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Energy Yield Modelling and Soiling of PV

Modules
Gaurav Sharma

Karlsruhe Institute of Technology

Abstract—Photovoltaic (PV) systems play a major role in the
global change towards renewable energy sources. However, the
performance of PV modules can be significantly impacted by
various environmental factors, with soiling being one of the most
substantial challenges. This paper presents a comprehensive
review and analysis of energy yield modeling in the presence of
soiling on PV modules. The paper discusses various approaches
to modeling energy yield losses due to soiling, ranging from
empirical to physics-based methods. The aim is to provide a
thorough understanding of the methodologies, challenges, and
advancements in this field in optimizing the performance of PV
systems.
as cementation, caking and capillary aging. This, in turn,
results in decreased electrical output, affecting the overall
energy yield of the PV system. From figure 2 we can depict
total suspended particle density derived from a typical dust
year in different regions. The darker regions indicate areas with
higher densities of dust [3]. It is notable that Saharan dust
plumes are transported hundreds of kilometres over the
Atlantic to reach the Americas.

I. INTRODUCTION
The increasing demand for sustainable energy sources has
enhanced the usage of PV modules with time and as it is a
clean and renewable energy generation technology as well.
However, the efficiency and output of these modules are not
solely dependent on sunlight exposure; various extraneous
factors can significantly impact their performance. One of the
important issues is the accumulation of dirt, dust, and other
contaminants on the surface of PV modules, commonly
Fig. 2. Particle density over 4 seasons in a typical dust year [3].
referred to as soiling. It depends on factors like humidity,
dew, wind speed, precipitation, soil type, and terrain. Also, The next important thing is particle size. Particle sizes below
broader elements like long-range dust transport and 10 µm or 2.5 µm play a pivotal role in the modeling of soiling
anthropogenic activities such as agriculture impact soiling effects on PV modules. From figure 3 several particles are
potential. This report aims to explore the complexities of shown with their range. These specific size ranges are of
soiling, its implications, and the strategies implemented to particular significance due to the substantial influence they
counteract its effects. exert on the behavior of particles and their interactions with
the surfaces of the PV modules from the physical property of
Solar cell [3]. In energy yield modeling, accounting for these
specific particle sizes is crucial as their behavior
fundamentally influences the rate of particle deposition, the
optical properties of the soiling layer, and subsequently, the
amount of energy loss experienced by the PV module.

Fig. 1. Figure shows a 500 hPa geopotential height anomaly of 2020 spring
(March, April, May) b top-10 years of daily mean integrated global horizontal
irradiance (GHI), partitioned into direct and diffuse.[1].

In figure 1 we can see the mean surface solar irradiance

over the last 10 years increased. At the end of 2020 diffuse
radiation is 38% and direct radiation over 200. The impact of
soiling on PV module performance is multifaceted. It leads to
reductions in the amount of available sunlight due to shading,
reflection, and absorption by deposited particles [2]. The
Fig.3. Particle size distributions [3].
driving factors behind the formation of soiling are physical
and chemical characteristics of the dust and processes known

Fig. 4. The impact on incident light from soiling on a photovoltaic glass.
Diagram made by Al Hicks (NREL, USA) and sourced from [4].
II. Effects on PV Performance
Taking a closer look on figure 4 the deposited soiling layer
causes optical losses, reducing the number of photons that
reach the solar cells and, consequently, diminishing
performance. The optical losses are due to the absorbance,
reflectance, and dispersion of the incident light because of the
presence of dust. The enhanced forward scattering can be
seen. Shading effects on PV module performance can be
categorized as soft shading and hard shading. Soft shading
involves reduced solar irradiance due to atmospheric particles
or surface dust, impacting current while voltage remains
constant. In hard shading, accumulated solid materials block
sunlight, mainly because of snow potentially causing voltage
reduction when specific cells are shaded. Unshaded cells
maintain current flow. Voltage and current responses to both
shading types are depicted in Figure 5. Soft shading maintains
voltage and lowers current, while hard shading affects voltage
when cells are shaded [5]. Unshaded cells maintain current,
but total shading eliminates power output.
Fig. 5. Voltage–power characteristics of a PV module for soft and hard
shading. [5].
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III. Soiling Mitigation Strategies
Fig. 6. Different types of dust mitigation techniques [6].
A. Regular Cleaning
Frequent cleaning of PV modules is vital to eliminate
accumulated dirt and reinstate their operational efficiency.
Cleaning frequency hinges on the local environment and
soiling extent. Approaches encompass manual, natural or
automated cleansing as shown in figure 6 with water and mild
detergent. [6].
B. Coatings and Surface Treatments
Coatings and surface treatments can minimize dirt
accumulation and facilitate self-cleaning. Anti-soiling coatings
repel dust and contaminants, reducing the adherence of dirt on
the module surface. Hydrophobic treatments create a water-
repellent surface, allowing rainwater to wash away dirt . In
figure 7 we can see the difference in current density as it
climbed from 27 mA/cm2 to 32 mA/cm2.
Fig. 7. Impact of coatings on PV module I-V characteristics [6].
C. Tilted or Self-Cleaning Modules
Tilted modules utilize gravity for debris removal, while self-
cleaning modules employ textures or coatings to encourage dirt
shedding through natural processes. Both innovative
approaches enhance solar panel cleanliness and efficiency.
IV. Cementation, Caking, Capillary Aging
"Cementation" describes solid deposits within modules from
moisture or contaminants, impacting light transmission and
resistance. "Caking" involves particle agglomeration due to
moisture, heat, causing hotspots, reduced conductivity, and
delamination. Prolonged moisture can create capillary
channels, corrode, degrade, and trigger breakdown via

microcracks in encapsulants. Such issues underscore the
critical need for effective sealing and encapsulation in
photovoltaic modules. In figure 8 we can see how all these
leads to aging [3].
Fig. 8. Schematic representation of soiling mechanisms that increase adhesion
[7]
V. Dew-Driven Soiling Mechanism.
Dew emerges as surface temperature falls below the dew
point. Dew droplets collect particles and moisture aids
contaminants' adhesion. Chemical reactions with dissolved
substances lead to residues. Accumulated dirt diminishes light
passage and power output in solar modules. The temperature
on the glass of the PV module (Tglass) is calculated assuming
that this temperature is similar to the temperature of the cells
inside the panel [3].
NOCT - Normal Operating Cell Temperature
S - solar irradiance
Dew accumulation on PV modules is commonly observed in
diverse desert regions (Figure 9). This occurrence arises from
elevated humidity and radiative cooling of modules. The
cooling effect stems from the solar glass's pronounced infrared
emissivity.
Fig. 9. Typical dataset for relative humidity and temperatures of PV modules,
ambient as well as calculated dew point temperature over the duration of three
nights in October 2015 at the solar test facility, Doha [8]
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VI. Conclusion
Soiling mitigation significantly enhances PV module
performance by maintaining lower operating temperatures,
maximizing sunlight exposure to optimize power output,
improving return on investment, increasing electricity
generation, extending module lifespan, and reducing reliance
on conventional energy sources. In figure 10 curves intersect
at N ~ 4, suggesting cleaning solar modules every 3 months
minimizes total annual costs (soiling + cleaning). Such
targeted cleaning strategies, as shown in Figure 6 & 7,
underscore the economic advantages of effective soiling
mitigation, enhancing photovoltaic system performance and
financial gains [9].
Fig. 10. Annual soiling losses expected with different cleanings per year (N) in
Iquique [9]
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The author would like to thank Prof. Dr. Ulrich Wilhelm
Paetzold and and Dr. Paul Faßl for the guidance and support
in articulating this review. All the work has been done under
karlsruhe Institute of Technology, a public university, and
also is a national research center of the Helmholtz
Association.
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