- Approaches involve are methodical and
systematic giving emphasis in proving
ETHICS
“Philosophy is something obscure, weird and
idiosyncratic”
Philosophy is defined in two fashions:
1. Etymological definition
● Philosophy was first coined by
Pythagoras, a Greek philosopher.
● It came from the greek word; philos
means love , and sophia means
wisdom. Its literal meaning is “love of
wisdom”.
● Ancient Greeks three concept of love:
- eros – passionate love (sexual
Importance of Philosophy
desire)
- Philia – friendship love (loyalty
and sharing of emotions)
- Agape – compassionate love
(highest form)
2. Essential definition
● Philosophy is the “search for meaning”.
● Many have described Philosophy as the
‘science of all sciences’; as ‘mother of
all sciences’, or the “search for the
ultimate meaning of reality”.
● Seeks to understand the mysteries of
existence and reality.
● The most significant task of Philosophy
is to evaluate the totality of human
experience.
1. Philosophy and Science
Both discuss the fundamental truths about the
universe. These fields study nature and life.
Major Disciplines in Philosophy
2. Philosophy and History
Interrelated fields that are dependent on each
other, history serves as the breeding ground of
Philosophy. Philosophy on the other hand,
defines history and interprets its existence to
understand the past.
3. Philosophy and Mathematics
- Both logical bodies of knowledge.
theoretical concepts and formulating
standards of truth in order to accept as
universal foundation learning
4. Philosophy and Religion
- Inseparable fields in a sense that one
justifies the other.
- Religion is generally a philosophical
culmination of basic and complex ideas
about almost everything.
- While philosophy is a religious context
that tries to concretize divine beliefs,
ideas, opinions, and facts.
● Not only to satisfy the requirement in the
academic curriculum, but also develop a
cultured, well-defined and well rounded
individual.
● It develops students of their ability to
comprehend, systematize learning and
enhance their critical thinking ability in
evaluating their gained knowledge and
information.
● Philosophy can provide students with
fundamental views in coping with the
changing demands and ethical
problems.
● Philosophy will always be an important
aspect to human life, an experience to
develop a holistic view of life that may
help one to come up with right decision
better understanding of fellow humans
and that of one’s self.
● Logic – the study of right and
reasoning.
● Epistemology – the study of the validity
of knowledge.
● Metaphysics – seeks to explain the
fundamental concepts of being.
● Aesthetics – the philosophical study of
beauty.
 ● Cosmology – the study of real things in
the universe.
● Theology– is the study of God and his
nature.
● Social Philosophy – the study of
humans and their relation to society.
● Ethics – as the science of the morality
of human acts.
What is Ethics
● From the Greek word “ethos” or
character.
● Ethics or morality is essentially a
philosophy subject/branch.
● A philosophical discipline concerned
with what is morally good and bad and
morally right and wrong.
● It also involves systematizing,
defending, and recommending concepts
of right and wrong.
IMPERATIVE ETHICS “sine qua non”
as per Emerita Quito (2008)
Human Freedom
● An inherent human power to act or not
to act that makes them responsible for
their actions.
● Ethics in this sense will be irrelevant in
the absence of human freedom.
● Freedom always entails the right to
choose.
Existence of God
● A salient factor that makes sense in the
study of ethics.
● Without God’s existence that postulates
humans’s belief, humans find no reason
to do good and avoid evil.
Immortality of the Soul
● If there is no life after the earth where
the soul is believed to perpetuate life
beyond, then good deeds are not
rewarded nor evil doers are punished.
● It is a cornerstone in ethics.
DILEMMA
A dilemma is a difficult situation in which
an individual is confronted/forced to choose
between two or more conflicting options, neither
of which is acceptable. The key here is that the
person has choices to make that will have
results he or she does not want.
Moral Dilemma
● Defined as any situation in which the
person making the decision must
consider two or more moral values or
duties but can only honour one of them;
thus, the individual will violate at least
one important moral concern, regardless
of the decision.
● A situation where a person is forced to
choose between two or more conflicting
options, neither of which is acceptable.
● It must be noted, however, that if the
person is in a difficult situation but is not
forced to choose between two or more
options, then that person is not in a
dilemma.
● The least that we can say is that the
person is just experiencing a
problematic or distressful situation.
● When dilemmas involve human actions
which have moral implications, they are
called ethical or moral dilemmas.
● Moral dilemmas, therefore, are
situations where a persons, who are
called “moral agents” in ethics, are
forced to choose between two or more
conflicting options, neither of which
resolves the situation in a morally
acceptable manner.
Karen Allen’s Three Condition of Moral
Dilemmas
 ● First, the person or the agent of a moral
action is obliged to make a decision
about which course of action is best.
Here, the moral agent must choose the
best option and act accordingly.
● Second, there must be different courses
of action to choose from. Hence as
already pointed out above, there must
be two or more conflicting options to
choose from for moral dilemmas to
occur.
● Third, no matter what course of action is
taken, some moral principles are always
compromised. This means that.
According to Allen, there is no perfect
solution to the problem.
Benjiemen Labastin said, in moral
dilemmas, the moral agent “seems fated to
commit something wrong which implies that she
is bound to morally fail because one way or
another she will fail to do something which she
ought to do. In other words, by choosing one of
the possible moral requirements, the person
also fails.”
Three Levels of Moral Dilemmas
Personal/Individual Dilemma
- These are situations in which an
individual has a choice to be made
between two options, neither of which
resolves the situation in an ethically
acceptable fashion. In such cases
personal ethical guidelines can provide
no satisfactory outcome for the chooser.
Ex.
Deciding which parent to live with.
Someone deciding whether to let their family
starve to death or steal bread from someone
else.
Organizational Dilemma
- is a challenge for every organization
nowadays; it is all about how to match
discrepancy between individual needs
and aspirations on the one hand and the
organizational goals on the other.
Ex.
The top performer gets the job done, but his
action and attitude hurt the culture.
Structural Dilemma
- refers to the social, national,
international or macro level of dilemma.
Leaders, people, or nations are
confronted with a problem and is forced
to choose between two or more
conflicting options, neither of which is
acceptable.
Ex.
Manipulating the drug industry to control the
prices of medicines
Foundation of Morality: Freedom as requisite
on Moral Responsibility
● Freedom comes in various meanings
such as the power or right to act, speak,
or think as one wants with out hindrance
or restraint; “we do have some freedom
of choice”;
● Politically, freedom is coined as liberty
but relatively the same, is understood as
the absence of subjection to foreign
domination or despotic government;
● Moreover, freedom in politics, consist of
the social, political, and economic
freedoms to which all community
members are entitled;
● In philosophy, freedom involves free will
as contrasted with determinism.
“Kant made a claim in the lectures on ethics in
the early 1780s that freedom is the source of all
value – that it is intrinsically valuable, and that
other valuable things must not merely be
compatible with freedom but actually derive their
value from the value of freedom.” GUYER, 1993
- Kant further said that freedom is the
highest order of life, which serves as the
foundation of all perfection and is their
necessary condition. All animals have
the faculty of using their powers
according to will. But this is not free. It is
necessitated through the incitement of
stimuli, and the actions of animals
 involve a bruta necessitas. If the will of
all beings were so bound to sensuous
impulse, the world would possess no
value. The inherent value of the world,
the summun bonum , is freedom in
accordance with a will which is not
necessitated to action. Freedom is thus
the inner value of the world.
St. Augustine showed that human is free
physically, yet bound to obey the law. It is ,
therefore, clear that there is difference between
“like to do” and “the ought to do””.
- (Gorbachev,1998) In his time asserted
that the principle of freedom is a must.
Refusal to recognize this principle will
have serious consequences to the issue
of world peace.
● Indeed, the right to freedom is very
fundamental to every nation as it is the
heart of every democratic ideal, as
much as it is also inherent to every
human .
● Now we live in an age of moral freedom,
in which individuals are expected to
determine for themselves what it means
to lead a good and virtuous life.
Moral freedom involves freedom over the things
that matter most. Freedom is a significant
foundation of moral acts. It is an imperative that
makes the study of moratlity possible
- (Quito, 2008) Explains that no ethics is
likewise possible without human
freedom.
Reason and Impartiality: Requisites for
Morality
● Immanuel Kant argued that “morality
was based on reason alone, and once
understood, we would see that acting
morally is the same as acting rationally.”
This entails that reason is a fundamental
requirement for any moral decision.
Reason enables us to think and reflect
over actions that we intend to do and
decide which of them to take.
● On the other hand, impartiality is a
principle of justice holding that decisions
or judgment on something or someone
should be objective not on the basis of
bias or prejudice to favor someone
irrationally. As to adhere on moral
values, no one shall be exempted from
that same rule. Impartiality indeed is a
good value.
MORAL AGENT
● A being who is capable of acting with
reference to right and wrong
● Moral agents are expected to meet the
demand of morality (choosing between
good and evil). However, not all agents
are automatically considered moral
agents. For moral agents must also be
capable of conforming to at least some
demands of morality.
What are these demands?
● If the agent has the capacity to conform
to some of the external requirements of
morality.
● This precept that the agent is a knower,
regardless if the knowledge is full or
limited.
● According to the strong version, the
Kantian version, it is also essential that
the agents should have the capacity to
rise above their feelings and passion
and act for the sake of moral law.
● Agents should have an enduring self
with free will and an inner life;
understanding of the relevant facts as
well as moral understanding; and moral
sentiments, such as capacity for
remorse and concern for others (Haksar,
2018).
● A “moral agent” is therefore someone
who is capable of doing things rightly or
wrongly. Typically, this is understood to
mean acting with the ability to freely
choose (within parameters) what to do.
It sometimes includes the idea of being
 aware of the concepts of rightness and
wrongness, or of what actions are
considered right and wrong. Human is a
being that acts, one who acts with will
and knowledge and holds responsibility
for the acts.
Characteristics of Moral Agent
● A moral agent is a person who has the
ability to discern right from wrong and to
be held accountable for his or her own
actions.
● Moral agents have moral responsibility
not to cause unjustified harm.
● Traditionally, moral agents are only
those who can be held responsible for
their actions. Children and adults with
certain mental disabilities may have little
or no capacity to be moral agents.
CULTURE
● From the word “culltus” which means to
cultivate
● It is an aggregate of the learned beliefs,
attitudes, values, norms and customs of
society or group of people, shared by
them and transmitted from generation to
generation
● The set of shared attitudes, values,
goal, and practices that characterizes an
institution or organization.
● It is the characteristics and knowledge
of a particular group of people,
encompassing language, religion,
cuisine, social habits, music, and arts.
Types of Culture
High Culture
- Is linked with the elite, upper class
society, those families and individuals
with an ascribed status position. Often
associated with the arts such as opera,
ballet and classical music, and sports
such as polo.
Cultural Diversity
- Is a concept relating to culturally
embedded differences within society, it’s
the fact that different cultures exist
alongside each other.
Subculture
- Culture enjoyed by small group within
society. It is a minority part of the
majority.
Popular Culture
- It borrows the idea from high culture and
popularizes it, making it available for the
masses; a product of the media
dominated world; it is a positive force for
it brings people of different backgrounds
together in a common culture.
Multiculturalism
- it is depicted to be very similar to
cultural diversity, other definitions align
multiculturalism with different ethnic
groups living alongside each other.
Global Culture
- A global culture is a key feature of
globalisation, they emerged due to
patterns of migration, trends in
international travel and the spread of
media, exposing people to the same
images of the same dominant world
companies.
Characteristics of Culture
Culture is learned
- Culture is not instinctive or innate; it is
not part of the biological virtue of his
membership in groups.
- Culture is transmitted from one
generation to the next
- Man is an heir to a social tradition. It
represents our social legacy as
contrasted with our organic heredity.
- Culture is socially shared
- human beings living in organized groups
share culture and keep relatively
uniform by social pressure.
 - Culture represents the ideal form of
behavior
- The group habits that compromise the
culture are viewed as ideal patterns of
behavior.
Culture is gratifying
- Culture satisfies human needs, both
biological and moral. The fulfillment of
biological needs is provided by culture
with a recognized pattern.
Culture is adaptive
- The culture of any society represents an
adaptation or adjustment in the
various conditions of life, including
physical, social and supernatural
environment.
Culture is integrative
- The parts of a given culture tend to
form a consistent integrated whole. In the
words of William Graham summer, the parts are
subject to strain of consistency
with each other.
Modes of Acquiring Culture
Imitation
- This takes place during the process of
socialization. As the child grows, he
imitates the things around him.
Indoctrination
- This takes the form of formal teaching or
training which may take place anywhere
the individuals finds himself interacting
with his fellow humans.
Conditioning
- Through the social norms prevailing in
one’s social and cultural milieu, the
individual acquires a certain pattern of
beliefs, values, behavior, and actions
through the process of conditioning.
The Importance of Culture
Culture affects perception
- How we perceive things is largely
affected by our judgement skills,
preconceived notions, attitude, and
emotions. These factors are closely
linked with our culture. Our culture
determines the structure of our thinking,
which influences our perceptions on the
good or bad.
Culture influences behavior
- Culture affects perceptions and
perceptions drive behavior. Thus, the
culture we belong to has a direct impact
on our behavior. Moreover, our
environment, which has cultural
influences, shapes our behavior.
Culture shapes personalities
- Our culture defines people’s
expectations from us. In the attempt to
fulfill them, we shape our behavior and
personality to suit the culture. Our
religions, traditions, customs, all part of
our culture, play a major role in shaping
our personalities.
Our culture shapes our value and belief
system
- Culture shapes our value and belief
system which influence our
personalities.
MORAL BEHAVIOR
● Critically, no one can simply say which
behavior is a moral one because all
behaviors are. Relatively, it is the moral
of the person or the society that make
them adopt those particular behavior.
● Moral are the prevailing standards of
behavior that people have to follow and
act in accordance with one’s beliefs in
order to live cooperatively in groups.
● Moral behaviors are what one believes
to be the right things to do. No doubt
that cultural and religious beliefs paly a
 role in what one thinks to be right and
wrong.
The Role of Culture in Moral Behavior
● Culture indeed influences human
behavior at any given society’s belief
system, laws, mores, practices,
language, and attitudinal variables
which make a people unique from
others (Victor, 2017)
● Culture Considerably shapes its
members on how they live and relate
within themselves and with other
cultures (Bretzke, 2004)
● Culture has a great impact in the
development of the human person in
varied ways; may it be in physical,
knowledge, thought, relationship,
religious or moral development.
● Therefore, cultures function to mold and
establish a social identity that brings
people as well to provide the knowledge
of common objectives which members
would try to achieve.
VALUES refers to the principles, beliefs, and
standards that guide and influence an
individual's or a group's behavior, decisions, and
actions.
VALUES or good moral values once they are
habitually practiced, they turned into virtues.
VALUE the origin of the term values
comes from the Latin word ‘Valere’ which means
to be of worth.
Somewhere, some other dictionary
states that value is that which renders anything
useful, worthy or estimable. It is price, worth or
importance of a thing.
"Value means primarily, to price, to esteem, to
appraise, to estimate. It means the act of
cherishing something holding it clear and also,
the act of passing judgment upon the nature and
amount of its value as compared with something
else." JOHN DEWEY
HUMAN VALUES
Human values are the virtues that guide
us to take into account human element when
one interacts with one other human being. They
are our feelings for the human essence of
others. It's both what we expect others to do to
us and what we aim to give to other human
beings. These human values give the effect of
bonding, comforting and reassuring.
Moral Values
- Moral values help us distinguish
between what's right and wrong, good or
bad for you as well as society. Moral
values are principles that govern our
lives and beliefs that make us realize
the importance of life, the goals that we
want to attain or accomplish in life.
Types of Moral Values (Kathy Slattengren,
2018)
Acceptance
- having an objective attitude toward
others' ideas and practices that differ
from your own
Compassion
- understanding the suffering of others or
self and wanting to do something about
it
Courage - willingness to do difficult things.
Equality - believing everyone deserves equal
rights and to be treated with respect.
Fairness - acting in a just way, sharing
appropriately
Generosity - willingness to give resources, help
or time to others
Honesty - being truthful and sincere
Integrity - sticking to your moral and ethical
principles and values
Kindness - being considerate and treating
others well
Perseverance - persisting in a course of action,
belief or purpose
Politeness - using good manners, acting in
socially acceptable ways
Respect - showing consideration for the worth
of someone or something
Responsibility - being reliable in your
obligations
Self-control - staying in control of your words
and behavior
FORMATION OF MORAL VALUES
Moral values are the standards of good
and evil, which govern an individual's behavior
and choices. Individual's morals may derive from
society and government, religion, or self. When
moral values derive from society and
government, they, of necessity, may change as
the laws and morals of the society change.
VIRTUE AND ITS FORMATION
Human beings are aware of various
moral values of which they have the option to
practice. Once these values are applied in order
to lead a good life, one is living in virtue, a
habitual good character.
In essence, values and virtues are inversely
related. If one intends to live a virtuous life,
he/she must nurture that value leading to
attaining relative virtue by habitually practicing
the same value. With these, we can say that
virtues are good moral habits which make the
person even better to perform those good
actions well and consequently function well as
human beings.
For the Greek wisdom, knowledge is
inborn, while virtue is the knowledge and
practice of good habit, virtue is likewise a natural
endowment. Since virtue is inborn in the mind
and knowing is the source of all wisdom, so the
only way to acquire virtue is simply to recall
“good” restored in the mind. Formation of virtue
then is the acquisition of the true knowledge in
the mind which is the "good". Knowing and
practicing virtue is knowledge to one's self.
Cardinal Virtues
- Prudence is the virtue of knowing what
to do under peculiar circumstances
which enables one to see the best
means to approach a given situation.
- Justice is a virtue of giving anyone
his/her due under no condition.
- Temperance is the virtue of curbing or
managing the sensitive appetites.
- Fortitude is a virtue of keeping resolute
in the face of overwhelming odds.
Theological Virtues
- Faith is the virtue of believing in God's
word without seeing
- Hope is the virtue of keeping trust in
Divine Providence.
- Charity is the virtue of loving God and
His creatures. The greatest virtue in
Christianity.
Moral Development
Moral development occurs as we grow
and helps us choose between right and wrong.
The theory of Lawrence Kohlberg
states that the moral development of most
people begins with a desire to avoid personal
punishment and may evolve over time to a
desire to make the world a better and more just
place for all people. It is also a process through
which we develop proper attitudes and
behaviors towards other people in society based
on the existing norms, rules or laws.
Moral decision is relative to actual
experiences that we are confronted with
particularly on moral issues that we encounter in
our lives. With that, we gradually develop our
moral skills in deciding upon difficult moral
situations in reference to what one has
experienced through which one's moral principle
is challenged.
ASIAN MORAL CHARACTER/
BEHAVIOR
Just like any continents, Asia as well
possesses a distinct moral/ethical behavior that
makes us unique in our culture, dealing with
socio-political-cultural difficulties and challenges.
Relatively, Asians stress personal
orientation rather than task orientation, the
needs of the group are given priority than for the
individual. The value of modesty is also
emphasized. Even those who achieved success
in life remain modest and humble. Likewise,
generosity and sharing are greatly valued.
The characters of Southeast Asian keep
establishing our Asian identity which makes us
more resilient in facing challenges such as
inflation, climate change, domestic problems
and even political difficulties in the region.
In Southeast Asia which the Philippines
is a part of, Jeffrey Hays (2013) provides more
distinct traits and characters that are mostly
Buddhism and Confucianism. Southeast Asians
generally don't like confrontation and rarely
show visible signs of anger. They have
traditionally valued cool-headedness, placidity
and soft words. Outward expressions of anger
are considered boorish and crude. Southeast
Asians rarely lose their temper and if they do it
doesn't help them get their way. People just
think they are crazy. Anger is usually expressed
through a third person so face-to-face
confrontation is avoided.
Southeast Asians smile a lot. Smiles are
often a genuine way of expressing happiness
and friendliness but they can also be a way of
masking true emotions.
Southeast Asians have a reputation for
being fun, loving, compassionate, gentle,
hospitable, open-minded, laid-bank, smiling and
friendly; there is a prevailing sentiment that life
should be enjoyed at the moment, and problems
should not be taken so seriously that disrupt
enjoyment and they have a strongly developed
sense of courtesy and respect with values that
include respect for elders, loyalty to friends and
family.
BUDDHISM CHARACTER
Buddhism shapes character in
Southeast Asia as Christianity does in Europe.
Theravada Buddhism encourages its
practitioners to keep their emotions and
passions in check and stresses karma over
determination, which often means people are
more willing to accept their lot in life and is
sometimes viewed by Westerners as a lack of
ambition or unwillingness to work hard to
improve their positions in life. Just like many
Filipinos, this character is explicit in times of
conflict where we tend to be calm and
euphemistic; Filipinos avoid conflict with fellow
Filipinos.
Moreover, like most Filipinos, Buddhism
also provides guidelines for village justice,
namely in the form of the five basic moral
prohibitions:
● refrain for taking life;
● don't steal;
● avoid illicit sexual activity;
● don't speak falsely; and
● refrain from consuming inebriating
substances.
Buddhists believe that humans want
many things and want to keep them forever,
which is impossible and creates a constant state
of desire, which in turn causes suffering and fear
of further loss. Buddhists have also taught us to
practice nonviolence, do good deeds, present
gifts to monks, aspire to have gentle thoughts,
meditate, and have respect for the sanctity of
life. The basic tenets of Buddhism influenced
Gandhi and Martin Luther King.
CONFUCIAN CHARACTER
Confucian values include love and
respect for the family, integrity, loyalty, honesty,
humility, industriousness, respect for elders,
patience, persistence, hard work, friendship,
commitment to education, belief in order and
stability, emphasis on obligations to the
community rather just individual rights and
preference for consultation rather than open
confrontation. Hence, the same characters are
also unique in Filipino communities. They also
give strong emphasis on teachers, superiors,
family members and elders. Love and respect
are principals that were practiced more in the
context of the family than in society and
humanity as a whole.
Confucianism is a social code based on
morality rather than laws; recognizes five
cardinal virtues:
● benevolence in terms of sympathy for
others (jen);
● duty reflected in the shame felt after
doing something wrong (yi);
● manners, propriety and feelings of
deference (li);
● wisdom, in terms of discerning right and
wrong (chih); and
● loyalty and good faith (hsin).
FILIPINO MORAL CHARACTER
Filipino Character and Personality
- Filipinos have been described as
friendly, outgoing, sensitive, easily
offended, nosy, garrulous, direct,
hospitable, feisty, irreverent, good
natured, clever, witty, gregarious, happy,
generous, easy to laugh, gracious, easy
to befriend, casual, fun loving, sensitive
and hospitable.
- Personal and family honors are
stressed, as well as dignity and pride.
Education is highly valued and families
make great sacrifices to educate their
children. “Hiya” (shame) is instilled in
Filipinos at an early age. To be shamed
is the greatest form of disgrace. Filipino
culture developed over centuries in
tandem with and in response to Western
culture introduced by the Spanish and
later Americans.
- Filipinos are generally more easy-going
than other Asians. A survey conducted
by the Hong Kong-based Political and
Economic Risk Constituency (PERC)
ranked Filipinos as "the easiest people
in Asia to get along with."
- Filipinos have a strong sense of family
and community. They are very sociable
and like to talk and hang out with family
and friends. They love to fool around,
gossip, make jokes and tease one
another. Rumors spread quickly. Some
say Filipinos are happy-go-lucky people
who are often pessimistic about today
but always optimistic that tomorrow will
be better (Krutovsky, 2009).
Strengths and Weaknesses of Filipino Moral
Character
- Every country has differing values and
stereotypes, and the Philippines is no
exception. We Filipinos firmly believe
and show values to the world that make
us one of the many individuals loved
and appreciated by people across
nations. Although we have been
colonized by several countries, many
core values from our ancestors
remained intact and are still honored to
this day. Filipinos are not perfect, but we
have great characteristics and qualities
every one of us should be proud of.
STRENGTHS OF THE FILIPINO
CHARACTER
Pakikipagkapwa-tao
- basic sense of justice and fairness,
concern for others and ability to
empathize with others
- Sensitivity to people's feelings
(pakikiramdam)
- Pagtitiwala or trust
- Sense of gratitude or utang na loob
- Very dependent on interpersonal
relationships; gives sense of security
- Camaraderie and a feeling of closeness
to one another.
Strong Family Ties
- Filipinos possess a genuine and deep
love for family source of personal
identity, emotional and material support
- Honor and respect given to parents and
elders
- Care given to the children
- The generosity towards kin in need
- Great sacrifices that one endures for the
welfare of the family sense of security
 - Sense of family results in a feeling of
belongingness and rootedness in a
basic
Joy and Humor
- Filipinos have a cheerful and fun-loving
approach to life and its ups and downs;
- Laughing at ourselves and the mess we
are in is an important coping
mechanism;
- Manifested in the Filipino's love for
socials and celebrations, to laugh even
in the most trying of times.
Flexibility, Adaptability and Creativity
- We can adjust and adapt to
circumstances and the surrounding
environment, both physical and social;
adjusts to whatever happens even in
unplanned or anticipated events. We
possess a tolerance for ambiguity that
enables us to remain unfazed by
uncertainly or lack of information.
Hard Work and Industry
- We have the capacity for hard work
given proper conditions; to raise one's
standard of living and to possess the
essentials of a decent life for one's
family.
- We are willing to take the risks with jobs
abroad and, while there, to work at two
or three jobs. The result is productivity
and entrepreneurship for some and
survival despite poverty.
Faith and Religiosity
- Our innate religiosity enables us to
comprehend and genuinely accept
reality in the context of God's will and
plan.
- Religious expressions is very tangible
expressed everyday; we relate to God
like a human being-threaten, thank, ask
forgiveness, appease.
- Tragedy and bad fortune are accepted
and optimism characterizes even the
poorest lives are related to “bahala na”
which may be considered positively as a
reservoir of psychic energy, a
psychological prop on which we can
lean during hard times. This
“pampalakas ng loob” allows us to act
despite uncertainty.
FILIPINO POSITIVE VALUES
Hospitability
- It's one of the most popular traits of
Filipinos. We are usually friendly and
welcoming to our guests.
Helpful to others/Bayanihan.
- Unity in Bayanihan spirit manifests our
close relationship with our neighbors. In
our Barangays and most subdivisions,
the people in the neighborhood know
each other, talk to each other, and
protect each other. Our communities are
organized.
Respectful (mano, po and opo, halik sa kamay).
- Filipinos are courteous people. The
children and the young Filipinos will
always use the words "po" and "opo" to
show respect to someone who is older
or who has higher position than them.
We also do the "mano po" gesture as a
sign of respect to our elders. Moreover,
workers will always address their
customers with "sir" or "ma'am“ to show
humility and honor to serve them.
Bravery.
- There is a hero's blood running on our
veins. We have the most fearless
heroes who only think of defending our
homeland. Remember Lapu-Lapu,
Andress Bonifacio and Jose Rizal.
Moreover, our soldiers are probably the
bravest in the world. General Douglas
MacArthur was even quoted saying
"Give me ten thousand Filipino soldiers
and I will conquer the world."
Jolliness and Sense of Humor
 - The Philippines is a country of smiles,
Nothing can take away the humor and
jolliness of many Filipinos... not even
super typhoon Yolanda-the strongest
recorded typhoon that made a landfall.
Despite the tragedy, Yolanda survivors
can still be seen smiling, positive and
hopeful to rebuild their lives even better.
Discretion and dignity
- Perhaps many of our politicians don't
have a delicadeza. But our people,
especially the Filipinas, still observe
delicadeza. Despite the growing number
of Filipinos who are giving up their
delicadeza, there are still many Filipinos
who always think twice before they
make a decision that can affect their
dignity and honor.
Gratefulness
- Aside from being hospitable, Filipinos
are also thankful. We don't forget
anyone who helped us, whether he
(she) is a Filipino or not. We even build
monuments to show our utmost respect
and gratitude to our heroes and other
foreign personalities who helped the
Filipino people.
Honesty and commitment.
- Perhaps "palabra de honor" is not
evident among our politicians, but it's
still evident among the common
Filipinos. When we make a promise, we
try our best to fulfill that promise even if
it will undermine ourselves.
Helpfulness.
- Finally, even if the Philippines is not a
big and rich country, we still grant aids to
other countries in need. We also send
our brave soldiers to protect other
nations from threats and to preserve
world peace.
Family-oriented
- Filipinos are willing to make big
sacrifices just to make sure that their
loved ones will have a good life. Our
parents will do anything just to give us a
brighter future. They are even willing to
work in a foreign soil just to achieve
such goal.
Adaptability and resilience.
- Despite all the calamities that struck our
country, like the strong earthquake and
Super Typhoon Yolanda (Haiyan) that
devastated the central part of Visayas in
2013, Filipinos are persistent enough to
get back on their feet, even without the
solid help from the government.
Resourcefulness and creativity.
- Filipinos are known for ingenuity. We are
creative in many ways, whether it's in
art, music, science, technology and
business. Some of our smartest
countrymen can come up with a brilliant
idea despite poverty or lack of financial
resources.
Faithfulness
- The Filipinos are one of the most faithful
people in the world. Whatever our
religion is, we remain faithful and we
don't lose hope for a better tomorrow.
Thriftiness.
- There may be Filipinos who are living
beyond their means. But on the brighter
side, there are also many Filipinos who
are frugal. We shop wisely to save our
money for future important uses.
THE WEAKNESS OF THE FILIPINO
CHARACTER
Extreme Personalism
- Filipinos view the world in terms of
personal relationships; no separation
between objective task and emotional
involvement.
 - We tend to give personal interpretations
to actions, i.e., "take things personally
- We tend to be uncomfortable with
bureaucracy, with rules and regulations
and with standard procedures, all of
which tend to be impersonal.
- Personal contacts are involved in any
transaction and these are difficult to turn
down. Preference is usually given to
family and friends in hiring, delivery of
services and even in voting.
Extreme Family Centeredness
- Excessive concern for family manifests
itself in the use of one's office and
power as a means of promoting the
interest of the family, factionalism,
patronage and political dynasties, and in
the protection of erring family members.
- Family centeredness results in a lack of
concern for the common good and acts
as a block to national consciousness.
Lack of Discipline
- The Filipino's lack of discipline is
manifested in a casual and relaxed
attitude towards time and space which
manifests itself in lack of precision and
compulsiveness, in poor time
management and procrastination.
- We are impatient and unable to delay
gratification or reward, resulting in the
use of short-cuts, in skirting the rules
(the palusot syndrome) and in
foolhardiness.
- Our lack of discipline often results in
efficient and wasteful work systems
violations of rules leading to more
serious transgressions and a casual
work ethic leading to carelessness and
lack of follow-through.
Passivity and Lack of Initiative
- Filipinos are generally passive and
lacking in initiative. There is strong
reliance on others (e.g., leaders,
government) to do things for us related
to our need for a strong authority.
Colonial Mentality
- Filipinos have a colonial mentality which
is made up of two dimensions: the first
is a lack of patriotism or an active
awareness, appreciation and love of the
Philippines; the second is an actual
preference for foreign things.
Kanya-Kanya Syndrome
- Filipinos have a selfish, self-serving
attitude that generates a feeling of envy
and competitiveness toward others,
particularly one's peers who seem to
have gained some status or prestige.
Lack of Self-analysis and Self-reflection
- There is a tendency in the Filipino to be
superficial and even somewhat flighty. In
the face of serious problems, both
personal and social, there is lack of
analysis or reflection.
Identified Filipino Negative Values
(Joan Cyril Abello, 2014. FAQ.ph, 2017)
Fatalism
- An attitude of "what goes around, comes
around" or "come what may." We have a
tendency to surrender our future to fate.
We often accept bad news or
circumstances without trying to stop or
change them. This can sometimes be
helpful in adversity, but it can also keep
us from finding ways out of situations.
Crab mentality
- Simply put, this refers to the behavior of
preventing someone from achieving
something due to jealousy or envy.
Instead of praising or rendering
assistance, someone with crab mentality
would think "if I can't have it, then you
can't as well" and will purposely try to
bring his/her victim down. And just like
the crabs who could have escaped from
the bucket if they only stopped pulling
each other down, nothing ever gets
accomplished.
Ningas-Kugon
- One reason why we sometimes exert
half- hearted effort in our undertakings is
due to this attitude. Translated to
"burning cogon grass" in English, this
idiom is meant to illustrate how Filipinos
initially exhibit great enthusiasm at the
beginning of a project. Our eagerness
however, fades away just as quickly as
the fire is extinguished, leaving our work
either half-baked or unfinished.
Filipino Time
- Related to the “mañana” habit, Filipino
time refers to the Filipinos' own unique
brand of time, Pilipino Tim which is
known to be minutes or hours behind
minutes or hour behind the standars the
standard time. In other words, we tend
not to observe punctuality at all. This
behavior usually drives time-observant
foreigners crazy. While we Filipinos with
our easy-going ways have somewhat
become used to Filipino time, it still is a
bad habit that needs to be dropped.
Colonial Mentality
- Probably one of the biggest flaws we
have as a nation is our colonial
mentality, defined as a preference for all
things foreign over our own, a negative
trait we acquired from our days under
the Spanish and the Americans. As a
result, we Filipinos have been
indoctrinated with the misconception
that our culture is inferior to that of our
past colonizers.
General Disregard for Rules
- Filipinos are known law abiding
individuals but with stronger inclination
to disregard these laws. Ironically,
Filipinos abroad follow rules and laws
because they know they cannot get
away with not following them.
- In foreign land, Filipinos cannot simply
bribe authorities. Whereas, many
Filipino enforcers are corrupt,
incompetent and ill equipped to enforce
the law. So the tendency is to break and
even ignore the laws. Another hindrance
to follow the law is the so called
“padrino” system where one contacts
relatives or known enforcement officer,
public officials or prominent individual
who will make “areglo” on their behalf.
This behavior makes the enforcement of
the law impossible.
Procrastination or "Mañana Habit"
- This is another habit which keeps the
development of our country slow. Look
at the government projects which have
been left undone for years. If only they
were completed immediately, then many
Filipinos would have already benefited
from them.
Corruption
- One of the biggest social ills our country
has continued to face since time
immemorial is the issue of corruption.
Let's face it, our "culture of corruption" is
embedded deep within our system and
reinforced by a complex web of
economic and social factors which
include personal ambitions and a
twisted sense of loyalty to friends and
kin. The Philippines is in for a long haul
if our officials and we ourselves do not
get rid of this very negative habit.
Gossiping
- No, no This isn't gossip, It's the truth
Filipinos are fond of talking about others'
business. It is not true that only women are into
gossiping. Even men can also be noisy on other
people's lives. Sadly, this does not bring any
good to the subjects. Secrets are brought out;
failures and flaws are emphasized; and
relationships are destroyed. Worse, as gossips
are passed around, they tend to be twisted until
the final story becomes too far from the
original-thus, causing more damage.
Passivity (lack of leadership)
- Today's Society Filipinos' lack of
initiative for change is also one reason
why our country does not progress. We
keep on complaining against the
government and other societal issues.
However, we do not do anything about
them. One of our excuses is the lack of
faith that our small actions can bring
change. However, the worse reason for
this could be our lack of care for what is
happening around us. Common Filipinos
also lack courage and confidence. If you
can notice it, in classrooms, churches,
or conference rooms, most of us don't
like to sit in the front seat.
FRAMEWORKS AND PRINCIPLES OF
MORAL DISPOSITION
Virtue Ethics
- Most moral philosophers believed that
virtue is a natural endowment, not an
artificial habit of action to be acquired by
education. It may be indeed taught but
this is to be understood that it is
discerning good through our natural
moral judgment guided by the right
reason.
1. Aristotle (Montemayor, 1995)
- Human being is not a pure mind or spirit
as Plato taught human being originally
is. Apparently, Aristotle presented that
human being's present earthly existence
is a composite nature of body and soul,
mind and matter, sense and the intellect,
and passion and reason.
a. Aristotle's Concept of Telos
Do you believe that everything has a
purpose? Aristotle, the ancient Greek
philosopher, thought so, and he called that
purpose, telos (pronounced 'tell- os' or 'tay-los').
The word can mean 'purpose," "intent, end,' or
'goal,' but as usual, Aristotle used it in a more
specific and subtle sense-the inherent purpose
of each thing, the ultimate reason for each thing
being the way it is, whether created that way by
human beings or nature.
Telos is the ancient Greek term for an
end, fulfilment, completion, goal or aim; it is the
source of the modern word 'teleology'. In Greek
philosophy the term plays two important and
interrelated roles, in ethics and in natural
science; both are connected to the most
common definitional account of the telos,
accordingly, it is that for the sake of which
something is done or occurs.
In an ethical view, each human action is
taken to be directed towards some telos (i.e.
end), and practical deliberation involves
specifying the concrete steps needed to attain
that telos. An agent's life as a whole can also be
understood as aimed at the attainment of the
agent's overall telos. In the essence of their final
end or summum bonum ('highest good') is
generally identified in antiquity as eudaimonia
(happiness). However, rival ancient ethical
theories are distinguished primarily by their rival
specifications of the end; the Epicurean telos is
pleasure, the Stoic telos is life according to
nature, and so on (Routledge Encyclopedia of
Philosophy, 2002). For us christians, our sense
of purpose is to live in the image and likeness of
God. It is, therefore, imperative for us to act and
shape our lives to attain our telos; one with the
universal and highest good, GOD.
Aristotle on his part, further provides a
framework for this ethical thought Telos. Having
said that all actions tend toward an end or
specific purpose, two kinds of ends were
distinguished: the instrumental ends; these are
actions done as means to another end. In this
regard, various actions made by humans are
practically not an end themselves but a means
to a greater end. One typical example is
schooling. Earning a degree is an end indeed
but for a much greater end/s such as getting a
job, earning for living, personal enrichment,
among others.
 The other end mentioned by Aristotle is
intrinsic ends; actions that are Committed for
their own sake. This is evident once an action
just serve the person as human. However, it will
always be difficult to just act for its own sake
without aiming at other purpose of why one does
such act. But how would this telos determine
humans good? Just like a teacher, a student, or
a doctor, it is only when one fulfills his/her as
expected functions. Nonetheless, being good is
not just doing one's special function on society
but doing one's function as a human being. For
there is a difference being a good person and
being a good professional.
b. Virtue as Habit
As discussed in the earlier topic, a
certain moral value turns into a virtue as it is
constantly practiced as a way of life. However,
Aristotle made it clear life of virtue can be
achieved through constant contemplation of the
"good" or happiness. He furthers that in
contemplation or meditation, the individual
human mind and will can commune with the
universal, eternal good. So Aristotle maintains
that knowing truly the good means doing the
good constantly and habitually because human
being does not only know, love and appreciate
virtue; but practices virtue and lives a life of
virtue.
c. Happiness as Virtue
Unlike the common perception on the
concept of happiness, it consists of the
knowledge of the good and wisdom to apply
such knowledge for the attainment of one's own
perfection. Hence, perfection and happiness of
human being according the Aristotle, is derived
from wisdom and virtue.
Happiness, therefore, is the
manifestation of a good life, a well-ordered one,
guided by and lived in accordance with reason; it
is the fruit of virtuous living, the constant and
proper exercise of reason in all human's actions
and endeavors. Indeed, Aristotle emphasizes
happiness as a result of a good/virtuous life, but
he also gives more weight to contemplation
which enables human attain the highest form of
happiness and actualizes his/her ultimate
purpose (teleology) in life.
Aristotle furthers that achievement of
happiness comes from the harmonious exercise
and development of human's subordinate
powers such as their physical, economic,
artistic, and social capabilities - of all faculties,
powers, and potentialities as the rationally
organized activity of whole human (Copleston,
1953).
d. Principle of Moderation
Aristotle tells that a good and happy life
follows when lived in consonance with reason;
meaning within the rational bounds which lie
between two vicious extremes. Anything done
extremely or insufficiently becomes
unreasonable, improper and irrational. Eating to
give example is good in itself, but once it's done
excessively or insufficiently can result to health
injury.
Intrinsically Nevertheless, Aristotle also
recognizes that this principle of moderation or
known as the mean cannot be applied to all
human actions. Actions that are i evil or in itself
evil or naturally evil such as murder, adultery
and the likes will always remain evil even done
moderately or excessively. In the same manner,
actions that are geared toward personal pursuit
to excellence are not subject to moderation such
a as achieving the highest award in sports,
culture or in the arts.
2. St. Thomas Aquinas
St. Thomas Aquinas was born sometime
between 1224 and 1226 in Roccasecca, Italy,
near Naples. Thomas' family was fairly
well-to-do, owning a castle that had been in the
Aquinas family for over a century. One of nine
children, Thomas was the youngest of four boys,
and, given the customs of the time, his parents
considered him destined for a religious vocation.
Canonized in 1323, Thomas was later
proclaimed a Doctor of the Church by Pope St.
Pius V in 1567. In 1879, Pope Leo XIII published
the encyclical Aeterni Patris, which, among other
things, holds up Thomas as the supreme model
of the Christian philosopher. Through his
voluminous, insightful, and tightly argued
writings, Thomas continues to this day to attract
numerous intellectual disciples, not only among
Catholics, but among Protestants and
non-Christians as well.
a. Happiness (Encyclopedia of Philosophy)
Aquinas follows Aristotle in thinking that
an act is good or bad depending on whether it
contributes to or deters us from our proper
human end-the telos or final goal at which all
human actions aim. That telos is eudaimonia, or
happiness, where "happiness" is understood in
terms of completion, perfection, or well-being.
Achieving happiness, however, requires a range
of intellectual and moral virtues that enable us to
understand the nature of happiness and
motivate us to seek it in a reliable and consistent
way.
On the other hand, Aquinas believes
that we can never achieve complete or final
happiness in this life. Most goods do not have a
necessary connection to happiness. For him,
final happiness consists in beatitude or
supernatural union with God. Such an end lies
far beyond what we through our natural human
capacities can attain. For this reason, we not
only need the virtues, we also need God to
transform our nature-to perfect or "deify" it.
Moreover, Aquinas believes that we inherited a
propensity to sin from our first parent, Adam.
While our nature is not wholly corrupted by sin, it
is nevertheless diminished by sin's stain, as
evidenced by the fact that our wills are at enmity
with God's. Thus we need God's help in order to
restore the good of our nature and bring us into
conformity with his will. To this end, God imbues
us with his grace which comes in the form of
divinely instantiated virtues and gifts.
b. Transcript of St.Thomas Aquinas'
definition of Law
St. Thomas Aquinas defined a just law
as "an ordinance of reason promulgated by
competent authority for the sake of common
good."
1. A just law is an ordinance of reason
This means that a good law must be
reasonable; it must be a product of careful and
serious deliberation.
For example, the law against driving
under the influence of alcohol is based on
concrete findings that alcohol consumption
causes loss of control and coordination
In addition, for a law to be reasonable, it
must also be permanent. This does not mean
eternal existence of the said law. A law is
considered as permanent provided it is binding
and relevant for a long period of time. Not just
for a year or two, but within reasonable length of
time to avoid confusion or panick among the
citizens. Likewise, it is reasonable if a certain
law is attainable. Meaning it is not burdensome
to people. Finally, a law is reasonable if it is
flexible. This means it is considerate to some
exemptions.
2. A just law is properly promulgated.
For any law to be effective, it must be
clearly communicated to all people concerned.
When a school or any organization, for instance,
enacts a new set of policies, they often provide
students with handbook for them to know,
understand and follow these policies. This
element of law should not be understood literally.
It implies that as duly part of the community,
people have the duty to know the law, take the
responsibility to get informed of related
provisions.
3. A just law must be decreed by competent
authority.
Only persons with legitimate authority
have the power to create and implement laws for
their respective communities. That is why,
church leaders cannot make laws for the country
nor can government leaders enact church laws.
4. A just law ought to be for the sake of
common good.
This means that a just law, first of all,
presupposes the promotion of and respect for
the dignity and freedom of each person.
Secondly, it should foster the social well-being
and authentic development of the community.
Lastly, it should promote true and lasting peace.
However, we know that not everything
permitted by law is considered morally good. An
act is considered legal if it does not contradict
any state law, while an act is considered morally
good if is nature, intention, and circumstances
are all positively good for the person as a
person-in-community.
e. Deadly Sins
"Sin is nothing else than a morally bad
act, an act not in accord with reason informed by
the Divine law."
According to St. Thomas (Summa,
II-II:153:4), "a capital vice is that which has an
exceedingly desirable end so that in his desire
for it a man goes on to the commission of many
sins all of which are said to originate in that vice
as their chief source. It is not then the gravity of
the vice in itself that makes it capital but rather
the fact that it gives rise to many other sins."
Later, seven (7) deadly sins were
enumerated by Thomas Aquinas in the Summa
Theologica:
1. Pride
of our own worth. This is listed first
because it is widely Pride is an unrestrained and
improper appreciation considered the most
serious of the seven sins; pride often leads to
the committing of other capital sins. Pride is
manifested in vanity and narcissism about one's
appearance, intelligence, status, etc., and
described as "love of self perverted to hatred
and contempt for one's neighbor."
2. Greed
Greed, which is also known as avarice
or covetousness, is the immoderate desire for
earthly goods, as well as situations such as
power. It is a sin of excess.
Greed can further inspire such sinful actions as
hoarding of materials or objects, theft and
robbery, trickery, and manipulation.
3. Gluttony
Gluttony, which comes from the Latin
gluttirei - to gulp down or swallow, refers to the
sin of over-indulgence and over- consumption of
food and drink. The manners in which gluttony
can be committed, as later reiterated by Thomas
Aquinas, are eating too soon, eating too
expensively, eating too much, eating too eagerly,
eating too daintily, and eating wildly.
4. Lust
The sin of lust refers to impure desire of
a sexual nature. Sexuality is a gift from God, and
not inherently impure in itself. However, lust
refers to the impure thoughts and actions that
misuse that gift, deviating from God's law and
intentions for us. Indulging in the sin of lust can
include (but is not limited to) fornication,
adultery, bestiality, rape, and incest and can lead
to such things as sexual addiction.
5. Sloth
Sloth is often described simply as the
sin of laziness. However, while this is part of the
manifestation of sloth, the central problem with
sloth as a capital sin is spiritual laziness. The sin
of sloth means being lazy and lax about living
the faith and practicing virtue. In general [sloth]
means disinclination to labor or exertion. As a
capital or deadly vice, St. Thomas calls it
sadness in the face of some spiritual good which
one has to achieve.
6. Envy
The sin of envy or jealousy is more than
merely one person wanting what someone else
has; the sin of envy means one feels unjustified
sorrow and distress about the good fortune of
someone else. The law of love leads us to
rejoice in the good fortune of our neighbor -
jealousy is a contradiction to this. Envy is named
among the capital sins because of the other sins
to which it leads.
7. Anger or Wrath
From the Catholic Encyclopedia: "[Anger
is] the desire of vengeance. Its ethical rating
depends upon the quality of the vengeance and
the quantity of the passion. When these are in
conformity with the prescriptions of balanced
reason, anger is not a sin. It is rather a
praiseworthy thing and justifiable with a proper
zeal. It becomes sinful when it is sought to
wreak vengeance upon one who has not
deserved it, or to a greater extent than it has
been deserved, or in conflict with the
dispositions of law, or from an improper motive.
The sin is then in a general sense mortal as
being opposed to justice and charity."
EMMANUEL KANT
c. Rights
Right, in a broader sense, is anything
due to a person. Strictly speaking, right is a
moral power endowed to man to do or to refrain
from doing something that which one maybe
entitled of Right, therefore, is neither physical
nor material for it is a moral power. This is due to
human because a person possesses worth and
dignity. Rights are necessary in human's life in
order to live in harmony with other human
beings.
A right is the legal or moral entitlement
to do or refrain from doing something or to
obtain or refrain from obtaining an action, thing
or recognition in civil society. It is a thing to
which one has a just claim. Rights originate not
from the person holding it. Man has right
because law provides him it. Law provides man
the power to do, to express, to act, to receive,
etc. Without law man has no right. Law extends
and limits the rights of man. Rights serve as
rules of interaction between people, and, as
such, they place constraints and obligations
upon the actions of individuals or groups (for
example, if one has a right to life, this means
that others do not have the liberty to murder
him).
Right may also be defined as a moral
power endowed to human by God to do or not to
do that which is in consonance to one's own
state of life. Rights therefore are not physical nor
material, for it is a moral power. Rights are due
to man because he is a person possessing
worth and dignity.
Right is indeed a power, but it is only
moral. This means that one cannot use physical
force to enjoy a right. Right is reciprocal by
nature. One has right that others are bound to
respect and obey. Rights are necessary in man's
life in order to facilitate his relationship with
others. Corollary to rights are duties and
responsibilities.
d. Essential Properties of Rights
Inviolability is the essence of right. The following
are the properties which flow from human rights
(Bauzon, 2002):
1. Coaction is the capacity of right to forcefully
prevent its violation, and to exact redress for
unjust violation.
2. Limitation is the natural limit or boundary of
right, beyond which it cannot be exercised
without violating the right of another.
3. Collision is the apparent conflict of the rights.
In this case, the right which should prevail to
which the other gives way, is that which (i)
belongs to a higher or more universal order; (ii)
concerned with the graver matter; (iii) is found
upon the stronger title or claim.
e. Fundamental Rights of Man (Summa
Theologica)
1. The Right to life is man's highest right
because without it, no other rights can be
enjoyed. It is inalienable to him. Whenever that
right is threatened, all the other rights will have
to give way. Hence, the right of the fetus to be
born belongs to this right.
The right to life, however, has a corresponding
duty. One must keep himself healthy and has to
develop one's capabilities like intellectual, moral,
and physical.
2. The Right to Private Property is the
acquisition and ownership of a certain good/s or
properties. Man must own some property to live
well. He needs an adequate amount of property
to pursue his life fruitfully. Its corresponding duty
is to take care one's property, and come to the
aid for those who do not have.
3. Right to Marry posits that man may choose
the kind of life one wants to pursue, especially in
getting married and establishing a family. But it
involves the duty to support one's family and
bring up the children. This right is guaranteed
and protected by the state.
4. The Right to Physical Freedom means the
moral power of one to move freely. This
connotes the duty to respect private boundaries.
f. Kinds of Rights
1. Natural Rights. They are rights acquired by
birth. Also called basic human rights. e.g., right
to life, to freedom, to obtain properties, to
education.
2. Acquire Rights. Those rights obtained by
individuals after fulfilling some requirements as
prescribed by law, e.g., acquisition of citizenship,
right to suffrage.
3. Public Rights. Those rights given to people
by the ecclesiastical and civil laws.
4. Private Rights. Those rights granted by
private industries, institutions or organizations
who have formulated laws in accordance with
the civil law.
5. Positive Rights. Those rights which confer
upon a person the power to do certain things.
e.g., right to marry, to possess wealth.
6. Negative Rights. These are power of the
person to refuse to perform negative acts. e.g.,
stealing, intoxication drinking, killing, etc.
7. Alienable Rights. The rights that can be
transferred or renounced, e.g. ownership rights,
positive and negative rights.
8. Inalienable Rights. The rights that cannot be
transferred or renounced, e.g., religious rights or
right to life.
9. Perfect Rights. These are mandatory or
enforceable by the law, e.g., right to collect
payment from debt.
10. Imperfect Rights. The rights which are not
enforced by law or not juridical, e.g., rights to
give tips to ushers.
g. Limitations of Rights
Human rights have an intrinsic relationship to
the common good. One may therefore exercise
his rights for that good provided its execution will
not imperil the society.
1. All rights are defined by the natural law,
therefore rights are limited by what the natural
law prescribes or allows. There is never the right
to do evil.
2. Rights are necessarily the correlative of
duties. For every right there is a corresponding
duty. Each has right that others are bound to
respect.
3. Rights must be limited for the preservation of
the social order.
4. Rights are limited because of the very
limitation of man's nature. Man is physically free
but morally bound.
h. Extensions of Right to Human Life
1. Man is not obliged to take extraordinary
means to life, e.g., undergoing major operations
on account of grave reasons, only to prolong but
not save life.
2. It is not inordinate to subject life to ordeals
called for by a higher order, e.g., extreme fasts,
long vigils, flagellation or forms of asceticism.
3. Besides goods of soul and body, man must
strive for the full perfection of human life, i.e., the
normal pursuance of an adequate livelihood,
good name, good moral life and honor.
i. Moral Rights
Rights that the creator of a copyrighted
work has to ownership and control of the work,
as recognized by civil law and some common
law jurisdictions. Moral rights typically include
the right to the integrity of the copyrighted work,
the right to publish anonymously or under a
pseudonym, and the right of attribution. Moral
rights are different from the economic rights
rendered by copyrighting.
The first of the moral rights, the right of
attribution means that an author or creator of a
work is entitled to assert their authorship in the
work in any situation in which the work is
utilized, presented, reproduced or disseminated.
To put it another way, every authority has an
ingrained and an unfettered right to be
recognized as the creator of the work.
Right of integrity means that no one
can change your work without your permission;
no one can destroy your work without first
asking you if you want to take it back; no one
can show your work in a way that damages its
meaning. Moral right of infringement is when
you have not been properly named or credited
when your work is used. If someone has treated
your work in a way that hurts your reputation,
this is called derogatory treatment.
j. Legal Rights
These are, clearly, rights which exist
under the rules of legal systems or by virtue of
decisions of suitably authoritative bodies within
them. Legal rights are based on a society's
customs, laws, statutes or actions by
legislatures.
THE ACT
An act is categorically defined only to
human, an activity that is attributed to human
being. Since human act is inevitably the subject
of morality, it is but proper to understand its
complex implication to human dimension.
Essentially, human act proceeds from
the deliberate free will of man (Glen, 1965). In a
broader sense, human act refers to any activity,
either external or mental that is performed by a
person. More so, these acts are moral as long
as they are actions in accordance to what is
expected from human being.
For Babor (2006) however, mere acts of
human do not make them responsible for their
actions unless done with knowledge, freedom
and voluntariness. These are requisites to
subject human action to moral obligation. Thus,
these are also considered constituents (Agapay,
1991) of human acts.
Constituents of Human Act
1. Knowledge
Once an act is done with knowledge of
the agent, the act is deliberate, which means the
agent is aware upon performing the act as well
its consequences. Thus a deliberate act makes
the person responsible.
2. Freedom
Simply that the agent/doer is not
constrained in doing the act. The person is
neither forced nor compelled to do or not to do
an act against the will, hence making the agent
responsible as well.
3. Voluntariness
Voluntariness requires the presence of
both knowledge and freedom of the agent. For a
willful act to be executed, an agent must know
and free to choose which act to perform or not to
perform.
It is, therefore, to be remembered that
for an act to be worthy of reward or punishment,
it must be done with knowledge, freedom and
voluntariness.
C. Feelings and Moral Decision-Making
Daily life is peppered with
decision-making such as whether to take the
Uber ride or hurdle with traffic on a public utility
ride. Either decision is an explicit manifestation
of one's feeling which affects our choice
traveling to our destination.
To discuss how important feelings are in
making decisions specially those decisions
addressing moral issues, a timely article by
PsycholoGenie Staff (updated March 2018) has
provided the authors as to the role of feelings in
making moral decisions.
We all have feelings and these help us
to live every minute of our life. Anger, sadness,
happiness, fear, surprise and love are some of
the most common feelings experienced by every
human being. These emotions play a very
important role in every aspect of our life and
especially, in decision-making. The reason
behind everything we do in our life, in one way
or another is related to feelings. What made the
Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan build the Taj
Mahal is nothing but a deep and passionate
emotion of love. Negative incidences like war
are also related to the emotions such as greed,
hatred, anger or envy. One of the best examples
of these is Hitler's hatred towards the Jews
which resulted in merciless killing during World
War II. So we can say that whatever we do is
influenced by emotions to a large extent.
Though there are a lot of expressions of
emotions, we can broadly divide them into two
types: positive and negative. Positive
emotions are love, care, understanding,
friendship, happiness, satisfaction, etc., whereas
negative emotions comprise anger, hate, envy,
greed, frustration, etc. We think with the help of
our brain, but most of the time we listen to our
heart. Some people are more emotional than
others and hence, their decisions are most of
the time biased. Emotions influence our
decisions, right from buying toys for ourselves to
the careers we want to pursue or to something
as important as finding partners who can love,
understand and emotionally, support us. These
emotions are responsible for many of our
important decisions for which later on, we may
feel regretful or consider them most cherished
ones depending on the outcome. But the fact is
that they do affect our moral decision-making.
How Emotions Affect Moral Decision-making
Our environment, family background,
education, life experiences and everything
related to us play a very important role in
keeping our emotions positive or negative. If
your family and friends are cheerful and can
boost you up when you are feeling negative, it
helps you in coming up with positive decisions.
When you are in a positive mood, you are more
likely to make positive decisions or at least try to
think about the positive side of the particular
topic. Whereas, if you are in a bad mood you are
more inclined towards the negative aspect of
that topic. In such a situation, the decisions may
or may not be correct. Of course, this holds true
even in case of positive emotion. Many a time
you love a person so much that you take a
decision in favor of him/her, but later on regret it.
Hence, over-optimism or over pessimism both
can hamper your ability to take a good decision
without exercising a bias. Excessive emotions
result in clouded thinking which leads to poor
decision-making. If we are in a bad mood and
are very depressed, we end up messing things
and sometimes, harming ourselves and others
physically, financially or emotionally.
On the other hand, moral
decision-making is a choice made based on a
person's ethics, manners, character and what
they believe is proper behavior. These decisions
tend to not only affect their well-being, but also
the well-being of others.
Will and Reason
One of the most perennial debates in
the world of moral philosophy is to determine the
ultimate ground of morality. Two of these
fundamental questions are will and reason. We
could simply ask to extent the will and reason
can provide fundamental basis for moral action,
one that would allow the grounding of moral
action in human being and, to this extent, hope
to provide the criterion of moral worthiness of
action. Kant and Thomas Aquinas are just two
among philosophers who attempted to provide
will and reason as strong foundation for moral
actions.
1. Kant's Notion of Will and Reason
Reason, qua action-directing, is called
"practical." The problem at issue is the relation, if
any, between will and reason, i.e. practical
reason. On a Kantian view of the practical, if
reason is practical, the will, guided by reason,
can effect, or cause, action. Also, on a volitionist
account, willing (ie. an act of will) can effect, or
cause, action. Kant claims that if there is such
an ultimate moral principle, it must be found in
reason alone and it cannot be related to
anything in the empirical [phenomenal] world.
Even though Kant's ultimate ground of
morality is reason, he begins his inquiry with the
notion of good will which for him "can be taken
as good without any qualification." He says that
"a good will is not good because of what it
affects or accomplishes, it is good through its
willing alone - that is good in itself." Good will is
good not because it wills the good but it is good
simply because it is good in itself. However,
Kant also argues that the only "true function of
reason must be to produce a will which is good,
not as a means to some further end, but in itself.
In this sense, freedom of the will makes morality
possible. Kant agrees that free will is the
necessary postulate of moral reason.
2. Aquinas' Notions of Reason and Will
Similarly to Kant's notion of good will,
Aquinas's concept of will cannot be separated
from his notion of reason. According to Aquinas,
will is the rational appetite, which basically
means that will as 'appetite' is the form of desire,
but, as rational, will is guided by intellect/reason.
Thus, we see that the relation between the will
and the reason is complex. Even if in its
essence, reason is superior, the will by virtue of
being the appetitive power and thus being
inclined toward its object, has its own movement
or dynamism.
CURRENT PHILIPPINE ETHICAL ISSUES
Role of Religion in Ethics
● For Kant, he defended the idea of God
as a basic requirement of ethics. We
ought to be virtuous and do our duty, he
said. Kant believed virtue should be
rewarded by happiness, and it would be
intolerable if it were not so. Since it's
clear that virtue often does go
unrewarded in the present life, Kant
argued that the soul must be immortal.
Virtue must receive its due recompense
in a future life, and there must be a God
guaranteeing that it is so rewarded.
● Further, most of our basic moral
conducts are directed towards the
fulfillment of religious codes or
commands such as the Ten
Commandments in the Old Testament.
For example, Christians agree that
 God's command not to commit murder
or adultery is always regarded as wrong
or evil under any circumstance. Most
major world religions advocate the same
codes, and it can be argued that the
ancient codes of conduct that these
traditions embody are actually the
reference of our ethical intuitions. In this
juncture, we do regard religion as a
good source of basic moral guidance,
making it unwise to argue that there
ought to be no connection between
religion and ethics.
Philippine Ethical Challenges and Issues
Death Penalty (Tempo Editorial, 2015)
- In 1966, the UN General Assembly, of
which the Philippines is a founding
member, adopted the International
Covenant on Civil and Political Rights
(ICCPR) which, together with the
Universal Declaration of Human Rights
and the International Covenant on
Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights,
make up what is known as the
International Bill of Human Rights, The
Philippines signed the ICCPR on
December 19, 1966, and ratified it on
October 23, 1986.
- In 1989, the General Assembly adopted
the Second Protocol on Civil and
Political Rights, calling on all states to
abolish the death penalty. The Protocol
and a treaty signed by 83 states,
including the Philippines. The
Philippines signed the Protocol on
September 20, 2006, and ratified it on
September 20, 2007.
- The Philippines became the first Asian
country to abolish the death penalty
when the nation ratified the Constitution
in 1987.
- All the while, the Commission on Human
Rights vehemently opposed efforts to
re-impose the death penalty. It said it
was not convinced that the death
penalty is the answer to rising
criminality.
- However, ethically speaking only guilty
people deserved to be punished; guilty
people deserved to be punished
commensurate to the degree of the
crime committed. This means that a
criminal should be punished in relation
to what their crime deserves and in the
case of a murderer, their crime deserves
their lives.
War on Illegal Drugs
- War on illegal drugs confronts moral and
ethical considerations related to the
issue of human rights.
- Since taking office on June 30, 2016,
Philippine President Rodrigo Duterte
has carried out a "war on drugs" that
has led to the deaths of over 12,000
Filipinos to date, mostly urban poor. At
least 2,555 of the killings have been
attributed to the Philippine National
Police. Duterte and other senior officials
have instigated and incited the killings in
a campaign that could amount to crimes
against humanity.
- Probably with the foregoing contention,
a moral evaluation should be
established in accordance to the degree
of dependence and consequence
derived from its use and do not focus so
much on the mere use of the substance.
Eliminating those involved will not cure
the problem but would only lead to more
serious social problems such as human
rights violation, abuse of authority on the
part of the state, which eventually may
lead to lawlessness in the country.
Corruption
- High corruption levels severely restrict
the efficiency of businesses operating in
the Philippines. Extensive bribery within
the public administration and vague and
complex laws make foreign companies
vulnerable to extortion and manipulation
by public officials. Favoritism and undue
influence are widespread in the courts,
 leading to time-consuming and unfair
dispute resolution, and to an uncertain
business environment. Corruption
plagues the customs administration, and
fraud routinely occurs for companies
when filing import and export
documentation. The Anti-Graft and
Corrupt Practices Act criminalizes active
and passive bribery, extortion, abuse of
office and conflicts of interest. Giving
gifts, except for gifts of insignificant
value given in line with local customs, is
prohibited. Facilitation payments are not
addressed by anti- corruption
regulations and private sector bribery is
not criminalized. The legislative
framework for fighting corruption is
scattered and is not effectively enforced
by the weak and non-cooperative law
enforcement agencies (The Philippines
Corruption Report, 2017).
- Generally, corruption allocates
resources and opportunities in ways that
are unfair and inefficient. True enough in
the Philippines, it occurs in many
contexts and institutions, including
government agencies, the military, and
even religious institutions. Likely, these
moral problems can be addressed by
maintaining public commitment to
ethical standards set forth in our
mandate in public service. Democratize
public access through transparency can
empower public participation in
decision-making and planning in the
utilization of public funds.
Human Trafficking
- The recruitment, transportation, transfer,
harbouring or receipt of persons, by
means of the threat or use of force or
other forms of coercion, of abduction, of
fraud, of deception, of the abuse of
power or of a position of vulnerability or
of the giving or receiving of payments or
benefits to achieve the consent of a
person having control over another
person, for the purpose of exploitation.
Exploitation shall include, at a minimum,
the exploitation of the prostitution of
others or other forms of sexual
exploitation, forced labor or services,
slavery or practices similar to slavery,
servitude or the removal of organs.
- Human trafficking is a crime against
humanity. In an effort to deal with the
problem, the Philippines passed R.A.
9208, the Anti-Trafficking in Persons Act
of 2003, a penal law against human
trafficking, sex tourism, sex slavery and
child prostitution.
- What will be our response? Filipino and
any organization have an ethical role to
play in the fight against human
trafficking by firstly not the perpetrators
themselves. In companies or
institutions, implementing and following
codes of conduct highly prevents
attempts to practice trafficking among
their ranks. For the public service
institutions, procurement regulations
should be simple and strictly enforced
empowerment of workers, diversity
tolerance within international/national
organizations, requiring that staff
conduct themselves at the highest
standard of behavior at all times and
treating one another with dignity could
most likely minimize if not totally
eradicate human exploitation and
abuse.
Bribery
- Bribery of public officials is penalized
under Articles 210 to 212 of the Revised
Penal Code. Same as in Republic Act
6713 (The Code of Conduct and Ethical
Standards for Public Officials and
Employees) which prohibits public
officials and employees from soliciting or
accepting, directly or indirectly, any gift,
gratuity, favor, entertainment, loan or
anything of monetary value from any
person. The act in all forms is a
misconduct mutually violated by the
giver and the recipient, it is an act of
dishonesty and disregard to public
norms.
 - In the theory of ethics, certain act is
considered moral or immoral if the act is
done out of free will and knowledge.
Reason and free will are the bases for
moral evaluation of a certain act. In this
case, if the act is done because he
wants to do it despite the fact that he
knows that bribery is wrong but he still
does it, then it is immoral. Bribery is
immoral.
- Moral responsibility concerns the
evaluation of human acts or actions
which man performs knowingly and
freely. It is essentially concerned with
wrongful act. It assumes that a person
who performs an act knows why he acts
and freely commits it; even though he
knows his act is wrong. In relation to the
acts, the person deserves blame or
punishment. Thus, moral responsibility
involves the notion of guilt or innocence.
The one who is to be morally
responsible and to be blamed is the
person who is receiving the bribe. The
person is not forced to receive the bribe,
it is always under the gentleman's
agreement, Fr. Abun furthers.
Child Labor
- Child labor is work that deprives children
of their childhood, their potential and
their dignity, and that is harmful to
physical and mental development. In the
Philippines, there are 2.1 million child
laborers aged 5-17 years old million
based on the 2011 Survey on Children
of the Philippine Statistics Authority
(PSA). About 95 percent of them are in
hazardous work. Sixty-nine percent of
these are aged 15-17 years old, beyond
the minimum allowable age for work but
still exposed to hazardous work.
Children work in farms and plantations,
in dangerous mines, on streets, in
factories, and in private homes as child
domestic workers. Agriculture remains
to be the sector where most child
laborers can be found at 58 percent.
- The ethical evaluation on these issues is
based on the moral point of view of
Utilitarian and Kantian ethics. On the
lenses of Kantian ethics, child labor is
morally wrong since it violates the
dignity and disregards the rights of a
child. It also emphasizes that children
should not work, no matter how poverty
stricken their families might be. On the
contrary, Utilitarian ethics argues that
child labor is morally right because it
gives poverty-stricken families a source
of income; thus, it brings pleasure and
happiness to the greatest majority
(Ancheta, 2016).
- Regardless of the benefits that one or
group can derive from child labor, child
labor is still immoral and it has to stop.
The happiness that child labor brings to
many does not justify its continuity. It is
not morally right either that a child
becomes a means and an end for the
pleasure of others.
Nepotism in the Workplace
- Wheatley (2016) defines nepotism as
the practice of those with power,
showing favoritism towards friends or
family; usually by way of giving them a
job or benefits. According to her
originally, nepotism meant favoritism of
family members, but today it has a much
broader meaning. She said that in the
workplace this could mean favoring
members of staff because they are
friends, relatives or they just really like
their personality; as a result they are
offered better opportunities.
- In the Philippines, nepotism is simply
defined as the allocation and distribution
of appointments in the government on
the basis of kinship; it is the sibling of
patronage which shows discretionary
favors in exchange for political support
and to support a particular group, and
the hiring or promotion of a family
member (including in-laws). Siababa
(2017) agrees that some people say it is
really unethical and unfair practices.
 They identify nepotism as an immoral
issue in the organization because of the
negative practices like, for instance,
they prioritized hiring their relatives and
friends, even sometimes they are not
qualified or capable for the position and
this is automatically well-defined as
discrimination.
- The current Philippine rule on nepotism
is covered by Section 9, Rule XIII of the
1998 Memorandum Circular No. 40 of
the Civil Service Commission, which
states that "No appointment in the
national, provincial, city or municipal
governments or any branch or
instrumentality thereof, including
government-owned and/or -controlled
corporations with original charters shall
be made in favor of relative or the
appointing or recommending authority,
or of the chief of the bureau or office or
of the person exercising immediate
supervision over the appointee." The
memorandum also provides that "unless
otherwise provided by law, the word
relative and the members of the family
referred to are those related within the
third degree either of consanguinity or of
affinity."
- With the foregoing, nepotism itself is
Fillennial Ethical Challenges
negative and unethical. This kind of
practices at work can be very
detrimental and defeatist to government
services and to the community it tends
to serve with honesty and integrity. It is
important that all organizations such as
in the government should avoid the
practices of nepotism; it is a harmful
practice in the organization.
Filipino Millennials (Valeriano, 2016)
- In the Philippines, Filipino millennials or
"Fillennials" is now a thing. Millennials in
the Philippines are described as those
who are social media- dependent and
also, the "selfie" generation.
- According to The Week, millennials are
usually spendthrifts. Millennials in the
Philippines are known to usually spend
for luxury goods which leave their bank
accounts shaken-the reason why they
are also described as "broke."
Millennials are also described as
narcissist, making them known as the
"Me, Me, Me Generation."
- However, there are also good attitudes
which millennials possess: being
politically and socially-engaged.
Compared to other generations,
millennials have their say about issues
and are more involved with politics.
- When it comes to entertainment,
millennials in the Philippines are usually
seen spending time online watching
YouTube videos.
- Another set of description that best fits
millennials are: upbeat, lazy, narcissistic,
materialistic, self-expressive, fun-loving
and liberal. They also have a short
attention span.
- Aside from the age difference,
millennials have their own personalities.
According to Time, millennials have a
mantra of "Challenge convention." This
means that millennials seek to find
better ways of doing things.
- Much has been said about millennials -
roughly defined as those who were born
between 1980 and 2000. It has been
said that they're digital natives - growing
up amidst social networks and rapidly
evolving technology. It has been said
that they crave growth and experiences
versus stability. It has been said that
they're empowered, yet entitled - at least
in prevailing Western narratives.
- As the Phillennials thrive to establish
stronger and healthier generation, they
too have to face different difficulties that
would not only challenge them socially,
culturally nor politically but test their
moral disposition as well. A list of few
have to be considered.
Environment
- Today, threat to safe environment is a
growing concern among Phillennials.
The rising population, massive land
conversion, illegal minings, illegal
loggings, energy and chemical pollution,
and deforestration are severely
damaging our nature. With these,
millennials are responsible in changing
their lifestyle that is more friendly to our
environment. Participation and
compliance with state programs in
saving the environment make no
condition for their adherence.
- The clear ethical concern of Phillennials
with the issues on environment is being
responsible person in their conduct
particularly in dealing with other livings
and organisms; a conduct with respect
to our natural landscape and resources.
Health Care.
- According to Micah Yvana M. Vardeleon
of the Manila Times (2018), as the
results of a survey, six to 13 hours of
desk work causes 64 percent of
millennials to spend half an hour less on
physical activities like standing,
stretching, and walking on an average
work day. About 51 percent of Filipino
millennials engaged themselves in
physical activities at least twice a week.
Unfortunately, majority had a hard time
maintaining active lifestyles. Of the top
five health concerns that beset
morethan half of millennials, gaining
weight had the highest percentage at 84
percent. It is followed by high stress
levels at 67 percent, having less energy
with 65 percent, poor digestive health,
54 percent, and joint problems, 53
percent. According to the report,
addressing these concerns is important
because by 2020, around half of the
global workforce will be composed of
millennials. With the foregoing issues,
Phillennials have to consider the value
of life as a universal right that has to be
protected against any kind of threat.
Inequality.
- Inequality among Filipinos is a difficult
problem that has existed over time and
manifests itself in all community
settings. Inequality is firmly entrenched
in our society brought by ideological,
religious, cultural, and regional
differences that have constantly set
boundaries between generations. In the
country, economic inequality is the most
common form of inequality that widens
the gap among the millennials. As such,
they are in an effort to ensure equal
rights are respected and upheld by the
society.
- While it may be true that inequality is
one of the most challenging and diverse
issues of the future, the millennial
generation does possess some of the
tools to tackle the problem of inequality:
cooperation; positive attitudes;
resilience; and strong faith.
Technology.
- In the advent of technology, millennials
are facing various ethical issues to
consider such as genetic engineering in
humans to internet privacy. Since
technology makes knowledge
accessible from which people are
empowered and through which,
inequality could be mitigated. It is,
therefore, a challenge to this generation
to preserve the dignity of information
and make sure ideas are neither abused
nor harmful to the public it aims to
serve. Millennials tend to utilize this
media platform for healthier
communication to establish better
relationship leading to unity in solving
moral problems together.
OTHER ETHICAL QUESTIONS
Cosmetic Surgery
- a medical practice that aims to improve
physical appearance in order to
enhance one’s personality.
- It is made to restore damaged parts of
the body such as fatal physical injuries
 due to car accident, explosion or other
injuries inflicted by individuals.
- Another application to this practice is to
restore or upgrade parts of the body like
facelift, the removing of wrinkles, breast
augmentation, among others.
Mutilation
- With the wonder of modern medicine,
mutilation becomes a progressive
medical intervention in relation to health
and bodily care. Today, it makes easy
possible to change one’s face, sexuality,
liver, kidney, etc. Nevertheless, not all
interventions can bring good to human.
- It is a direct action to injure particular
part of the body that can possibly
compromise the normal functioning of
the body.
Questions on Human Sexuality
There are sexual behaviors that keep humans
from their real nature as sexual beings. These
deviation are generally postulated by lust. This
lustful sexuality equate human to that of the
animal level. Lustful sexuality comes in several
expressions.
Premarital Sexual Relationship
- Human biological needs as natural is
true; they are salient parts in human life
that need to be satisfied is absolutely
true. But sexual union outside the
benefit of marriage is contrary to the
ethical standard of the state and of the
church doctrine.
- Moreover, premature sexual relations
cannot ensure sincerity and fidelity
between the woman and the man nor
they can protect their relationship from
factors that compromise lasting and
lifetime relationship thus, it endangers
pregnancy and their possible siblings. It
is, therefore, immoral.
Extramarital Sexual Relationship
- This activity can only be committed by
married people, and is considered as
infidel and unjust action against the
children, faithful partner, protocol of the
state, and the doctrine of the church.
- Adultery and concubinage are both
wrong and immoral in the sense that
they violate the sanction of the state,
validity of marriage an dunreasonable
breach of sacred contract.
Beastiality
- It is the sexual contact with any kinds of
animals, a lewdness act even graver
than any other sexually perverted acts.
It is, therefore immoral.
Rape
- Is not just a perverted act but a heinous
crime violating a public law.
Homosexuality
- Is the mutual sexual attraction between
the same genders where male and
male, female and female are
emotionally and physically involved with
one another.
- However from the viewpoint of morality,
this relationship must be judged with
prudence because to date no common
ground had been laid that can be
employed for its moral justification.
Masturbation
- In moral sense has been declared to the
highest term without hesitation that this
act is intrinsically a distortd and
seriously a disordered act.
- Ethically lacks the necessary
considerations that foster mutual love,
respect and the realization of self-giving
and procreation called for by the moral
order. This a sin of impurity, therefore,
immoral.
Incest
- In essence is an act of rape because the
perpetrator abuses his power over his
daughter or younger sister.
- It is, therefore, in contrast to an ethical
relation and in the preservation of
human dignity and life.
- This act is no difference to beastial act
where animals get intercourse with
parent, siblings, etc.
Violence
- Holds no boundaries; at home, school,
community, and even in religious
organizations,.
 - This can even lead to more serious
moral problems such as murder, injury
to persons, torture, discrimination, and
grave threat to human live. Morality
rejects these actions as illicit for it
debates human dignity.
DIFFERENT KINDS OF JUSTICE
Distributive Justice
- Refers to the extent to which society’s
institutions ensure that benefits and
burdens are distributed among society’s
members in ways that are fair and just.
- It is concerned with the fair allocation of
resources among diverse members of
community.
Retributive or Corrective Justice
- Refers to the extent to which
punishment are fair and just
- In general, punishments are held to be
just to the extent that they take into
account relevant criteria such as the
seriousness of the crime and the intent
of the criminal, and discount irrelevant
criteria such as race.
Compensatory Justice
- Refers to the extent to which people are
fairly compensated for their injuries by
those who have injured them; just
compensation is proportional to the loss
inflicted on a person.
EGALITARIAN
Egalitarianism is apolitical doctrine that holds
that all people should be treated as equals from
birth, usually meaning held equal under the law
and in society at large. It is a belief in human
equality, especially with respect to social,
political and economic rights and privileges, and
advocates the removal of inequalities among
people and of discrimination.
TYPES OF EGALITARIAN
Economic Egalitarianism or Material
Egalitarianism
- Is where the participants of a society are
of equal standing and have equal
access to all the economic resources in
terms of economic power, wealth and
contribution. It is a founding principle of
various forms of Socialism.
Moral Egalitarianism
- Is the position that equality is central to
justice, that all individuals are entitled to
equal respect, and that all human are
equal in fundamental worth or moral
status.
Legal Egalitarianism
- The principle under which each
individual is subject to the same laws,
with no individual or group or class
having special legal privileges, and
where the testimony of all persons is
counted with the same weight.
Political Egalitarianism
- is where the members of a society are
of equal standing in terms of political
power or influence. It is a founding
principle of most forms of democracy.
Luck Egalitarianism
- Is a view about distributive justice
espoused by a variety of left-wing
political philosophers, which seeks to
distinguish between outcomes that are
the result of brute luck and those that
are the consequence of conscious
options.
Gender Egalitarianism or Zygarchy
- Is a form of society in which power is
equally shared between men and
women, or a family structure where
power is shared equally by both parents.
Racial Egalitarianism or Racial Equality
- Is the absence of racial segregation.
Opportunity Egalitarianism or Asset-based
Egalitarianism
- Is the idea that equality is possible by a
redistribution of resources , usually in
the form of capital grant provided at the
age of majority, an idea which has been
around since Thomas Paine
(1737-1809).
Christian Egalitarianism
- Holds that all people are equal before
God and in Christ, and specifically
teaches gender equality in Christian
church leadership and in marriage.