23 Nuclear physics (A2)

23.1 Mass defect and nuclear binding energy

Candidates should be able to:

23.1.1 understand the equivalence between energy and

mass as represented by E = mc2 and recall and
use this equation.
23.1.2 represent simple nuclear reactions by nuclear
equations of the form 147N + 42He → 178O + 11H
23.1.3 define and use the terms mass defect and
binding energy.
Candidates should be able to:

23.1.4 sketch the variation of binding energy per nucleon

with nucleon number.
23.1.5 explain what is meant by nuclear fusion and nuclear
fission.
23.1.6 explain the relevance of binding energy per nucleon
to nuclear reactions, including nuclear fusion and
nuclear fission.
23.1.7 calculate the energy released in nuclear reactions
using E = c2Δm
23.2 Radioactive decay
Candidates should be able to:

23.2.1 understand that fluctuations in count rate provide evidence for the
random nature of radioactive decay.
23.2.2 understand that radioactive decay is both spontaneous and random.
23.2.3 define activity and decay constant and recall and use A = λN.
23.2.4 define half-life.
0.693
23.2.5 use λ =
t½
23.2.6 understand the exponential nature of radioactive decay, and sketch
and use the relationship x = xoe–λt, where x could represent activity,
number of undecayed nuclei or received count rate.
 Nuclear reaction

Parent Radiation
Nucleus
Daughter
Nucleus
+ (Rays)

LEFT SIDE RIGHT SIDE

➢ So, total nucleon or charges must be equal in both sides.

A new law is evident by
studying radioactive decay:
The total number of
nucleons cannot change.
o If we have a stable nucleus, 126C .
o This nucleus consists of six protons (6p) and six neutrons (6n).
o The separate nucleons have more mass than the nucleus itself.

Illustration of a Mass Defect

▪ The law of conservation of mass appears to have been broken.
▪ The nucleons attract one another with nuclear forces and
these strong enough to make nucleus stable.
▪ So, energy must give into nucleus to pull it apart (to
dismantling) and this increase the potential energy of the
individual nucleons.
▪ These nucleons sitting in a deep potential well which results
from the strong forces which hold the nucleus together.
o The separate laws of Conservation of Mass and Conservation
of Energy are not applied strictly on the nuclear level.

o It is possible to convert between mass and energy.

o Instead of two separate conservation law states that the sum

of mass and energy is conserved.

o Mass does not magically appear and disappear at random.

o A decrease in mass will be accompanied by a corresponding

increase in energy and vice versa.
 Einstein mass-energy relation
o From the theory of relativity leads of the idea that
mass is a form of energy.
o Mass and energy can be related by the following
relation:
E = mc2 ---------------- (1)
Where E = amount of energy
m = rest mass
c = speed of light in vacuum
e.g: The energy for 1 kg of substance is,
E = mc2 = (1)(3 x 108)2 = 9.00 x 1016 J
▪ If the changes in mass owing to changes in
energy, its equation become

∆E = ∆mc2
▪ According to Einstein’s equation:
o The mass of a system increases when energy
is supplied to it.
o When energy is released from a system, its
mass decreases.
 Mass Defect

When protons and neutrons come together to form a nucleus, the mass of the
nucleus is less than the sum of the masses of separated protons and
neutrons.
This difference in mass is called the mass defect of the nucleus.
“The mass defect of a nucleus is equal to the difference between the total
mass of the individual, separate nucleons and the mass of the nucleus”.
Mass Defect = (Mass of separated protons & neutrons) – (mass of nucleus)

∆m = (Z(mp) + N(mn)) – (mnucleaus)

Where:
Z is the number of proton and
N is the number of neutrons in the nucleus.
 The Atomic Mass Unit

▪ The atomic mass unit (u) is far more convenient

to use with nuclear masses.

▪ It uses carbon-12 as a reference and is defined as:

1
▪ Exactly th the mass of a carbon 12 atom.
12

▪ 1 atomic mass unit (u) = 1.661 × 10-27 kg.

 The table shows particle masses in atomic mass units
✓ Note that the numbers are expressed to a large number of significant
figures as the changes are quite subtle.

Particle Mass (u)

Electron 0.000549
Neutron 1.008665
Proton 1.007276
Hydrogen atom (1p+ + 1e-) 1.007825
Helium atom (2p+ + 2n + 2e-) 4.002603
α particle (2p+ + 2n) 4.001505
 Binding Energy
▪ The total mass of a stable nucleus is always less than the sum
of the masses of its separate protons and neutrons.

▪ Where has the mass gone?

▪ This difference between the total mass of the constituents and

the mass of the nucleus causes some of their mass to be
released as energy.

▪ It has become energy, such as radiation or kinetic energy,

released during the formation of the nucleus.
o Any attempt to separate the
nucleons would involve them
being given this same amount of
energy to against the strong
nuclear force.
o “The minimum energy needed to
pull a nucleus apart into its separate
nucleons is known as the BINDING Work is required to pull a
ENERGY of the nucleus”. nucleon from an atomic
nucleus. This work goes into
mass energy.
 + Binding
energy

Nucleus Separated nucleons

(small mass) (greater mass)
The binding energy of the nucleus is equal to the energy
equivalent of the mass defect. Hence;

BE = (∆m) c2
BINDING SPEED OF
ENERGY MASS LIGHT IN
DEFECT VACUUM

∆m = [( Z(mp) + N(mn) ) – (matom)] x c2

o Because of the strong nuclear force, the nucleons in a stable
nucleus are held tightly together.

o Thus, energy is required to separate a stable nucleus into its

constituent nucleons.

o The more stable the nucleus is, the greater is the amount of energy
needed to break it apart.

o Each of the separated nucleons is at rest and out of range of the

forces of the other nucleons.

o The nuclear force depends on the binding energy per nucleon.

 BINDING ENERGY PER NUCLEON

o The binding energy per nucleon of a nucleus is a measure

of the nucleus stability.

o The total binding energy of a nucleus divided by number

𝐵𝐸
of nucleon =
𝐴
Graph to show the variation of binding energy per nucleon with nucleon number.
29.4: Graph
binding energy
per nucleon with
nucleon number.
o The greater the value of the binding energy per nucleon,
the more tightly bound are the nucleons that make up the
nucleus.
o General trend is the light nuclei have low binding energy
per nucleon.
o But helium has higher binding energy (means very stable).
o For nuclei A > 20, there is not much variation in binding
energy per nucleon.
o The greatest binding energy per nucleon is for 56
26Fe (iron
requires the most energy per nucleon to dismantle it into
separate nucleons – most stable isotope).
 NUCLEAR FISSION
o Fission refers to the process when a heavy nucleus like
uranium splits into two lighter nuclei with a release of
energy.
o it produced smaller nuclei with half the size of the
original nucleus.
o Nuclear fission releases an amount of energy that is
greater than the energy released in chemical reaction.
o Energy is released because the average binding energy per
nucleon of the fission products is greater than that of the
parent.
 Example : Uranium-235

A slowly moving neutron causes the uranium nucleus to fission

into barium, krypton, and three neutrons.
 NUCLEAR FUSION

o Is defined as a type of nuclear reaction in which two light

nuclei fuse to form a heavier nucleus with the release of
large amounts of energy.
o The energy released in this reaction is called thermonuclear
energy.
o The two reacting nuclei in fusion
reaction above themselves have to be
brought into collision.
o As both nuclei are positively charged
there is a strong repulsive force between
them, which can only be overcome if the
reacting nuclei have very high kinetic
energies.
o These high kinetic energies imply
temperatures of the order of 108 K.
Graph of binding energy per nucleon against the mass number in Figure
9.8 is used to explain the occurrence of fission and fusion reactions.
23.2 Radioactive decay
Candidates should be able to:

23.2.1 understand that fluctuations in count rate provide evidence for the
random nature of radioactive decay.
23.2.2 understand that radioactive decay is both spontaneous and random
23.2.3 define activity and decay constant and recall and use A = λN.
23.2.4 define half-life.
0.693
23.2.5 use λ =
t½
23.2.6 understand the exponential nature of radioactive decay, and sketch
and use the relationship x = xoe–λt, where x could represent activity,
number of undecayed nuclei or received count rate.
 Introduction

o Radioactivity – is defined as the spontaneous and

random disintegration of certain atomic nuclei
accompanied by the emission of alpha particles, beta
particles or gamma radiation.

o Certain isotopes are not stable and decay with the

emissions of some type of radiation or rays.
o The radioactive decay is a spontaneous reaction that is cannot be
controlled, unpredicted and independent of physical conditions
and chemical changes.

o This reaction is random reaction because the probability of a

nucleus decaying at a given instant is the same for all the nuclei in
the sample.

o Radioactive radiations are emitted when an unstable nucleus decays.

The radiations are alpha particles, beta particles and gamma-rays.
 Decay Constant, 𝝀

Decay constant, 𝜆 is defined as the

probability that a radioactive nucleus will
decay in one second.

𝒅𝑵
(𝑵)
𝝀= , unit for 𝝀 is per second
𝒕
o The decay constant is a characteristic of the radioactive nuclei.

o 𝜆 is different for different isotope.

o The greater 𝜆 is, the greater the rate of decay and the more
‘radioactive’ that isotope is said to be.
 Rate Of Radioactive Decay

o Nuclear decay is a random process and is independent of each

other.
o The decay of any nucleus is not influenced by the decay of any
other.
o Radioactive nuclei decay one by one or “one-shot process”.
o Hence, once particular parent nucleus decays into its daughter,
it cannot do it again.
o Therefore, the number of decays per unit time is
proportional to the number of nuclei present :

𝑑𝑁
= -𝜆N
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑁
o The rate of decay, also is called the activity, A. So,
𝑑𝑡

A = -𝜆N

N = number of nuclei at time t (remain nuclei)

 Formula For Nuclear Decay
o From equation,
𝑑𝑁
= -𝜆N
𝑑𝑡

o Performing the integration, we get the following result:

N = Noe-𝜆t The Decay Law

o With

N = the number of nuclei at time t (remain)

No = the initial number of nuclei at time t = 0
𝜆 = decay constant
o So, from equation nuclear decay; the number of parent nuclei
in a sample decreases exponentially in time.
Δ𝑁
o Since is proportional to N, so activity at time, t given by:
Δ𝑡

Δ𝑁 Δ𝑁
= ( )o e-𝜆t
Δ𝑡 Δ𝑡

OR

A = Ao e-𝜆t

Where A is the activity Where Ao is the activity

at time, t at t = 0
 14
(a) The number N of parent nuclei in each sample of 6C decreases
exponentially.
(b) The number of decays per second also decreases exponentially
o Is defined as the time taken for a sample of radioactive
nuclides disintegrate to half of the initial number of nuclei.
o From the equation, N = Noe-𝜆t and the definition of half-life,
𝑁𝑜 ,
when t = T½; N =
2
𝑁𝑜
Thus = Noe-𝜆T½ ➔ ½ = e-𝜆T½
2
2 = e𝜆T½
ln 2 = ln e𝜆T½

o The half-life of any given radioactive nuclide is constant, it does not

depend on the number of remaining nuclei.
o The units of the half-life are second (s), minute (min), hour (hr), day
(d) and year (y). Its unit depend on the unit of decay constant.
o Table shows the value of half-life for several isotopes.
EXAMPLE:
 80% of a radioactive materials
decays in 4.0 days. Determine:
EXAMPLE:
i. the decay constant,
ii. the half-life of the substance.
 EXAMPLE:

Phosphorus-32 is a beta emitter with a decay constant of 5.6 x

10-7 s-1. For a particular application, the phosphorus-32 emits 4.0
x 107 beta particles every second. Determine:

a) the half-life of the phosphorus-32,

b) the mass of pure phosphorus-32 will give this decay rate.

(Avogadro constant, NA = 6.02 x 1023 mol-1)

The end