95 ± 3 MO
MO Microploughing/cutting 71 ± 11 99 ± 1
Microploughing/cutting 68 ± 22 97 ± 2

reconstruction can be attributed to high pixel-step mapping to ensure
time efficiency. In this case, scanning the image with steps of 10
pixels was sufficient to reconstruct the wear mechanism maps. If an
application requires a more significant precision, a smaller step size
could be considered.
The results for the semisupervised reconstruction experiments are
reported in Table 5. As expected, in every image considered on the
dataset, remarkable results were obtained regarding the accuracy of the
wear mechanism mapping. For the middle-outlet region, APP values
above 94% with standard deviations lower than 5% were achieved,
while DSC values higher than 71% were obtained. For the inlet region
images, the capacity of the description, similar to the supervised recon-
struction, depended on the total area labeled for each wear mechanism.
However, the DSC and APP values were similar for wear mechanisms
in both regions, with slightly better APP values and standard devi-
ations for the middle-outlet region. The better results obtained with
semisupervised mapping are of great importance since they justify the
use of only a few well-recognized wear patches labeled by an expert
tribologist to train the learning model.
4.4.3. Support of the area quantification of wear mechanisms
From this digital analysis, each wear mechanism’s total area could
be estimated in each computed image. This area quantification could
be estimated either from manual annotation or reconstructed maps,
allowing us to determine the level of agreement between both meth-
ods. Table 6 shows the areas corresponding to each wear mechanism
detected manually or by the supervised algorithm. As assumed, there
is a general correlation between the wear mechanism areas in both
techniques, establishing clear tendencies for the inlet and middle-outlet
regions. On the one hand, a dominant wear mechanism operated at the

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Table 6 microcutting were predominant. In the lining under impact contact

Average results comparing the percentages of manually marked areas and supervised
conditions, the IA wear mode promoted the dominant wear mecha-
reconstructed areas for the inlet (I) and the middle-outlet (MO) regions.
nisms. In this case, a synergistic interaction between the impact wear
Lining Wear mechanisms Manually labeled Reconstructed
region area [%] area [%] mechanisms and those resulting from sliding abrasion seems to occur,
taking into account that they were fully overlapped in the affected area.
Iron ore embedment 49 ± 1 53 ± 1
These findings pose challenges regarding how to simulate the wear
Microploughing/cutting 15 ± 13 29 ± 8
I mechanisms found in the field in laboratory tests. According to Gates,
overlapping iron ore embedment
Impact indentations 29 ± 14 17 ± 7
enormous potential exists to develop testing methodologies and better
simulate in-field wear conditions [6]. The reproduction of the domi-
Corrosive phenomena 41 ± 11 58 ± 21
MO nant wear mechanisms, their synergistic interaction and their relative
Microploughing/cutting 51 ± 13 41 ± 21
contributions in laboratory tests represents a considerable challenge.
In particular, the moisture content in abrasive particles must be con-
Table 7
sidered to replicate the corrosion mechanisms. The characterization
Average results comparing the percentages of manually marked areas and semisu-
pervised reconstructed areas for the inlet (I) and the middle-outlet (MO) of worn surfaces by stereoscopy, SEM and microhardness techniques
regions. offers an excellent reference point to evaluate the replication of wear
Lining Wear mechanisms Manually labeled Reconstructed mechanisms. Similarly, verification must be carried out to determine
region area (%) area (%) whether the chemical species at worn surfaces are reproduced. Chem-
Iron ore embedment 49 ± 1 56 ± 5 ical characterization of worn surfaces was lacking in this work, con-
Microploughing/cutting 15 ± 13 14 ± 13 sidering that the species of corrosion products and embedded iron ore
I
overlapping iron ore embedment were not identified. This deficiency must be accounted for in future
Impact indentations 29 ± 14 30 ± 16 investigations.
Corrosive phenomena 41 ± 11 57 ± 14
MO
Microploughing/cutting 51 ± 13 42 ± 14
5. Conclusions

This work characterized the wear mechanisms at worn surfaces of

inlet region (iron ore embedment), as found in Fig. 10, with smaller
areas for the other wear mechanisms. However, note that smaller
areas and higher standard deviations were observed for the latter wear
mechanisms, and no agreement was found for the quantified areas.
This behavior can be explained by the small areas associated with
these mechanisms and minimal data for training the computational
algorithms. Hence, the main result was the confirmation that the iron
ore embedment acted predominantly at the lining’s inlet region. On the
other hand, for the middle-outlet region, two competing wear mecha-
nisms occurred. Significant areas for these mechanisms were measured
manually and estimated by supervised reconstruction, with similar
values obtained in both methods. In this way, LSSA and corrosive wear
modes can be supposed to be the main wear modes acting in most of
the working areas.
Table 7 summarizes the area quantification of the corresponding
wear mechanisms computed from independent images with manual
and semisupervised segmentation. In general, the results were similar
to those obtained for the supervised reconstruction. However, note
that a closer correlation was found for the corresponding areas of the
wear mechanisms in the inlet region. The dominant wear mechanisms
observed for each region were the same as those of the supervised
quantification. The semisupervised technique obtained slightly lower
standard deviations than the supervised strategy, again demonstrating
the great potential of the former.
4.5. Simulation of wear modes and mechanisms in laboratory tests
Understanding the wear processes occurring at the surfaces of chute
linings is essential to the posterior development of testing method-
ologies to simulate the processes in the laboratory. In this way, the
material candidates can be ranked to improve the wear behavior of
transfer chute linings.
The current work identified the wear mechanisms present at the
worn surfaces of chute linings under sliding and impact contact condi-
tions. The main results indicate that several wear mechanisms seem to
operate simultaneously, as reported in the literature [8,29,45,50]. Each
of the analyzed lining regions exhibited at least two wear mechanisms.
Some of these wear mechanisms were dominant, as suggested by some
authors [8,50], and took place over most of the lining surface. In the
case of the LSSA lining, corrosion phenomena, microploughing and
the chute linings used under impact and sliding contact conditions in
an iron ore plant. The literature review using the tribosystem approach
showed the complex wear conditions present in the chute linings and
supported the wear surface analysis.
A new method for wear surface analysis of chute linings supported
by computer vision tools was developed. A machine learning model was
created not only to recognize and classify wear mechanisms but also to
map and estimate their corresponding affected areas on the entire lining
working surface. The machine learning model strongly depended on
the clear discrimination of the wear mechanisms made by the expert
at worn surface images. The method allowed a quantitative analysis
of wear mechanisms to be carried out, reducing the subjective nature
of typical wear surface analysis. Wear mechanisms characterized by
computer vision offer a tool for optimized diagnosis of worn surfaces,
which could be used as feedback for the experimental design of reliable
laboratory tests.
The wear surface analysis allowed identification of the complex
conditions under which the linings worked, where a combination of
various wear mechanisms for each liner may occur. The operating
wear modes associated with these wear mechanisms were predicted
from the literature review. The dominant mechanisms were responsible
for synergistic action that promoted high wear rates and reduced the
service life of linings. A combination of impact and abrasion wear
modes took place for the impact contact lining. On the other hand,
for the sliding contact lining LSSA and corrosion wear modes were
identified as acting simultaneously and equivalently in similar areas of
the working surface.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
C.C. Viáfara: Conceptualization, Investigation, Methodology, Val-
idation, Writing – original draft, Supervision. B. Valenzuela: Soft-
ware, Investigation, Writing – original draft, Methodology, Algorithm
design. F. Martínez: Writing – review & editing, Methodology, Algo-
rithm design, Formal analysis, Data curation, Resources, Supervision,
Validation, Visualization. J.J. Penagos: Writing – review & editing,
Supervision, Resources, Visualization, Project administration, Funding
acquisition.

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C.C. Viáfara et al.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare the following financial interests/personal rela-
tionships which may be considered as potential competing interests:
Cristan Camilo Viafara Arrango reports financial support was provided
by CNPq (Brazilian National Council for Scientific and Technological
Development). CRISTIAN CAMILO VIAFARA ARANGO has patent pend-
ing to BR 10 2022 016568 8, Ref P011352/BR. CRISTIAN CAMILO
VIAFARA ARANGO has patent pending to BR 10 2022 016587 4, Ref.
P011353/BR.
Data availability
The data that has been used is confidential.
Acknowledgments
We are grateful for the support of Rodnei Santos, Mario Bueno and
Gustavo Tressia regarding the material characterizations. We would
also like to thank CNPq (Brazilian National Council for Scientific and
Technological Development) for its financial support through process
402768/2018-3 of the CNPq/ITV No. 10/2018 call. The authors would
like also to acknowledge the support from VIE (Vicerrectoría de Investi-
gación y Extensión, proyecto código 2810) of the Universidad Industrial
de Santander.
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