Cal 1 College Algebra Lesson 1

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In
MATH 110B (Bridging Program)
CALCULUS 1
College of Engineering and Technology

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Module No. 1
Differential Calculus
1st Semester 2021-2022
Joriz U. Cardejon
Assistant Professor II
Jose L. Zumarraga
Instructor I
WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

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Table of Contents
Content Page
Cover Page 1
Title Page 2
Table of Contents 3
Instruction to the User 4
Introduction 5
Overview 5
Learning Outcomes 5
Pretest 6
Lesson 1 (College Algebra) 10
Activity 1 95
Activity 2 96
Activity 3 99
Posttest 100
Lesson 2 (Trigonometry)
Lesson 3 (Solid Mensuration)
Lesson 4 (Analytic Geometry)
Lesson 5 (Differential Calculus)
References 103
Student’s Information 104
Back Cover (Vision, Mission, Core Values) 105

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INSTRUCTION TO THE USER

This module would provide you an educational experience while
independently accomplishing the task at your own pace or time. It aims as well to
ensure that learning is unhampered by health and other challenges. It covers the
topic about Trigonometry, College Algebra, Solid Mensuration, Analytic Geometry
and Differential Calculus. This will help enhance your knowledge about the basic
concepts of solving triangles and acquire certain amount of familiarity with the
relations among functions, constitute a throughout review of the topics in elementary
and intermediate algebra, an intuitive approach to the development of the concept of
limits of functions precedes and differentiation of polynomial functions,
trigonometric functions, and inverse functions and their applications.
Reminders in using this module:
1. Keep this material neat and intact.

2. Answer the pretest first to measure what you know and what to be learned
about the topic discussed in this module.
3. Accomplish the activities and exercises as aids and reinforcement for
better understanding of the lessons.
4. Answer the post-test to evaluate your learning.
5. Do not take pictures in any parts of this module nor post it to social media
platforms.
6. Value this module for your own learning by heartily and honestly
answering and doing the exercises and activities. Time and effort were
spent in the preparation in order that learning will continue amidst this
Covid-19 pandemic.
7. Observe health protocols: wear mask, sanitize and maintain physical
distancing.
Hi! I’m Blue Bee, your WPU Mascot.
Welcome to Western Philippines University!

Shape your dreams with quality learning experience.
STAY SAFE AND HEALTHY!

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INTRODUCTION
This material will be your mode of instruction for the rest of the semester amidst this
Covid-19 pandemic. It consists of pre-test, lesson proper, activities and post-test to ensure
that you can really learn something at the end.
This module discusses the very root of algebra. It includes operations in algebraic
expressions that is required to be learned and prepares you to the next higher level of
mathematics and professional courses as well. Your cooperation is very much needed through
reading and solving problem practices that will give you the success of learning process.
OVERVIEW
This module focuses on the study of plane and spherical trigonometry,

complete review of the number system of algebra, present the practical essentials of
solid geometry and differentiation in finding the derivative of the functions which
enable you to use these approaches in mathematical investigation and formulate
formulas for problem solving.
Learning Outcomes
At the end of the module, you can

1. add the given polynomials,
2. subtract the given polynomials,
3. find the quotient of the given polynomials,
4. remove factors form and introducing them into radicals,
5. reduce the index of radicals from the given equations,
6. solve for x from the given equations,
7. find x and y from the given equations,
8. solve equations using determinants,
9. obtain the roots of the given equations,
10. solve word problems related on the college algebra,
11. find the other functions of an acute angle when one function is given,
12. solve triangles using Law of sine,
13. solve triangles using Law of cosine,
14. solve triangles using Law of tangent,
15. prove the different trigonometric identities,
16. reduce angles to radians and radians to angles,
17. solve word problems related in trigonometry,
18. solve word problems related on mensuration of plane figures,
19. solve word problems related on solids for which V = bh,
20. solve word problem involving rectangular parallelepiped,
21. solve word problems involving prisms,
22. solve word problems related to circular cylinders,
23. solve word problems involving pyramid,
24. solve word problems involving circular cone,

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25. solve word problems related to frustum,

26. solve word problems involving spheres,
27. find the distance between two points,
28. solve word problems related on distance between two points,
29. find the midpoint of the given line segment,
30. solve word problems related to division of line segment and midpoint of a line
segment
31. find the slope and angle of inclination the given two lines,
32. solve word problems related to slope and angles,
42. solve word problems related on differentials calculus.
Pre-test
This is not a test as basis for your grade, failing the test is alright. No time limits. This
will also serve as a review. Try your best to answer the items below.
Instructions:
 Write your answers and solution on your personal notebook.
 To get full points, your solutions must be concise and properly presented.
 Final answers should be boxed.
 Work independently
1. Find the LCM or LCD of the following (2 points each)

a. 4 and 6
b. 8 and 24
2. Combine numbers into a single number (2 points each)

a. + 7 + 4
b. – 9 – 5
c. – 3 – 5
d. + 2 + 8
e. + 10/– 5
f. – 9/+ 3
g. – 6/- 2
h. + 12/– 4

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3. Express each of the following without zero and negative exponent, then simplify (2 points
each)
a. x2(x3)
b.
(x2)3
𝑥− 4
c. 𝑥2
𝑥 3
d. (𝑦 )
4. Remove the symbol of grouping and combine like terms (2 points each)
a. 4x + 2(5y – 3z)
b. 10a – [3a + 2(b – 3c) – 6]
c. 15 – 2[5 – 3(13 – 9) + 11]
d. 7a – [6b – (c – d) + e]
5. Add the following polynomials (2 points each)

a. 16a + 9b, 8a + 7b
b. – 3a + 7b – 31c, 6a – 14b – 44c
c. 3x4 + 5x3 – 7x + 2, x3 + 2x2 + 7x – 11
6. Subtract the following polynomials (2 points each)

a. ab + bc + cd, ac + bc + bd
b. 7a2b + 3ab2, 12a2b – 18 ab2 – a3b2
c. x3 – 3x2 + 7x + 2, 5x3 + x3 – 10x + 24
7. Determine the domain of the following (2 points each)

a. y = x2 + 3x – 4
b. y = x3, what is g[f(x)]
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c. y = 𝑥−2
8. Solve the equations by determinants (2 points each)

a. 2x + 8y = 79
2x – 5y = - 38
b. 4x – y + 4z = 2
2x + 3y + 5z = 2
7x – 2y + 6z = 5
9. Factor completely the following polynomials (2 points each )

a. 51x5y2 – 119 x2y5 f. x2 – 4xy – 5y2
b. 27x2 - 12y2 g. 36x2 + 60xy + 25y2
c. (m + n)2 – 25 h. 6x2 – 11x – 10
d. 98a3 – 72a i. x4 – 13x2 + 36
e. x2 – 10x + 24 j. x2 – 5x – 24

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10. Combine into a single fraction (2 points each)

7 2
a. 10x + 15x2
5 x−2
b. -
6x 4x2
2b
c. 3a + 5c
3 2
d. + x−y
x+y
7x−3 2x−5
e. – 2x+5
x+3
11. Determine the partial fraction expansion of the following (2 points each)
x+1 A B
a. (3x+5)(4x−3)
= (3x+5) + (4x−3) . Find the value of A and B
x+1
b. 6x2 + 11x+4
3x2 +11x−2
c. (3x−2)(3x2 + 2)
2x3 − 2x+1
d. x4 + x3 + x2 )
12. Remove all perfect powers from the radicands and reduce to a simplest form (2 points
each)
a. √16x 3
b. √75a2 b 3
3
c. √54x 4 y 5 z 6
3
d. √− 250x10
e. √2a2 + 4ab + 2b 2
1
f. 3
√2
2
g. √3
1+ √2
h.
√3+ √2
6 + √6
i. 3+ √3
j. 2√3 .5√7
3
k. √2x 2 y . √2x 2 y
4 4
l. √8x 2 . √4x 2
3
m. √3 . √2
13. Solve for x in the following equations (2 points each)

a. x2 – 12x + 35 = 0
b. x2 – 13x + 36 = 0
c. 15x2 – 2x – 8 = 0
d. x2 – 121 = 0
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e. x – = 6
𝑥

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14. Solve for x and y in the following equations (2 points each)

a. x2 + y2 = 13,
2x + y = 8
b. x2 - 8 y = 0,
x - 3y + 2 = 0
c. xy - 12 = 0,
x-y+1 = 0
15. Obtain the roots of the following equations (2 points each)

a. x4 – 2x3 + 2x2 – 2x + 1 = 0
b. x3 + 3x2 + 3x + 1 = 0
c. x5 + x4 – 7x3 - 11x2 – 8x - 12 = 0
d. 4x3 – 21x – 10 = 0
16. Solve for x (2 points each)

a. 3x = 5
b. logx64 = 6
c. x = log381
1
d. Log4 2 = x
e. (3x)(23x – 1) = 62x + 1
17. Solve the following word problems (2 points each)

a. Kim is two years older than Kevin and the sum of their ages is 18. How old are Kim
and Kevin?
b. Juan can finish the job in five days, Pedro can finish the same job in 10 days. How
many
days can the job be finished if Juan and Pedro work together?
c. How many liters of distilled water must be added to 80 liters of a 60 % acid solution
to
obtain a 50 % acid solution?
d. Danny in his motorboat, took 3 hours to make a downstream trip with a current of 6
kph.
The return trip upstream took 5 hours. What is the speed of the boat in still water?
What is the total travelled?
e. Boy has quarters and nickels. He has twice as many quarters as nickels. If the value of
coins totals $4.40. How many nickels and quarters does Boy have?
f. What is the measure of the smaller angle between the hands of analog clock at 10:17.
g. Divide the number 48 into two parts such that they are in the ratio 3 : 5.
h. Solve the proportion ( x + 1 ) : ( 2x – 1 ) = 2 : 3.
i. What is the mean proportion between 3 and 12?
j. If y varies directly as x, and y is 15 when x = 3, find y if x = 5.

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Lesson 1
College Algebra
A. Specific Learning Outcomes:
At the end of the lesson, you can

10. solve word problems related on differentials calculus.
B. Time Allotment: 4 weeks (September 15 to October 15)
C. Discussion
A Deductive System
Algebra, like geometry and many other areas of mathematics which

stem from the undefined terms and axioms, is a deductive, or axiomatic,
system.
We will consider a set of undefined elements called real numbers and indicate
the set by R.
For the equality relation, we assume the following properties for all
elements for all elements a, b, c, . . . of R.
Let a, b, c and d stand for real numbers.
Axiom E-1. 𝑎=𝑎 (reflexive property)
A number is equal to itself.
Axiom E-2. If 𝑎 = 𝑏, then 𝑏 = 𝑎 (symmetric property)
Any quantity maybe replaced by an equal quantity.
Axiom E-3. If 𝑎 = 𝑏, and 𝑏 = 𝑐 then 𝑎 = 𝑐 (transitive property)
Quantities equal to the same quantity are equal to each other.
Axiom E-4. If 𝑎 = 𝑏, and 𝑐 = 𝑑 then 𝑎 + 𝑐 = 𝑏 + 𝑑
And, since 𝑑 = 𝑐, 𝑎 + 𝑐 = 𝑏 + 𝑐 (addition property)

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If equals are added to equals, the sum are equal.
Axiom E-5. If 𝑎 = 𝑏, and 𝑐 = 𝑑 then 𝑎𝑐 = 𝑏𝑑
And, since 𝑑 = 𝑐, 𝑎𝑐 = 𝑏𝑐 (addition property)
If equals are multiplied by equals, the products are equal.
Field Axioms of Real Numbers
Axiom 1. The closure laws. For any a, b ∈ R
𝑎 + 𝑏 ∈ 𝑅 and 𝑎𝑏 ∈ 𝑅
The operation of addition and multiplication on two numbers which

belongs to R yield numbers which also belongs to R.
The sum 𝑎 + 𝑏 and the product 𝑎𝑏 are real numbers.
Axiom 2. The commutative laws. For any a, b ∈ R
𝑎 + 𝑏 = 𝑏 + 𝑎 and 𝑎𝑏 = 𝑏𝑎
The sum or product of two numbers does not depend on the order in
which the addition or multiplication is performed.
Axiom 3. The associative laws. For any a, b, c ∈ R
(𝑎 + 𝑏) + 𝑐 = 𝑎 + (𝑏 + 𝑐) and (𝑎𝑏)𝑐 = 𝑎(𝑏𝑐)
The sum, and the product, of any three real numbers is independent of the way
in which the numbers are grouped for these operations.
Axiom 4. The distributive laws. For any a, b, c ∈ R
𝑎(𝑏 + 𝑐) = 𝑎𝑐 + 𝑏𝑐 and (𝑏 + 𝑐)𝑎 = 𝑏𝑎 + 𝑐𝑎
A particular product is equal to a sum and, conversely, the sum is equal to a

product. This is true since equality is symmetric (Axiom E-2)
Axiom 5. The identity elements. For any a ∈ R, there exist a real number
called “zero,” denoted by 0, such that
𝑎 + 0 = 𝑎 and 0 + 𝑎 = 𝑎
For any a ∈ R there exist a real number called “one,” denoted by 1,

such that
𝑎 ∗ 1 = 𝑎 and 1 ∗ 𝑎 = 𝑎 ( Note: symbol * is used here for

multiplication)

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The number 0 is called the identity element for addition.
The number 1 is called the identity element for multiplication.
Axiom 6. The inverse elements. For any a ∈ R, there exist a real number
denoted by −𝑎, such that
𝑎 + (−𝑎) = 0 and (−𝑎) + 𝑎 = 0
For any nonzero number a ∈ R there exist a real number denoted by 1⁄𝑎 , such
that
𝑎 ∗ 1⁄𝑎 = 1 and 1⁄𝑎 ∗ 𝑎 = 1 ( Note: symbol * is used here for

multiplication)
The number −𝑎 is called the additive inverse of a.
The number 1⁄𝑎 is called the multiplicative inverse of a or the

reciprocal of a.
Definitions, addition, subtraction, multiplication and division of

algebraic expressions
Definition
When numbers and letters (standing for numbers) are combined by

applying one or more of the fundamental operations of algebra, the result is
called an algebraic expression.
Examples:
3𝑎 is an expression of one term
−2𝑥 + 3𝑦 is an expression with terms −2𝑥 and +3𝑦
𝑚𝑛 − 𝑝𝑞 + 7 is an expression with the terms +𝑚𝑛, −𝑝𝑞 and 7
(𝑚𝑛 − 𝑝𝑞) + 7 has two terms, (𝑚𝑛 − 𝑝𝑞) and +7
An expression of one term is called a monomial, of two terms a

binomial, of three terms a trinomial. Multinomial is used to indicate an
expression of two or more terms.
The letters in an algebraic expression are called variables (or literal numbers).
For example, 𝑥 and 𝑦 are variables in the expressions
2⁄ + √𝑦 − 1
𝑥 and 𝑥𝑦 + 𝑥 − 1⁄𝑥 + 1 + 6

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Each of two or more numbers which is multiplied together to form a

product is called a factor.
Example, 5𝑥𝑦 5, 𝑥 and 𝑦 are the factors. The numerical 5 is called the
coefficient.
Definition
The absolute value of a real number 𝑎, denoted by|𝑎|, is the real number such
that
|𝑎| = 𝑎 when 𝑎 is positive or zero
|𝑎| = −𝑎 when 𝑎 is negative
Thus,
|4| = 4, |−4| = −(−4) = 4, |0| = 0
The absolute value reveals the distance of the graph of the number
from the origin, but does not specify in which direction.
Example:
|𝑎| = 2 the graph of 𝑎 maybe 2 units to the right or 2 units to the left.
|𝑥| < 2 the 𝑥 may be any number whose graph is within 2 units of the origin
or it means −2 < 𝑥 < 2
Definition
If a is a real number other than 0 and n is a positive integer, then 𝑎𝑛

denotes the product of n factors each of which is a. That is,
𝑎𝑛 = (𝑎)(𝑎)(𝑎)(𝑎) … 𝑎
The quantity 𝑎𝑛 is called the nth power of a or a to the nth. The

number a is called the base and n is the exponent of the base.
Theorem
If a is a real number and m and n are positive integers, then
𝑎𝑚 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎𝑚+𝑛
Examples:
24 23 = 24+3 = 27
𝑎2 𝑎5 𝑎7 = 𝑎2+5+7 = 𝑎14

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(2𝑎3 𝑏 2 )(3𝑎𝑏 4 ) = (2)(3)(𝑎3 )(𝑎1 )(𝑏 2 )(𝑏 4 ) = 6𝑎4 𝑏 6
Addition and Subtraction
Law 1
The sum of two positive numbers is positive. The sum of two negative numbers
is negative.
Law 2
The sum of a positive number and a negative number is obtainable

from the absolute values of the numbers. Thus subtract the smaller absolute
value from the larger absolute value and take the sign of the number with the
larger absolute value.
In performing algebraic expressions, it is sometimes necessary to place

parentheses or other grouping symbols about an expression or to remove
grouping symbols from an expression.
Example:
+(3𝑥 − 4𝑦 + 5) = 1(3𝑥 − 4𝑦 + 5)
= 1(3𝑥) + 1(−4𝑦) + 1(5)
= 3𝑥 − 4𝑦 + 5
−(3𝑥 − 4𝑦 + 5) = −(3𝑥 − 4𝑦 + 5)(1)
= −1(3𝑥 − 4𝑦 + 5)
= −1(3𝑥) − 1(−4𝑦) − 1(5)
= −3𝑥 + 4𝑦 − 5
Example: Remove the grouping symbols
𝑥 − 3𝑦(𝑥 − 4𝑦) − (−2𝑥 + 5𝑦) = 𝑥 − 3𝑦(𝑥) − 3𝑦(−4𝑦) − (−2𝑥) − (5𝑦)
= 𝑥 − 3𝑥𝑦 + 12𝑦 2 + 2𝑥 − 5𝑦
= 3𝑥 − 3𝑥𝑦 + 12𝑦 2 − 5𝑦
𝑥 − {6𝑥 − [3𝑥 − (𝑥 − 𝑦) − 4𝑦]} = 𝑥 − {6𝑥 − [3𝑥 − (𝑥) − (−𝑦) − 4𝑦]}
= 𝑥 − {6𝑥 − [3𝑥 − 𝑥 + 𝑦 − 4𝑦]}
= 𝑥 − {6𝑥 − [2𝑥 − 3𝑦]}
= 𝑥 − {6𝑥 − [2𝑥] − [−3𝑦]}

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= 𝑥 − {6𝑥 − 2𝑥 + 3𝑦}
= 𝑥 − {4𝑥 + 3𝑦}
= 𝑥 − {4𝑥} − {3𝑦}
= 𝑥 − 4𝑥 − 3𝑦
= −3𝑥 − 3𝑦
Definition
A polynomial is an algebraic expression in which each term is a

constant, or a constant times a positive integral power of a variable, or a
constant times the product of positive integral powers of two or more
variables.
Examples
3𝑥 + 4 , 5⁄ 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 1 , 3𝑥 4 − 5𝑥 3 + 7𝑥
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The degree of a polynomial in one variable is defined as the greatest
exponent of
the variable.
Example: 3𝑥 4 − 5𝑥 3 + 7𝑥 is in the fourth degree
The degree of a polynomial with more than one variable is defined as

the greatest sum of exponents of the variables in one term.
Example: 3𝑥 4 𝑦 2 − 5𝑥 3 𝑦 + 7𝑥 − 3 is in the sixth (4+2) degree considering the

first term
Addition and Subtraction of Polynomials Examples
a. Add the three polynomials

5𝑎 − 2𝑏 + 8𝑐, −16𝑎 + 8𝑏 + 4𝑐, 6𝑎 − 8𝑏 − 9𝑐
(5𝑎 − 2𝑏 + 8𝑐) + (−16𝑎 + 8𝑏 + 4𝑐) + (6𝑎 − 8𝑏 − 9𝑐)
= 5𝑎 − 2𝑏 + 8𝑐 − 16𝑎 + 8𝑏 + 4𝑐 + 6𝑎 − 8𝑏 − 9𝑐
= 5𝑎 − 16𝑎 + 6𝑎 − 2𝑏 + 8𝑏 − 8𝑏 + 8𝑐 + 4𝑐 − 9𝑐
= −5𝑎 − 2𝑏 + 3𝑐
b. Combine like terms and simplify the expression

(3𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 − 5) + (4𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 7) − (6𝑥 + 3)
= 3𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 − 5 + 4𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 7 − (6𝑥) − (3)

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= 3𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 − 5 + 4𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 7 − 6𝑥 − 3
= 3𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 − 3𝑥 − 6𝑥 − 5 + 7 − 3
= 7𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 − 1
c. Simplify the expression

(2𝑥 2 + 𝑥𝑦 − 𝑦 2 ) − (3𝑥 2 − 2𝑥𝑦 + 2𝑦 2 ) + (𝑥 2 + 3𝑥𝑦 + 7𝑦 2 )
= 2𝑥 2 + 𝑥𝑦 − 𝑦 2 − (3𝑥 2 ) − (−2𝑥𝑦) − (2𝑦 2 ) + 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥𝑦 + 7𝑦 2
= 2𝑥 2 + 𝑥𝑦 − 𝑦 2 − 3𝑥 2 + 2𝑥𝑦 − 2𝑦 2 + 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥𝑦 + 7𝑦 2
= 2𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 2 + 𝑥 2 + 𝑥𝑦 + 2𝑥𝑦 + 3𝑥𝑦 − 𝑦 2 − 2𝑦 2 + 7𝑦 2
= 0 + 6𝑥𝑦 + 4𝑦 2
= 6𝑥𝑦 + 4𝑦 2
d. For the particular polynomials

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 4 𝑔(𝑥) = −2𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 6 ℎ(𝑥) = 4𝑥 − 7
Find
𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥) − ℎ(𝑥)
𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥) − ℎ(𝑥) = (𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 4) + (−2𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 6) − (4𝑥 − 7)

= 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 4 − 2𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 6 − (4𝑥) − (−7)
= 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 4 − 2𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 6 − 4𝑥 + 7
= 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 5𝑥 − 4𝑥 + 4 + 6 + 7
= −𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 17
Multiplication
Law 1
The product of two numbers of like signs is positive
The product of two numbers of unlike signs is negative
Example: Multiply 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥𝑦 − 2𝑦 2 by 2𝑦 3
2𝑦 3 (𝑥 2 − 3𝑥𝑦 − 2𝑦 2 ) = 2𝑦 3 (𝑥 2 ) + 2𝑦 3 (−3𝑥𝑦) + 2𝑦 3 (−2𝑦 2 )
= 2𝑥 2 𝑦 3 − 6𝑥𝑦 4 − 4𝑦 5
Theorem
The product of two polynomials is the sum of all results obtained by

multiplying all the terms of one polynomial by each term of the other.
Example: Find the product of 2𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 − 4 and 3𝑥 2 − 4𝑥

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(2𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 − 4)(3𝑥 2 − 4𝑥) = 2𝑥 2 (3𝑥 2 − 4𝑥) − 3𝑥(3𝑥 2 − 4𝑥) − 4(3𝑥 2 − 4𝑥)
= 6𝑥 4 − 8𝑥 3 − 9𝑥 3 + 12𝑥 2 − 12𝑥 2 + 16𝑥
= 6𝑥 4 − 17𝑥 3 + 16𝑥
or
(2𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 − 4)(3𝑥 2 − 4𝑥) = 3𝑥 2 (2𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 − 4) − 4𝑥(2𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 − 4)
= 6𝑥 4 − 9𝑥 3 − 12𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 3 + 12𝑥 2 + 16𝑥
= 6𝑥 4 − 17𝑥 3 + 16𝑥
Example: Multiply 2𝑥 2 + 𝑥𝑦 − 3𝑦 2 by 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2
(2𝑥 2 + 𝑥𝑦 − 3𝑦 2 )(𝑥 2 − 3𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2 )
2𝑥 2 (𝑥 2 − 3𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2 ) + 𝑥𝑦(𝑥 2 − 3𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2 ) − 3𝑦 2 (𝑥 2 − 3𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2 )
2𝑥 4 − 6𝑥 3 𝑦 + 2𝑥 2 𝑦 2 + 𝑥 3 𝑦 − 3𝑥 2 𝑦 2 + 𝑥𝑦 3 − 3𝑥 2 𝑦 2 + 9𝑥𝑦 3 − 3𝑦 4
2𝑥 4 − 6𝑥 3 𝑦 + 𝑥 3 𝑦 + 2𝑥 2 𝑦 2 − 3𝑥 2 𝑦 2 − 3𝑥 2 𝑦 2 + 𝑥𝑦 3 + 9𝑥𝑦 3 − 3𝑦 4
2𝑥 4 − 5𝑥 3 𝑦 − 4𝑥 2 𝑦 2 + 10𝑥𝑦 3 + 9𝑥𝑦 3 − 3𝑦 4
Division
Law
The quotient of two numbers of like signs is positive
The quotient of two numbers of unlike signs is negative
Theorem
If m and n are positive integers and a is real number not equal to zero, then
𝑎𝑚⁄ 𝑛 = 𝑎𝑚−𝑛 if 𝑚 > 𝑛

𝑎
= 𝑎0 = 1 if 𝑚 = 𝑛
= 1⁄𝑎𝑛−𝑚 if 𝑚 < 𝑛
𝑦 5⁄ 2
Example: 𝑦2 = 𝑦
5−2
= 𝑦3 and 15 𝑥 ⁄−3𝑥 4 = − 5⁄𝑥 4−2 = − 5⁄𝑥 2
Division of polynomial by a monomial is obtained by dividing all the

term of the dividend polynomial by the divisor monomial.

18
Example:
Divide 3𝑥 2 𝑦 − 6𝑥𝑦 2 + 12𝑥 by 3𝑥

2 2
(3𝑥 2 𝑦 − 6𝑥𝑦 2 + 12𝑥)⁄3𝑥 = 3𝑥 𝑦⁄3𝑥 − 6𝑥𝑦 ⁄3𝑥 + 12𝑥⁄3𝑥
= 𝑥 2−1 𝑦 − 2𝑥1−1 𝑦 2 + 4𝑥1−1
= 𝑥𝑦 − 2𝑦 2 + 4
Division of polynomial by divisor which has two or more terms
Procedure (similar to that of long division in arithmetic)
a. Arrange the dividend and divisor in order of descending powers of a common

letter, leaving a gap for any missing power of the letter in the dividend.
b. Divide the first term of the dividend by the first term of the divisor. This gives
the first term of the quotient.
c. Multiply the divisor by the first term of the quotient and subtract the result
from the dividend.
d. Consider the remainder thus obtained as a new dividend and repeat steps 2 and
3 to find the second term of the quotient and the next remainder. Continue this
process until a remainder is obtained which is zero or is of lower degree in the
common letter than the degree of the divisor.
If the remainder is 0, the division is exact and the result maybe expressed as
𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑑⁄
𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑟 = 𝑞𝑢𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡
If the remainder is not 0, we express the result as
𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑑⁄ 𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟⁄
𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑟 = 𝑞𝑢𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 + 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑟
Example:
Divide 3𝑥 − 6𝑥 2 + 18 by 2𝑥 + 3
3𝑥 − 6𝑥 2 + 18 is rearranged as −6𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 18 to be dividend
−3𝑥
2𝑥 + 3 −6𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 18 2𝑥 + 3 −6𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 18
−(−6𝑥 2 − 9𝑥)
12𝑥 + 18

19
−3𝑥 + 6 Quotient / answer
2𝑥 + 3 −6𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 18
−(−6𝑥 2 − 9𝑥)
12𝑥 + 18
−(12𝑥 + 18)
Divide 6𝑎4 − 41𝑎2 + 3𝑎 + 6 by 2𝑎2 − 4𝑎 − 3
3𝑎2
2𝑎2 − 4𝑎 − 3 6𝑎4 − 41𝑎2 + 3𝑎 + 6
−(6𝑎4 − 12𝑎3 − 9𝑎2 )
−12𝑎3 − 32𝑎2 + 3𝑎 + 6
3𝑎2 + 6𝑎
2𝑎2 − 4𝑎 − 3 6𝑎4 − 41𝑎2 + 3𝑎 + 6
−(6𝑎4 − 12𝑎3 − 9𝑎2 )
12𝑎3 − 32𝑎2 + 3𝑎 + 6
−(12𝑎3 − 24𝑎2 − 18𝑎)
−8𝑎2 + 21𝑎 + 6
3𝑎2 + 6𝑎 − 4
2𝑎2 − 4𝑎 − 3 6𝑎4 − 41𝑎2 + 3𝑎 + 6
−(6𝑎4 − 12𝑎3 − 9𝑎2 )
12𝑎3 − 32𝑎2 + 3𝑎 + 6
−(12𝑎3 − 24𝑎2 − 18𝑎)
−8𝑎2 + 21𝑎 + 6
−(−8𝑎2 + 16𝑎 + 12)
5𝑎 − 6 Remainder

20
Hence
6𝑎4 − 41𝑎2 + 3𝑎 + 6 = 3𝑎2 + 6𝑎 − 4 + 5𝑎 − 6
2𝑎2 − 4𝑎 − 3 2𝑎2 − 4𝑎 − 3
Special Products
Product of the Sum and Difference of Two Numbers
(𝑥 + 𝑦)(𝑥 − 𝑦) = 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 Formula a.
Square of a Binomial
(𝑥 + 𝑦)2 = 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2 Formula b.
(𝑥 − 𝑦)2 = 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2 Formula c.
Product of Two Binomials with Like Terms
(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦)(𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦) = 𝑎𝑐𝑥 2 + (𝑎𝑑 + 𝑏𝑐)𝑥𝑦 + 𝑏𝑑𝑦 2
a. The product of the sum and difference of two numbers is equal to the square
of the first number minus the square of the second number.
b. and c. The square of a binomial is equal to the square of the first term plus
twice the product of the terms plus the square of the second term.
Example:
1. (3𝑎 + 4𝑏)(3𝑎 − 4𝑏) applying formula a. with 𝑥 = 3𝑎 and 𝑦 = 4𝑏

(3𝑎 + 4𝑏)(3𝑎 − 4𝑏) = (3𝑎)2 − (4𝑏)2 = 9𝑎2 − 16𝑏 2
2. Product of (𝑥 − 2𝑦 + 𝑧)(𝑥 − 2𝑦 − 𝑧) grouping terms and applying

formula a. and c.
(𝑥 − 2𝑦 + 𝑧)(𝑥 − 2𝑦 − 𝑧) = [(𝑥 − 2𝑦) + 𝑧][(𝑥 − 2𝑦) − 𝑧] = (𝑥 − 2𝑦)2 − 𝑧 2
= 𝑥 2 − 4𝑥𝑦 + 4𝑦 2 − 𝑧 2
3. Write by inspection the product of 3𝑥 − 4𝑦 and 2𝑥 + 5𝑦

(3𝑥 − 4𝑦 )(2𝑥 + 5𝑦)
First term is (3𝑥)(2𝑥) = 6𝑥 2 and of the second term is (−4𝑦)(5𝑦) = −20𝑦 2
For the middle term,
Product of two inner term (−4𝑦)(2𝑥) = −8𝑥𝑦
Product of two outer term (3𝑥)(5𝑦) = 15𝑥𝑦
Middle term = 7𝑥𝑦
Hence
(3𝑥 − 4𝑦 )(2𝑥 + 5𝑦) = 6𝑥 2 + 7𝑥𝑦 − −20𝑦 2
The middle term of this product is called the cross product.

21
Factoring; Simple types of factoring
* Common factors
4𝑥 3 𝑦 2 + 2𝑥 2 𝑦 3 − 6𝑥 2 𝑦 2 = 2𝑥 2 𝑦 2 (2𝑥 + 𝑦 − 3)
𝑥(𝑎 + 𝑏) + 𝑦(𝑎 + 𝑏) = (𝑎 + 𝑏)(𝑥 + 𝑦)
* Difference of two squares
Factor 4𝑎2 − 9𝑏 2
From 𝑢2 − 𝑣 2 = (𝑢 + 𝑣)(𝑢 − 𝑣)
𝑢2 = 4𝑎2 and 𝑢 = 2𝑎
𝑣 2 = 9𝑏 2 and 𝑣 = 3𝑏
4𝑎2 − 9𝑏 2 = (2𝑎 + 3𝑏)(2𝑎 − 3𝑏)
Factor 4𝑎𝑥 2 − 16𝑎𝑦 2
4𝑎𝑥 2 − 16𝑎𝑦 2 = 4𝑎(𝑥 2 − 4𝑦 2 )
𝑢2 = 𝑥 2 and 𝑢 = 𝑥
𝑣 2 = 4𝑦 2 and 𝑣 = 2𝑦
4𝑎𝑥 2 − 16𝑎𝑦 2 = 4𝑎(𝑥 2 − 4𝑦 2 ) = 4𝑎(𝑥 + 2𝑦)(𝑥 − 2𝑦)
The removal of a common factor, if any, should be the first step in factoring
Factor (𝑎 + 𝑏)2 − (𝑐 − 2𝑑)2
(𝑎 + 𝑏)2 − (𝑐 − 2𝑑)2 = [(𝑎 + 𝑏) + (𝑐 − 2𝑑)][(𝑎 + 𝑏) − (𝑐 − 2𝑑)]
= [𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐 − 2𝑑][𝑎 + 𝑏 − 𝑐 + 2𝑑]
* Perfect square trinomial
Factor 25𝑥 2 + 30𝑥 + 9
From 𝑢2 + 2𝑢𝑣 + 𝑣 2 = (𝑢 + 𝑣)2
𝑢2 = 25𝑥 2 and 𝑢 = 5𝑥
𝑣 2 = 9 = 32 and 𝑣 = 3
25𝑥 2 + 30𝑥 + 9 = (5𝑥)2 + 2(5𝑥)(3) + (3)2

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= (5𝑥 + 3)(5𝑥 + 3)
= (5𝑥 + 3)2
Factor 9𝑥 2 − 12𝑥𝑦 + 4𝑦 2
From 𝑢2 − 2𝑢𝑣 + 𝑣 2 = (𝑢 − 𝑣)2
𝑢2 = 9𝑥 2 and 𝑢 = 3𝑥
𝑣 2 = 4𝑦 2 and 𝑣 = 2𝑦
9𝑥 2 − 12𝑥𝑦 + 4𝑦 2 = (3𝑥)2 − 2(3𝑥)(2𝑦) + (2𝑦)2
= (3𝑥 − 2𝑦)(3𝑥 − 2𝑦)
= (3𝑥 − 2𝑦)2
* The sum and difference of two cubes
Factor 27𝑥 3 + 64𝑦 3
From 𝑢3 + 𝑣 3 = (𝑢 + 𝑣)(𝑢2 − 𝑢𝑣 + 𝑣 2 )
𝑢3 = 27𝑥 3 , 𝑢 = 3𝑥 and 𝑢2 = 9𝑥 2
𝑣 3 = 64𝑦 3 , 𝑣 = 4𝑦 and 𝑣 2 = 16𝑦 2
27𝑥 3 + 64𝑦 3 = (3𝑥 + 4𝑦)(9𝑥 2 − 12𝑥𝑦 + 16𝑦 2 )
Factor 2𝑥 4 𝑦 − 54𝑥𝑦 4
2𝑥 4 𝑦 − 54𝑥𝑦 4 = 2𝑥𝑦(𝑥 3 − 27𝑦 3 )
From 𝑢3 − 𝑣 3 = (𝑢 − 𝑣)(𝑢2 + 𝑢𝑣 + 𝑣 2 )
𝑢3 = 𝑥 3 , 𝑢 = 𝑥 and 𝑢2 = 𝑥 2
𝑣 3 = 27𝑦 3 , 𝑣 = 3𝑦 and 𝑣 2 = 9𝑦 2
2𝑥 4 𝑦 − 54𝑥𝑦 4 = 2𝑥𝑦(𝑥 3 − 27𝑦 3 ) = 2𝑥𝑦(𝑥 − 3𝑦)(𝑥 2 + 3𝑥𝑦 + 9𝑦 2 )
Factoring; trinomials with distinct factors
𝑎𝑐𝑥 2 + (𝑎𝑑 + 𝑏𝑐)𝑥𝑦 + 𝑏𝑑𝑦 2 = (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦)(𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦)
Determination of middle term thru combination of factors of first and last

term to find the right cross product is the key to this factoring.

23
Factor 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 15 = (𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 + 5)
Factor 10𝑥 2 − 11𝑥𝑦 − 6𝑦 2 = (2𝑥 − 3𝑦)(5𝑥 + 2𝑦)
In these problems, one can usually judge well enough to pick the factors
with no more than two or three trials.
Factoring by Grouping
A polynomial whose terms contain no common factor can be separated

into group of terms which have a common factor and some polynomials not in
the form of the difference of two squares maybe so expressed by a proper
grouping of terms.
Factor 3𝑥 + 3𝑦 + 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑎𝑦 = (3𝑥 + 3𝑦) + (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑎𝑦)
= 3(𝑥 + 𝑦) + 𝑎(𝑥 + 𝑦)
= (𝑥 + 𝑦)(3 + 𝑎)
Factor 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 − 2𝑥 + 2𝑦 = (𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 ) + (−2𝑥 + 2𝑦)
= (𝑥 + 𝑦)(𝑥 − 𝑦) − 2(𝑥 − 𝑦)
= (𝑥 − 𝑦)(𝑥 + 𝑦 − 2)
Factor 4 − 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥𝑦 − 𝑦 2 = 4 − (𝑥 2 − 2𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2 )
= 4 − (𝑥 − 𝑦)2
= [2 + (𝑥 − 𝑦)][2 − (𝑥 − 𝑦)]
= (2 + 𝑥 − 𝑦)(2 − 𝑥 + 𝑦)
Factor 𝑥 4 − 13𝑥 2 + 4 = (𝑥 4 − 13𝑥 2 + 4) − 9𝑥 2
= (𝑥 2 − 2)2 − (3𝑥)2
= [(𝑥 2 − 2) + 3𝑥][(𝑥 2 − 2) − 3𝑥]
= (𝑥 2 − 2 + 3𝑥)(𝑥 2 − 2 + 3𝑥)

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Algebraic fractions; reduction to lowest term
A fraction is said to be in lowest term or in simplest form if the numerator

and denominator have no common factor except ±1.
Reduce the fraction 𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 6 to lowest term.
𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 6
𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 6 = (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 − 3) = 𝑥 − 3
𝑥2 + 𝑥 − 6 (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 3) = 𝑥 + 3
Reduce the fraction 𝑥 2 − 9𝑥 + 20 to lowest term.
25 − 𝑥 2
𝑥 2 − 9𝑥 + 20 = (𝑥 − 5)(𝑥 − 4)
25 − 𝑥 2 (5 − 𝑥)(5 + 𝑥)
= (5 − 𝑥)(4 − 𝑥) = 4 − 𝑥
(5 − 𝑥)(5 + 𝑥) 5+𝑥
Algebraic fractions; multiplication and division of fractions
From The following Theorems,
If a,b,c, and d are real numbers and not equal to zero, then
(𝑎⁄𝑏)(𝑐⁄𝑑 ) = 𝑎𝑐⁄𝑏𝑑
And
If a,b,c, and d are real numbers and not equal to zero, then
(𝑎⁄𝑏) ÷ (𝑐⁄𝑑 ) = 𝑎𝑑⁄𝑏𝑐
These theorems permit us to make the following statements.
1. The product of two or more fractions is equal to the product of the

numerators divided by product of the denominators.
2. The quotient of two fractions is equal to the dividend multiplied by the
inverted divisor.

25
Examples:
Multiply 2𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 3 by 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 1
𝑥2 − 1 3𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 2
2𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 3 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 1 (2𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 + 1) (𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 1)
𝑥2 − 1 3𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 2 (𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 1) (𝑥 − 1)(3𝑥 − 2)
= 2𝑥 − 3
2𝑥 + 2
Find the product of (𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 ) 2𝑥 2 + 3𝑥𝑦 + 2𝑦 2 2𝑥 − 𝑦
2𝑥 2 − 3𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2
(𝑥 + 𝑦)(𝑥 − 𝑦) (𝑥 + 2𝑦)(𝑥 + 𝑦) 2𝑥 − 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 2𝑦
1 (2𝑥 − 𝑦)(𝑥 − 𝑦) (𝑥 + 𝑦)(𝑥 + 𝑦)
Divide 𝑎3 − 1 by 𝑎2 + 𝑎 + 1
𝑎2 − 9 𝑎2 − 2𝑎 − 3
Invert the divisor, factor, then proceed to multiplication
𝑎3 − 1 𝑎2 − 2𝑎 − 3 (𝑎 − 1)(𝑎2 + 𝑎 + 1) (𝑎 + 1)(𝑎 − 3)
𝑎2 − 9 𝑎2 + 𝑎 + 1 (𝑎 + 3)(𝑎 − 3) 𝑎2 + 𝑎 + 1
= (𝑎 − 1)(𝑎 + 1)
𝑎+3
Perform the indicated operations
𝑥 2 − 7𝑥 + 12 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 10 𝑥+5
𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 8 𝑥 2 − 10𝑥 + 21 𝑥−7
Invert the divisor, factor, then proceed to multiplication
(𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 − 4) (𝑥 + 5)(𝑥 − 2) 𝑥−7 =1

(𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 − 4) (𝑥 − 7)(𝑥 − 3) 𝑥+5

26
Algebraic fractions; addition and subtraction of fractions
The sum of two or more fractions with the same denominator is equal
to the fraction whose numerator is the algebraic sum of the numerators and
whose denominator is the common denominator.
To add fractions which have different denominators, it is necessary

first to express the fractions as equivalent fractions with common
denominator.
A polynomial which is exactly divisible by two or more polynomials is

called a common multiple of the latter polynomials.
The common multiple determined in the following way is called the

Lowest Common Multiple (LCM).
1. Factor each of the given polynomials

2. Form a product by using all the different prime factors of the
polynomials, giving each prime factor the largest exponent which
that factor has in any of the polynomials.
Example: Find the LCM of the polynomials
6𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 3 , 7𝑥 2 − 14𝑥 + 7 , 12𝑥 2 − 12
Factoring each polynomial
6𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 3 = 3(2𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 1) = 3(2𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 1)
7𝑥 2 − 14𝑥 + 7 = 7(𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 1) = 7(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 1) = 7(𝑥 − 1)2
12𝑥 2 − 12 = 12(𝑥 2 − 1) = 12(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 1) = 3(22 )(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 1)
Selecting the proper power of each prime factor
3(7)(22 )(2𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 1)2 = 84(2𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 1)2
The Lowest Common Multiple (LCM) of the given polynomials.
In adding fractions, the LCM is used as the common denominator for

various denominators. It is then called the Lowest Common Denominator
(LCD).
The sum of the fractions is obtained by the following operations.
1. Multiply the numerator and denominator of each fraction by the quotient

obtained by dividing the LCD by the denominator of that fraction. That is,
multiply the numerator and denominator of each fraction by an expression
such that the denominator becomes the LCD.

27
2. Add the resulting numerators, being careful to reverse the signs of all
terms of the numerator of any fraction preceded by a minus sign. This
gives the numerator of the sums of the fractions; the denominator is the
common denominator.
Example: Add the fractions 2 + 3
(𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 + 4) (3 − 𝑥)(2𝑥 + 1)
It can be rearranged
2 − 3
(𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 + 4) (𝑥 − 3)(2𝑥 + 1)
LCD is (𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 + 4)(2𝑥 + 1)
Applying step 1
2(2𝑥 + 1) − 3(𝑥 + 4)
(𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 + 4)(2𝑥 + 1) (𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 + 4)(2𝑥 + 1)
Applying step 2
4𝑥 + 2 − 3𝑥 − 12 = 𝑥 − 10
(𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 + 4)(2𝑥 + 1) (𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 + 4)(2𝑥 + 1)
Example: Add the fractions 𝑥+3 + 1 − 3𝑥 − 1
(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 + 2) 𝑥+2 (𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 1)
LCD is (𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 − 1)
(𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 − 1) + (1)(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 1) − (3𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 2)
(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 − 1) (𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 − 1) (𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 − 1)
𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 3 + 𝑥 2 − 1 − (3𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 − 2) = 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 3 + 𝑥 2 − 1 − 3𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 2
(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 − 1) (𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 − 1)
−𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 − 2 = −(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 + 2) = -1
(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 − 1) (𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 − 1) x-1

28
Complex Fractions
To simplify a complex fraction means to express it as an equivalent

fraction that has no fraction in either the numerator or denominator.
Simplification may be accomplished by either of the following

methods.
1. Reduce the numerator and denominator separately to simple fractions and

then divide.
2. Multiply the numerator and denominator of the main fraction by an
expression such that the numerator and denominator of the new fraction
will be non-fractional.
Example: Simplify the complex fraction
1 − 1
𝑥+2 𝑥+3 LCD is (𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 + 3)
1 − 1
𝑥+3 𝑥+4 LCD is (𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 + 4)
1 − 1 (𝑥 + 3) − (𝑥 + 2) 𝑥+3−𝑥−2
𝑥+2 𝑥+3 (𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 + 3) (𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 + 3)
1 − 1 (𝑥 + 4) − (𝑥 + 3) 𝑥+4−𝑥−3
𝑥+3 𝑥+4 (𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 + 4) (𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 + 4)
(𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 + 2) 1 (𝑥 + 4)(𝑥 + 3)
1 (𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 + 2) 1
(𝑥 + 4)(𝑥 + 3)
𝑥+4
𝑥+2

29
Example: Simplify the complex fraction
𝑥+1 − 𝑥−1
𝑥−2 𝑥+2 LCD is (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 2)
8 + 4
𝑥−2 LCD is 𝑥 − 2
𝑥+1 − 𝑥−1 (𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 + 1) − (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 − 1)
𝑥−2 𝑥+2 (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 2)
8 + 4 (1)(8) + (𝑥 − 2)(4)
𝑥−2 𝑥−2
(𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 + 1) − (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 − 1) 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 2 − (𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 2)
(𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 2) (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 2)
(1)(8) + (𝑥 − 2)(4) 8 + 4𝑥 − 8
𝑥−2 𝑥−2
𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 2 − 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 2 6𝑥
(𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 2) (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 2)
4𝑥 4𝑥
𝑥−2 𝑥−2
6𝑥 𝑥−2 3
(𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 2) 4𝑥 2(𝑥 + 2)
Exponents and Radicals; law of exponents
Law I. 𝑎𝑚 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎𝑚+𝑛
Example: 𝑎2 𝑎5 = 𝑎2+5 = 𝑎7
Law II.
𝑎𝑚⁄ 𝑛 = 𝑎𝑚−𝑛 𝑖𝑓 𝑚 > 𝑛

𝑎
4
Example: 𝑥 ⁄𝑥 2 = 𝑥 4−2 = 𝑥 2

30
𝑎𝑚⁄ 𝑛 = 𝑎𝑚−𝑛 = 𝑎0 = 1 𝑖𝑓 𝑚 = 𝑛
𝑎
3
Example: 𝑥 ⁄𝑥 3 = 𝑥 3−3 = 𝑥 0 = 1
𝑎𝑚⁄ 𝑛 = 1⁄ 𝑛−𝑚 𝑖𝑓 𝑚 < 𝑛

𝑎 𝑎
2
Example: 𝑧 ⁄𝑧 5 = 1⁄𝑧 5−2 = 1⁄𝑧 3
Law III. (𝑎𝑚 )𝑛 = 𝑎𝑚𝑛
Example: (𝑥 2 )3 = 𝑥 (2)(3) = 𝑥 6
Law IV. (𝑎𝑏)𝑚 = 𝑎𝑚 𝑏 𝑚
Example: (𝑥𝑦)3 = 𝑥 3 𝑦 3
Consequently, (𝑎𝑚 𝑏 𝑛 )𝑜 = 𝑎𝑜𝑚 𝑏 𝑜𝑛
Example: (𝑥 2 𝑦 3 )4 = 𝑥 (4)(2) 𝑦 (4)(3) = 𝑥 8 𝑦12

𝑚 𝑚
Law V. (𝑎⁄𝑏) = 𝑎 ⁄𝑏 𝑚
2 2
Example: (𝑥⁄𝑦) = 𝑥 ⁄𝑦 2
𝑚 𝑜 𝑜𝑚
Consequently, (𝑎 ⁄𝑏 𝑛 ) = 𝑎 ⁄𝑏 𝑜𝑛
2 4 (4)(2) 8
Example: (𝑥 ⁄𝑦 3 ) = 𝑥 ⁄ (4)(3) = 𝑥 ⁄𝑦 12
𝑦
Exponents and Radicals; zero and negative integral exponents
Definition I.3.2.1. If a is a nonzero number, then 𝑎0 = 1
𝑎𝑛 𝑎−𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛−𝑛 = 𝑎0 = 1
Definition I.3.2.2. If n is a positive integer and a is not equal to zero, then
𝑎−𝑛 = 1⁄𝑎𝑛
Examples:
(32 )(3−2 ) = 32−2 = 30 = 1

31
−3 −3
1⁄ 3
(𝑎⁄𝑏) = 𝑎 ⁄𝑏 −3 = 𝑎3⁄ = 𝑏 3⁄ = (𝑎⁄ )
1⁄ 𝑎 3 𝑏
𝑏3
𝑎𝑥 −2 𝑦 −3 = 𝑎 𝑎𝑧 3
⁄𝑥 2 𝑦 3 =
𝑏𝑧 −3 𝑏⁄ 𝑏𝑥 2 𝑦 3
𝑧3
1 1 1 𝑥2𝑦2
𝑥 −2 + 𝑦 −2 1⁄ + 1⁄ 𝑦2 + 𝑥2 𝑥2 + 𝑦2
𝑥2 𝑦2
𝑥2𝑦2.
Examples: Rewrite without negative exponents, the fraction
3𝑥 −2
𝑥 −3 + 𝑦 −3
Solution 1
3𝑥 −2 3⁄ 3⁄ 3 𝑥3𝑦3
𝑥2 𝑥2
𝑥 −3 + 𝑦 −3 1⁄ + 1⁄ 𝑦3 + 𝑥3 𝑥2 𝑥3 + 𝑦3
𝑥3 𝑦3
𝑥3𝑦3.
3𝑥𝑦 3
𝑥3 + 𝑦3
Solution 2: Eliminate the negative exponents by multiplying the

numerator and denominator by 𝑥 3 𝑦 3 .
3𝑥 −2 3𝑥 −2 𝑥3𝑦 3. 3𝑥 −2 𝑥 3 𝑦 3 3𝑥𝑦 3
𝑥 −3 + 𝑦 −3 𝑥 −3 + 𝑦 −3 𝑥3𝑦3. 𝑥 −3 𝑥 3 𝑦 3 + 𝑦 −3 𝑥 3 𝑦 3 𝑥3 + 𝑦3

32
Exponents and Radicals; fractional exponents
Definition
When n is an even integer, the positive nth root of a positive number a

is called the principal nth root of a. When n is odd, the real nth root of a
positive or negative number a is called the principal nth root.
𝑛 𝑛
The principal nth root of a number a is denoted by √𝑎. The symbol √𝑎
is called a radical, n is called the index or order of the radical, and a is called
the radicand.
Examples:
3 4 5
√36 = 6, √8 = 2, √81 = 3, √−32 = −2
From Law III. (𝑎𝑚 )𝑛 = 𝑎𝑚𝑛
1⁄ 𝑛 𝑛⁄
We get; (𝑎 𝑛) =𝑎 𝑛 = 𝑎1 = 𝑎. This equation shows that the
1⁄ 1⁄
nth power of 𝑎 𝑛 is equal to a, or that 𝑎 𝑛 is an nth root of a. Hence
1⁄ 𝑛
𝑎 𝑛 = √𝑎
Consequently
𝑚⁄ 1⁄ 𝑛
𝑎 𝑛 = (𝑎𝑚 ) 𝑛 = √𝑎 𝑚
and
𝑚⁄ 1⁄ 𝑚 𝑛 𝑚
𝑎 𝑛 = (𝑎 𝑛) = ( √𝑎 )
Definition If 𝑚⁄𝑛 is a rational number and m and n positive integers, then

𝑚⁄ 𝑛 𝑛 𝑚
𝑎 𝑛 = √𝑎 𝑚 = ( √𝑎 )
−𝑚⁄
and 𝑎 𝑛 = 1⁄ −𝑚⁄𝑛
𝑎
Examples
2⁄ 3 2 2⁄ 3 3
8 3 = ( √8) = 22 = 4 𝑜𝑟 8 3 = √(8)2 = √64 = 4
−3⁄
81 4 = 1⁄ 4 1 1
3 = ⁄(3)3 = ⁄27
( √81)
3⁄ 5 3
(−32) 5 = ( √−32) = (−2)3 = −8
5⁄ 3⁄ 1 5 5⁄ +1⁄ 3⁄ +5⁄
(𝑥 3 𝑦 4 ) (𝑥 ⁄3 𝑦 ⁄4 ) =𝑥 3 3𝑦 4 4 = 𝑥2𝑦2

33
1 −2 1 6 1⁄ −2⁄ 1⁄ 6
3 ⁄3 𝑥 ⁄3 𝑦 ⁄2 (3 3𝑥 3 𝑦 2)
( ⁄ −1⁄ 1⁄ 3⁄ ) = ⁄ −1 1 3 6
2 3𝑥 2𝑦 2 (2 ⁄3 𝑥 ⁄2 𝑦 ⁄2 )
1⁄ )(6) (−2⁄ )(6) (1⁄ )(6)

3( 3 𝑥 3 𝑦 2
= ⁄ (−1⁄ )(6) (1⁄ )(6) (3⁄ )(6)
2 3 𝑥 2 𝑦 2
32 𝑥 −4 𝑦 3⁄ 22 32⁄ (4)(9)
= −2 3
2 𝑥 𝑦 9 = 𝑥 3 𝑥 4 𝑦 9 𝑦 −3 = ⁄𝑥 3+4 𝑦 9−3
= 36⁄𝑥 7 𝑦 6
Exponents and Radicals; law of radicals
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 1⁄ 1⁄ 𝑛
Law I. √ 𝑎 𝑛 = ( √𝑎 ) = 𝑎 (𝑎𝑛 ) 𝑛 = (𝑎 𝑛) =𝑎
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 1⁄ 1⁄ 1⁄
Law II. √𝑎𝑏 = √𝑎 √𝑏 (𝑎𝑏) 𝑛 =𝑎 𝑛𝑏 𝑛
𝑛 1⁄ 1⁄
𝑛
√𝑎⁄𝑏 = √𝑎⁄𝑛 (𝑎⁄𝑏 ) =𝑎
𝑛 𝑛
Law III. ⁄ 1⁄
√𝑏 𝑏 𝑛
1⁄
𝑛 𝑚 𝑚𝑛 1⁄ 𝑛 1⁄
Law IV. √ √𝑎 = √𝑎 (𝑎 𝑚) =𝑎 𝑚𝑛
Examples
Simplify the radical √75𝑎3 𝑏 2
√75𝑎3 𝑏 2 = √25𝑎2 𝑏 2 (3𝑎) = √25𝑎2 𝑏 2 √3𝑎 = 5𝑎𝑏√3𝑎
3
Rationalize the denominator of √𝑏⁄2𝑥 2
3 3 3
√𝑏⁄2𝑥 2 = √(𝑏⁄2𝑥 2 ) (4𝑥⁄4𝑥) = √4𝑏𝑥⁄8𝑥 3
3 3
= √4𝑏𝑥⁄8𝑥 3 = √4𝑏𝑥⁄3 3 = √4𝑏𝑥⁄2𝑥 = 1⁄2𝑥 √4𝑏𝑥
3 3
√8𝑥
6
Reduce the order of √8𝑎3 𝑏 3
6 3
√8𝑎3 𝑏 3 = √ √8𝑎3 𝑏 3 = √2𝑎𝑏

34
Simplify the radical √4⁄9𝑥 2

4
√4⁄9𝑥 2 = √√4⁄9𝑥 2 = √2⁄3𝑥 = √(2⁄3𝑥 )(3𝑥⁄3𝑥 )

4
= √6𝑥⁄9𝑥 2 = √6𝑥⁄ 2
= √6𝑥⁄3𝑥 = 1⁄3𝑥 √6𝑥
√9𝑥
6
Simplify the radical √8𝑥 6 𝑦 9
6 6 6 6 6
√8𝑥 6 𝑦 9 = √8(𝑥 6 𝑦 6 )𝑦 3 = √𝑥 6 𝑦 6 √8𝑦 3 = 𝑥𝑦 √8𝑦 3
3
= 𝑥𝑦√ √8𝑦 3 = 𝑥𝑦√2𝑦
Bring the coefficient, to the proper power, inside the radical sign of
2𝑥√1 − 1⁄4𝑥 2
2𝑥√1 − 1⁄4𝑥 2 = √4𝑥 2 (1 − 1⁄4𝑥 2 ) = √4𝑥 2 − 1
or
(4𝑥 2 − 1)⁄ √4𝑥 2 − 1⁄

2𝑥√1 − 1⁄4𝑥 2 = 2𝑥 √ 4𝑥 2 = 2𝑥 √4𝑥 2
2
= 2𝑥 √4𝑥 − 1⁄2𝑥 = √4𝑥 2 − 1
Exponents and Radicals; addition and subtraction of radicals
Radicals of the same order and the same radicand are called like radicals.
An algebraic sum of like radicals may be expressed as a single radical by use
of distributive law.
Example
2√18 − 6√1⁄2 + √4 = 2√(9)(2) − 6√2⁄4 + √22 = 2√9√2 − 6 √2⁄ + √2

4 4
√4
= 2(3)√2 − 6 √2⁄2 + √2 = 6√2 − 3√2 + √2
= 4√2

35
Example
3 3 3 3
√2𝑎4 − 3 √16𝑎 − √2𝑎 = √2𝑎(𝑎3 ) − 3√2𝑎(8) − √2𝑎
3 3 3 3 3 3
= √𝑎3 √2𝑎 − 3√8 √2𝑎 − √2𝑎 = 𝑎 √2𝑎 − 3(2) √2𝑎 − √2𝑎
3 3 3
= 𝑎 √2𝑎 − 6√2𝑎 − √2𝑎 = (𝑎 − 6) √2𝑎 − √2𝑎
Example
√𝑎⁄𝑏 − √𝑏⁄𝑎 = √(𝑎⁄𝑏 )(𝑏⁄𝑏) − √(𝑏⁄𝑎)(𝑎⁄𝑎) = √𝑎𝑏⁄𝑏 2 − √𝑎𝑏⁄𝑎2 = √𝑎𝑏⁄ 2 − √𝑎𝑏⁄ 2

√𝑏 √𝑎
= √𝑎𝑏⁄𝑏 − √𝑎𝑏⁄𝑎 = (1⁄𝑏 − 1⁄𝑎 )√𝑎𝑏
Exponents and Radicals; multiplication and division of radicals

𝑛 𝑐𝑛
Law IV. √𝑎 = √𝑎 𝑐
To raise the order of a radical, multiply the order of the radical by any
chosen integer 𝑐 > 1 and take the cth power of the radicand.
6 3 6 4 12
√𝑎𝑏 = √(𝑎𝑏)3, √4𝑥 = √(4𝑥)2, √2𝑥𝑦 = √(2𝑥𝑦)3
Multiplication
3 3
Example: Multiply 2 √2𝑎 by 5√3𝑎2 𝑏
3 3 3 3
(2√2𝑎)(5 √3𝑎2 𝑏) = 2(5) √2(3)(𝑎)(𝑎2 )(𝑏) = 10√6𝑎3 𝑏
3 3 3
= 10 √𝑎3 √6𝑏 = 10𝑎 √6𝑏
3
Example: Find the product of 5√3 and 6 √2
3 6 6 6 6
(5√3 )(6 √2) = 5(6) √(3)3 √(2)2 = 30 √(33 )(22 ) = 30 √(27)(4)
6
= 30 √108
Division
Example: Find the quotient of √6 divided by √5

36
√6 ⁄ = √6⁄ = √(6⁄ )(5⁄ ) = √30⁄ = √30⁄ = √30⁄5 = 1⁄5 √30

√5 5 5 5 25 √25
3
Example: Find the quotient of √2 divided by √3
3 4 6 6
√23⁄6 ) ( √34⁄6 ) = ( √2 )( √3 )⁄ 6
6 6 6
√2⁄3 = √23⁄6 = ( 6
√3 √32 √32 √34 ( √32 )( √34 )
6 6
√(23 )(34 ) √(8)(81)⁄ 6
√648⁄ = 1⁄ 6√648
= ⁄6 2 4 = 6
6
= 3 3
√(3 )(3 ) √3
Example: Divide (3√2 − 2√3) 𝑏𝑦 (4√2 − 3√3)
(3√2 − 2√3) = = (3√2 − 2√3)(4√2 + 3√3) = 24 + √6 − 18 = 6 + √6
(4√2 − 3√3) (4√2 − 3√3)(4√2 + 3√3) 32 − 27 5
Linear Equations; conditional equations and identities
One of the most fundamental concepts of algebra is that of the equation.

The customary way of forming an equation is to place the symbol = (read “is
equal to”) between two algebraic expressions. Equations usually have one or
more letters that are regarded as variables.
Definition I.4.1.1.
Numbers which, when substituted for the variables, make the two
members of an equation equal are said to satisfy, or to be a solution of, the
equation. The totality of solution is called the solution set.
Definition I.4.1.2.
An equation which is satisfied by some, but not all, of the values of the
variables for which the members of the equation are defined is called a
conditional equation.
Example of conditional equations,
𝑥 − 3 = 4 is satisfied when 𝑥 = 7 and for no other number
𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 15 = 0 is satisfied for 𝑥 = −3 and 𝑥 = 5. Any other

value for x makes the
two members of the equation unequal.
Definition I.4.1.3.

37
An equation which is satisfied by all the values of the variables for

which the members of the equation are defined is called an identity.
Example of identity equations,
(𝑥 − 2)2 = 𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 4 is the result of the operation indicated on

the left side. Clearly,
then, the equation is satisfied when x is

replaced by any real number.
1⁄ 1 1
𝑥 − 1 − ⁄𝑥 = ⁄𝑥(𝑥 − 1) The right member of the equation is the
sum of the fractions of the left member, and the equation is true for all values
of x except 𝑥 = 0 and 𝑥 = 1.
Linear Equations; operation on equations
Definition I.4.2.1.
Two equations are said to be equivalent if they have the same solution
set. In other words, all the solutions of either equation are solutions of the
other equation.
Example 𝑥 − 3 = 2 and 𝑥 + 1 = 6 Clearly, 𝑥 = 5 will satisfy both

equations, and no other number will satisfy either equation.
Definition I.4.2.2.
If the same polynomial is added to both members of an equation, an

equivalent equation is obtained.
Definition I.4.2.3.
If both members of an equation are multiplied by or divided by a

nonzero constant, an equivalent equation is obtained.
Note: If the members of an equation are multiplied or divided by an

expression that contains a variable, the resulting equation will, in some cases,
not be equivalent to the original one.
Example: 4𝑥 − 8 = 12 satisfied by 𝑥 = 5 but not by 𝑥 = 0
Multiply both sides by x
4𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 = 12𝑥 satisfied by 𝑥 = 5 also by 𝑥 = 0
A root of a derived equation which is not a root of the original equation

is called an extraneous root.

38
Linear Equations; linear equations in one variable
Example: Solve the equation 9𝑥 − 1 = 3𝑥 − 10
Solution
9𝑥 − 1 = 3𝑥 − 10 Given equation
9𝑥 − 1 + 1 − 3𝑥 = 3𝑥 − 10 + 1 − 3𝑥 Adding 1 − 3𝑥
6𝑥 = −9 Collecting terms
𝑥 = −1.5 Dividing by 6
Check: T check this, we substitute −1.5 for x in each member of the given
equation
9(−1.5) − 1 = −13.5 − 1 = −14.5 For the left member
3(−1.5) − 10 = −4.5 − 10 = −14.5 For the right member
Example: Solve the equation 3𝑥 − 4 = 5𝑎𝑥 + 2𝑐
Solution
3𝑥 − 4 = 5𝑎𝑥 + 2𝑐 Given equation
3𝑥 − 4 − 5𝑎𝑥 + 4 = 5𝑎𝑥 + 2𝑐 − 5𝑎𝑥 = 4 Adding −5𝑎𝑥 + 4
3𝑥 − 5𝑎𝑥 = 2𝑐 + 4 Collecting terms
(3 − 5𝑎)𝑥 = 2𝑐 + 4 Factoring
𝑥 = 2𝑐 + 4⁄3 − 5𝑎 Dividing by 3 − 5𝑎
This result may be checked by substituting the solution set to x in the

given equation.
Example: Solve the equation
4⁄ 2 𝑥 − 10⁄
𝑥 + 2 − ⁄𝑥 − 2 = 𝑥2 − 4
Solution
Multiply both members of the equation by (𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 − 2) the LCM of the

denominators.
(4⁄𝑥 + 2 − 2⁄𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 − 2) = (𝑥 − 10⁄𝑥 2 − 4) (𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 − 2)

39
4(𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 − 2)⁄ 2(𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 − 2)⁄ (𝑥 − 10)(𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 − 2)⁄

𝑥+2− 𝑥−2= 𝑥2 − 4
4(𝑥 − 2) − 2(𝑥 + 2) = 𝑥 − 10
4𝑥 − 8 − 2𝑥 − 4 = 𝑥 − 10 Simplifying
2𝑥 − 12 = 𝑥 − 10 Collecting terms
𝑥=2 Adding 12 − 𝑥
𝑥 − 1⁄ 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 2⁄
2𝑥 − 1 − ⁄𝑥 + 1 = 2𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 1
Multiply both members of the equation by (2𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 1) the LCM of the
denominators.
2
(𝑥 − 1⁄2𝑥 − 1 − 𝑥⁄𝑥 + 1)(2𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 1) = (2 − 𝑥 ⁄2𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 1) (2𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 1)
((𝑥 − 1)(2𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 1)⁄ 𝑥(2𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 1)⁄

2𝑥 − 1) − ( 𝑥 + 1)
(2 − 𝑥 2 )(2𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 1)⁄

= 2𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 1
𝑥 2 − 1 − 𝑥(2𝑥 − 1) = 2 − 𝑥
𝑥 2 − 1 − 2𝑥 2 + 𝑥 = 2 − 𝑥 Simplifying
𝑥=3 Adding 𝑥 2 + 1
Word Problems
Suggestions for Solving Word Problems
1. Read and reread the problem until what is stated is clear and the given
numbers and the unknown numbers (numbers to be found) can be
identified. Often a diagram will be helpful in analyzing a problem.
2. Express each unknown number in terms of a single letter.
3. Determine which quantities, involving the given numbers and the
unknown numbers, are equal. Then form an equation.
4. Solve the equation and check the result.
Example:
The length of a rectangle exceeds its width by 2 feet. If each dimension

were increased by 3 feet, the area would be increased by 51 square feet. Find
the original dimensions.

40
Solution:
Original rectangle
Let 𝑥 = 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ(𝑓𝑒𝑒𝑡) = 𝑤𝑜 then 𝑥 + 2 = 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ(𝑓𝑒𝑒𝑡) = 𝑙𝑜
and 𝐴𝑜 = 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 𝑙𝑜 𝑤𝑜 = 𝑥(𝑥 + 2)
Increased original rectangle
𝑁𝑒𝑤 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ = 𝑤 = 𝑤𝑜 + 3 = 𝑥 + 3
𝑁𝑒𝑤 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔ℎ𝑡 = 𝑙 = 𝑙𝑜 + 3 = 𝑥 + 2 + 3 = 𝑥 + 5
and 𝐴 = 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 𝑙𝑤 = (𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 + 5)
Original rectangle Increased rectangle
𝑙𝑜 = 𝑥 + 2 𝑙 =𝑥+5
𝑤𝑜 = 𝑥 𝐴0 = 𝑥(𝑥 + 2) 𝑤 =𝑥+3 𝐴 = (𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 + 5)
Since the larger (increased) area exceeds the smaller (original) area by
51 square feet
𝐴 − 𝐴0 = 51 and (𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 + 5) − 𝑥(𝑥 + 2) = 51
𝑥 2 + 8𝑥 + 15 − 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 = 51
6𝑥 = 36
𝑥 = 6𝑓𝑒𝑒𝑡
Accordingly, original dimensions are 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ = 𝑤𝑜 = 6𝑓𝑒𝑒𝑡,

𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = 𝑙𝑜 = 8𝑓𝑒𝑒𝑡
Example:
A can do a certain task in 8 hours, B in 10 hours, and C in 12 hours.

How long will it take to do the task if A and B work 2 hours and then A and C
finish the task?

41
Solution:
Fractional parts of the task done in 1 hour by each
1⁄ per hour by A
8
1⁄
10 per hour by B
1⁄
12 per hour by C
Let 𝑥 = 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑑𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑠𝑘, then A
works 𝑥 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠,
B works 2 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠, and C works (𝑥 − 2 )ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠.
A works 𝑥 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠 (1⁄8 )(𝑥) = 𝑥⁄8 part of task done by A
B works 2 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠 (1⁄10)(2) = 2⁄10 part of task done by B
C works (𝑥 − 2 )ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠(1⁄12)((𝑥 − 2 )) = 𝑥 − 2⁄12 part of task done by C
The whole task completed by the sum of these parts, is
𝑥⁄ + 2⁄ + 𝑥 − 2⁄ = 1
8 10 12
15𝑥 + 24 + 10𝑥 − 20 = 120 Multiplying by 120
25𝑥 = 116 Simplifying
𝑥 = 4 16⁄25 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠 Dividing by 25
Example:
How many ounces of pure silver must be added to 36 oz of 60% pure

silver to make an alloy that is 76% pure silver.
Solution: Let 𝑥 = 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑒 𝑎𝑑𝑑𝑒𝑑
𝑥 𝑜𝑧 100% 𝑝𝑢𝑟𝑒 (100⁄100)𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑜𝑧 𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑟
36 𝑜𝑧 60% 𝑝𝑢𝑟𝑒 (60⁄100)36 = 21.6 𝑜𝑧 𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑟
(𝑥 + 36) 𝑜𝑧 76% 𝑝𝑢𝑟𝑒 (76⁄100)(𝑥 + 36) =

0.76(𝑥 + 36) 𝑜𝑧 𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑟

42
The 𝑥 𝑜𝑧 of silver plus the original 21.6 𝑜𝑧 constitute the amount of

silver in the mixture.
𝑥 + 21.6 = 0.76𝑥 + 27.36
0.24𝑥 = 5.76 Collecting terms
𝑥 = 24 𝑜𝑧 Dividing by 0.24
Linear Equations; linear equations in two variables
Equation of the form 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 + 𝑐 = 0 where a, b, and c are constants

and a and b are not both zero, is called a linear equation in the variables x and
y.
A pair of values, one for x and one for y, which satisfy the equation is
called a solution of the equation.
Expressing the equation in its equivalent form, 𝑦 = − 𝑎⁄𝑏 𝑥 − 𝑐⁄𝑏

reveals that there is a unique value of y corresponding to any arbitrary value of
x. There are infinitely many solutions of the equation. The totality of solutions
is called the solution set of the equation. If we let A stand for the solution set,
𝐴 = {(𝑥, 𝑦)[𝑦 = − 𝑎⁄𝑏 𝑥 − 𝑐⁄𝑏 ]} or 𝐴 = {(𝑥, 𝑦)[𝑥 = − 𝑏⁄𝑎 𝑦 − 𝑐⁄𝑎 ]}
or equivalently
𝐴 = {(𝑥, 𝑦)[𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 + 𝑐 = 0 ]}
Two linear equations in the same two variables are said to constitute a system
of equations.
𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑏1 𝑦 = 𝑐1
𝑎2 𝑥 + 𝑏2 𝑦 = 𝑐2
System of Linear Equation in Two Variables Solution by Algebraic Method
Elimination by Addition or Subtraction
Example:
5𝑥 + 3𝑦 = −26 Equation 1
4𝑥 − 9𝑦 = 2 Equation 2
Obtain equivalent equations by multiplying 4 to equation 1 and

multiplying 5 to

43
equation 2.
(5𝑥 + 3𝑦)4 = (−26)4 results to 20𝑥 + 12𝑦 = −104 Equation 3
(4𝑥 − 9𝑦)5 = (2)5 results to 20𝑥 − 45𝑦 = 10 Equation 4
Subtract corresponding members of equation 4 from equation 3
20𝑥 + 12𝑦 = −104 20𝑥 + 12𝑦 = −104
−(20𝑥 − 45𝑦) = −(10) −20𝑥 + 45𝑦 = −10
0 + 57𝑦 = −114
57𝑦 = −114
𝑦 = −2
Check: 5(−4) + 3(−2) = −20 − 6 = −26
4(−4) − 9(−2) = −16 + 18 = 2
Hence (−4, −2) is the solution set
Elimination by Substitution
Example:
5𝑥 + 3𝑦 = −26 Equation 1
4𝑥 − 9𝑦 = 2 Equation 2
Solving equation 2 for x
(9𝑦 + 2)⁄
𝑥= 4
Substitute the expression for x in equation 1.
9𝑦 + 2⁄
5( 4) + 3𝑦 = −26
45𝑦 + 10 + 12𝑦 = −104 Multiply by 4
57𝑦 = −114 Add -10 and simplify
𝑦 = −2 Divide by 57
(9𝑦 + 2)⁄ [9(−2) + 2]⁄ (−18 + 2)⁄

Then, 𝑥 = 4 𝑥= 4 𝑥= 4
And 𝑥 = −4

44
Linear Equations; linear equations in three variables
Three linear equations in the same three variables constitute a system of

equations.
𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑏1 𝑦 + 𝑐1 𝑧 = 𝑑1
𝑎2 𝑥 + 𝑏2 𝑦 + 𝑐2 𝑧 = 𝑑2
𝑎3 𝑥 + 𝑏3 𝑦 + 𝑐3 𝑧 = 𝑑3
Steps which may be used to solve the system
1. Choose a pair of equations from the three given equations and eliminate
one of the variables.
2. Select one of the same pair and the unused equation and eliminate the
same variable.
3. Solve the equations resulting from steps 1 and 2 for the two variables
involved.
4. Substitute these values in one of the given equations, and obtain the value
of the remaining variable.
Example:
2𝑥 + 3𝑦 + 4𝑧 = 8 Equation 1
3𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 3𝑧 = 8 Equation 2
5𝑥 − 4𝑦 − 2𝑧 = 7 Equation 3
Select 1 and 2 and eliminate x
Original equation Equivalent equation
2𝑥 + 3𝑦 + 4𝑧 = 8 Multiply by 3 6𝑥 + 9𝑦 + 12𝑧 = 24
3𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 3𝑧 = 8 Multiply by -2 −6𝑥 − 4𝑦 − 6𝑧 = −16
5𝑦 + 6𝑧 = 8
Equation A
Select 1 and 3 and eliminate x
2𝑥 + 3𝑦 + 4𝑧 = 8 Multiply by 5 10𝑥 + 15𝑦 + 20𝑧 = 40
5𝑥 − 4𝑦 − 2𝑧 = 7 Multiply by -2 −10𝑥 + 8𝑦 + 4𝑧 = −14

45
23𝑦 + 24𝑧 = 26
Equation B
Select A and B and eliminate z
5𝑦 + 6𝑧 = 8 Multiply by 4 20𝑦 + 24𝑧 = 32
23𝑦 + 24𝑧 = 26 Multiply by -1 −23𝑦 − 24𝑧 = −26
−3𝑦 + 0 = 6
𝑦 = −2
Substitute 𝑦 = −2 to equation A (or B)
5(−2) + 6𝑧 = 8 𝑧=3
Substitute 𝑦 = −2 and 𝑧 = 3 to equation 1 (or 2, or 3)
2𝑥 + 3(−2) + 4(3) = 8 𝑥=1
Hence the solution set is (1, −2,3)
Word problems leading to system of equations
Example:
A boat went 4 miles upstream on a river and 4 miles back in 2 1⁄2

hours. If the rate of travel downstream is 4 times the rate upstream, find the
rate of current and the rate of the boat in still water.
Solution: Let 𝑥(𝑚𝑖⁄ℎ𝑟) = 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑜𝑎𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟.
𝑦(𝑚𝑖⁄ℎ𝑟) = 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡.
Then,
𝑥 − 𝑦 = 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑢𝑝𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚
𝑥 + 𝑦 = 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚
The rate downstream was 4 times the rate upstream
𝑥 + 𝑦 = 4(𝑥 − 𝑦) Equation 1
From the formula 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 = 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒⁄𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑
Time upstream 𝑡1 = 4⁄𝑥 − 𝑦

46
Time downstream 𝑡2 = 4⁄𝑥 + 𝑦
It took 2 1⁄2 = 5⁄2 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠 to upstream and back
Hence 𝑡1 + 𝑡2 = 5⁄2
4⁄ 4 5
Or 𝑥 − 𝑦 + ⁄𝑥 + 𝑦 = ⁄2 Equation 2
From Equation 1 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 4(𝑥 − 𝑦) , 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 4𝑥 − 4𝑦
5𝑦⁄
3𝑥 = 5𝑦 and 𝑥= 3
Substitute to Equation 2
4
⁄ 5𝑦⁄ + 4⁄ 5𝑦 = 5⁄2 , 4⁄2𝑦 + 4⁄8𝑦 = 5⁄2
( ( ⁄3 + 𝑦) ⁄3 ⁄3
3 − 𝑦)
2𝑦⁄
4 + 4⁄4 = (5⁄2) ( 3) , 5 = (10⁄6)𝑦 and 𝑦=3
𝑦 = 3 𝑚𝑖⁄ℎ𝑟 rate of the current

5𝑦⁄ 5(3)⁄ = 5 and
𝑥= 3 , 𝑥= 3 𝑥 = 5 𝑚𝑖⁄ℎ𝑟 rate of boat in still water
Example:
A and B can do a certain job in 9 days; A and C can do the job in 8

days; and B and C can do the job in 12 days. Find how long it would take each
person working alone to do the job.
Solution:
𝑥 = 𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝐴 𝑡𝑜 𝑑𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑗𝑜𝑏 𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑒
𝑦 = 𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝐵 𝑡𝑜 𝑑𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑗𝑜𝑏 𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑒
𝑧 = 𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝐶 𝑡𝑜 𝑑𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑗𝑜𝑏 𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑒
Then
1⁄ = 𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑗𝑜𝑏 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝐴 𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑑𝑎𝑦

𝑥
1⁄ = 𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑗𝑜𝑏 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝐵 𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝑦
1⁄ = 𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑗𝑜𝑏 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝐶 𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑑𝑎𝑦

𝑧
A and B can do a certain job in 9 days.

47
1⁄ + 1⁄ = 1⁄
𝑥 𝑦 9
A and C can do the job in 8 days.
1⁄ + 1⁄ = 1⁄
𝑥 𝑧 8
B and C can do the job in 12 days.
1⁄ + 1⁄ = 1⁄
𝑦 𝑧 12
The system of equations can be transformed to linear system by
substitution
Let 1⁄𝑥 = 𝑎, 1⁄𝑦 = 𝑏, and 1⁄ = 𝑐

𝑧
1⁄ + 1⁄ = 1⁄ 𝑎 + 𝑏 = 1⁄9 9𝑎 + 9𝑏 = 1
𝑥 𝑦 9
eq.1
1⁄ + 1⁄ = 1⁄ 𝑎 + 𝑐 = 1⁄8 8𝑎 + 8𝑐 = 1
𝑥 𝑧 8
eq.2
1⁄ + 1⁄ = 1⁄ 𝑏 + 𝑧 = 1⁄12 12𝑏 + 12𝑐 = 1

𝑦 𝑧 12
eq.3
Select 1 and 2 and eliminate a
9𝑎 + 9𝑏 = 1 multiply by 8 72𝑎 + 72𝑏 = 8
8𝑎 + 8𝑐 = 1 multiply by -9 −72𝑎 − 72𝑐 = −9
72𝑏 − 72𝑐 = −1 eq. A
Select A and 3 and eliminate b
72𝑏 − 72𝑐 = −1 multiply by 1 72𝑏 − 72𝑐 = −1
12𝑏 + 12𝑐 = 1 multiply by -6 −72𝑏 − 72𝑐 = −6
0 − 144𝑐 = −7
𝑐 = 7⁄144
Substitute to 2
8𝑎 + 8𝑐 = 1 8𝑎 + 8(7⁄144) = 1 8𝑎 = 88⁄144
𝑎 = 11⁄144

48
Substitute to 1
9𝑎 + 9𝑏 = 1 9(11⁄144) + 9𝑏 = 1 9𝑏 = 45⁄144
𝑏 = 5⁄144
Consequently
1⁄ = 𝑎 1⁄ = 11⁄ 𝑥 = 13 1⁄11 𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠

𝑥 𝑥 144
1⁄ = 𝑏 1⁄ = 5⁄ 𝑦 = 28 4⁄5 𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠
𝑦 𝑦 144
1⁄ = 𝑐 1⁄ = 7⁄ 𝑧 = 20 4⁄7 𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠
𝑧 𝑧 144
Ratio, Proportions and Variations; ratio and proportions
Property 1.
In any proportion, the product of the means is equal to the product of

the extreme.
Example: with x as the mean proportional to a and d,

𝑎⁄ = 𝑥⁄ or 𝑎: 𝑥 = 𝑥: 𝑑
𝑥 𝑑
𝑥 2 = 𝑎𝑑 and 𝑥 = ±√𝑎𝑑 the mean proportional of

two numbers is obtained by extracting the square root of their product.
Property 2.
If 𝑎⁄𝑏 = 𝑐⁄𝑑 , then 𝑎⁄𝑐 = 𝑏⁄𝑑
Property 3.
If 𝑎⁄𝑏 = 𝑐⁄𝑑 , then 𝑏⁄𝑎 = 𝑑⁄𝑐
Property 4.
(𝑎 + 𝑏)⁄ (𝑐 + 𝑑)⁄
If 𝑎⁄𝑏 = 𝑐⁄𝑑 , then 𝑏= 𝑑
Property 5.
(𝑎 − 𝑏)⁄ (𝑐 − 𝑑)⁄
If 𝑎⁄𝑏 = 𝑐⁄𝑑 , then 𝑏= 𝑑

49
Property 6.
(𝑎 + 𝑏) (𝑐
If 𝑎⁄𝑏 = 𝑐⁄𝑑 , then ⁄(𝑎 − 𝑏) = + 𝑑)⁄(𝑐 − 𝑑)
Example:
Given the proportion 𝑥: 4 = 10: 8 find x.
8𝑥 = (4)(10) 8𝑥 = 40
𝑥=5
Example:
Find the mean proportional between 6 and 8
6: 𝑥 = 𝑥: 8 𝑥 2 = 6(8) 𝑥 2 = 48
𝑥 = ±√48 𝑥 = ±4√3
Example:
A triangle has sides of lengths 22, 17, and 12 inches. If the length of
the shortest
side of a similar triangle is 8 inches, find the lengths of other sides.
𝑥: 𝑦: 8 = 22: 17: 12
This extended proportion is equivalent to the two proportions
𝑥: 8 = 22: 12 and 𝑦: 8 = 17: 12
Hence
𝑥⁄ = 22⁄ 12𝑥 = 8(22) 𝑥 = 14 2⁄3 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠

8 12
𝑦
⁄8 = 17⁄12 12𝑦 = 8(17) 𝑦 = 11 1⁄3 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠
Example:
Three carpenters do a job for $5,400. If the sum is to be divided among

the men in the ratio of 3:5:7, find the share of each carpenter.
Let the shares of the carpenters be 3𝑥, 5𝑥, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 7𝑥.
3𝑥 + 5𝑥 + 7𝑥 = 5400
15𝑥 = 5400
𝑥 = 360

50
The shares are:
3𝑥 = 3(360) = $1080
5𝑥 = 5(360) = $1800
7𝑥 = 7(360) = $2520
Ratio, Proportions and Variations; variations
Definition
Let y b a variable which is equal to a constant times another variable x

that is 𝑦 = 𝑘𝑥. Then y is said to vary directly as x. The fixed number k is
called the constant of variation, or the constant of proportionality.
Example:
The formula 𝐶 = 2𝜋𝑟 shows that the circumference of a circle varies

directly as the radius and that 2π is the constant of variation.
Definition
Let z be a variable which is equal to a constant times the product of

two variables x and y, that is 𝑧 = 𝑘𝑥𝑦. Then z is said to vary jointly as x and y.
Example: The area A of a triangle varies jointly as the base b and the altitude
h since
𝐴 = 1⁄2 𝑏ℎ.
Definition
Let z be a variable which is equal to a constant times the reciprocal of

another variable x, that is 𝑦 = 𝑘⁄𝑥. Then y is said to vary as x, or y is
inversely proportional to x.
Example:
According to Boyle’s law the volume V of a confined gas varies

inversely as the pressure p if the temperature remains constant, that is 𝑉 =
𝑘⁄ .
𝑝
The different kind of variation may occur simultaneously in problems.
Example:
𝑧 = 𝑘𝑥⁄𝑦 z varies directly as x and inversely as y.

51
𝑘𝑥𝑦 3⁄
𝑊= 𝑧2 W varies jointly as 𝑥𝑦 3 and inversely as 𝑧 2 .
Example:
The weight of a sphere is proportional to the cube of its radius. A

certain sphere of radius 4 inches weighs 24 pounds. Find the weight of a
sphere of radius 6 inches which is made of the same kind of material.
Solution:
Let: 𝑊 = 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑠, 𝑟 = 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠
𝑊 = 𝑘𝑟 3
To determine k, substitute 24 for W and 4 for r.
24 = 𝑘(4)3 24 = 64𝑘 𝑘 = 3⁄8
Then for all spheres of this material,

3
𝑊 = 3𝑟 ⁄8
Hence the weight of the sphere of radius 6 inches is

3
𝑊 = 3(6) ⁄8 = 81 𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑠
Example:
The illumination produced on a page by a lamp is directly proportional

to the wattage of the lamp and inversely proportional to the square of the
distance between the lamp and the page. Let 𝐼1 be the illumination when the
distance is 4 feet and the wattage is 125 and 𝐼2 the illumination when the
distance is 5 feet and the wattage is 75. Then find the ratio of 𝐼1 to 𝐼2 .
Solution:
𝐼1 = 𝑘(125)⁄42 𝐼2 = 𝑘(75)⁄52
Division gives
𝐼1
⁄ 𝐼 = (125𝑘⁄16)(25⁄75𝑘) = 125⁄48
2
Example:
The maximum safe load for a horizontal beam supported at both ends
varies jointly as the width and the square of the depth and inversely as the

52
length. If the beam 3 inches wide, 8 inches deep, and 12 feet long can safely
bear a load up to 2000 pounds, find the maximum safe load for a beam of the
same material which is 2 inches wide, 6 inches deep, and 10 feet long.
Solution:
Let 𝐿 = 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝑤 = 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ
𝑑 = 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ
𝑙 = 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
Then
3
𝐿 = 𝑘𝑤𝑑 ⁄𝑙
Substitute 𝐿 = 2000, 𝑤 = 3, 𝑑 = 8, and 𝑙 = 12

3
2000 = 𝑘(3)(8) ⁄12 and 𝑘 = 125
The formula becomes

3
𝐿 = 125𝑤𝑑 ⁄𝑙
The maximum safe load for the beam which has 𝑤 = 2, 𝑑 = 6, and
𝑙 = 10
3
𝐿 = 125(2)(6) ⁄10
𝐿 = 900 𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑠
Quadratic Equations; complex numbers
Complex Numbers
Many equations and many problems cannot be investigated in the real number
system. The equation 𝑥 2 + 1 = 0, for example, has a solution if and only if 𝑥 2 = −1.
In this view √−1 is introduced called the imaginary unit, customarily

denoted by the letter 𝑖; that is, 𝑖 = √−1 and 𝑖 2 = −1. Since (−𝑖)2 is also equal to
−1, then −1 has two square roots. To distinguish between these square roots, we let
𝑖 = √−1 and −𝑖 = −√−1.
Consider the square root of any negative number – 𝑝. Since 𝑖 2 = −1, we may
write

53
2 2
(𝑖 √𝑝) = 𝑖 2 𝑝 = −𝑝 and (−𝑖√𝑝) = 𝑖 2 𝑝 = −𝑝
Then the square roots of −𝑝 are 𝑖 √𝑝 and −𝑖 √−𝑝. To distinguish between these
roots we
let
√−𝑝 = 𝑖 √𝑝 and −√−𝑝 = −𝑖√𝑝.
Examples
√−6 = 𝑖√6
√−9 = 𝑖√9 = 3𝑖
−√−4 = −𝑖√4 = −2𝑖
±√−16 = ±𝑖√16 = ±4𝑖
Definition I.5.1.1.
A number of the form 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖 with a and b real constants and 𝑖 =

√−1, is called a complex number. The number a is called the real part and b
is called the imaginary part.
Definition I.5.1.2.
𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖 is called an imaginary number if 𝑏 ≠ 0
𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖 is called a pure imaginary number if 𝑎 = 0 and 𝑏 ≠ 0.
𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖 is called a real number if 𝑏 = 0.
Definition I.5.1.2.
The sum, difference, and product of two complex numbers are defined
by the following equations.
Sum: (𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖) + (𝑐 + 𝑑𝑖) = (𝑎 + 𝑐) + (𝑏 + 𝑑)𝑖
Difference: (𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖) − (𝑐 + 𝑑𝑖) = (𝑎 − 𝑐) + (𝑏 − 𝑑)𝑖
Product: (𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖)(𝑐 + 𝑑𝑖) = (𝑎𝑐 − 𝑏𝑑) + (𝑏𝑐 + 𝑎𝑑)𝑖

54
Example
Sum: (2 + 3𝑖) + (4 − 5𝑖) = (2 + 4) + (3 − 5)𝑖 = 6 − 2𝑖
Difference: (7 − 2𝑖) − (5 + 8𝑖) = (7 − 5) + (−2 − 8)𝑖 = 2 − 10𝑖
Product: (3 − 4𝑖)(5 + 5𝑖) = [(3)(5) − (−4)(5)] + [(−4)(5) + (3)(5)]𝑖
= 15 + 20 + (−20 + 15)𝑖
= 35 − 5𝑖
Quadratic Equations; solution of quadratic equation by factoring
An equation expressed in the form 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 where a, b, and c,

are constants with 𝑎 ≠ 0, is called a quadratic, or second degree equation in
x.
An important operation on a quadratic equation is that of finding the

solution set, or roots of the equation.
Example
Solve 4𝑥 2 − 11 = 0
4𝑥 2 = 11
𝑥 2 = 11⁄4
𝑥 = ±√11⁄4 = ± √11⁄2
Solution set is (− √11⁄2 , √11⁄2)
Example
Solve 5𝑥 2 + 6 = 0
5𝑥 2 = −6
𝑥 2 = − 6⁄5
𝑥 = ±√− 6⁄5 = ±𝑖√6⁄5 = ±𝑖√(6⁄5)(5⁄5) = ±𝑖√30⁄25 = ±𝑖 √30⁄5
Solution set is (−𝑖 √30⁄5 , 𝑖 √30⁄5)

55
Example
Solve the equation 6𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 − 4 = 0
Factoring the left member
(2𝑥 − 1)(3𝑥 + 4) = 0
Equating factors to zero
2𝑥 − 1 = 0 3𝑥 + 4 = 0
Solution set is
𝑥 = 1⁄2 and 𝑥 = − 4⁄3
Check by substituting each of these values, in turn, in the given

equation.
Quadratic Equations; solution of quadratic equation by formula
A practicable procedure that is applicable to any quadratic equations is

by employing the Quadratic Formula which will be derived below.
𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0 Given equation
𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 = −𝑐 Adding – 𝑐 to both sides
𝑥 2 + 𝑏⁄𝑎 𝑥 = − 𝑐⁄𝑎 Dividing both sides by 𝑎

2 2 2
𝑥 2 + 𝑏⁄𝑎 𝑥 + (𝑏⁄2𝑎 ) = (𝑏⁄2𝑎) − 𝑐⁄𝑎 Adding (𝑏⁄2𝑎 ) to both sides
Note: This part of procedure is also called completing the square

2 (𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐)⁄
(𝑥 + 𝑏⁄2𝑎 ) = 4𝑎2 Simplifying
2
𝑥 + 𝑏⁄2𝑎 = ±√𝑏 − 4𝑎𝑐⁄2𝑎 Taking square roots
(−𝑏 ± √𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐)⁄
𝑥= 2𝑎 Adding − 𝑏⁄2𝑎 to both sides
Which leads to theorem
Theorem
The roots 𝑥1 and 𝑥2 of the quadratic equation 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0, 𝑎 ≠ 0

are

56
(−𝑏 + √𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐)⁄ (−𝑏 − √𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐)⁄

𝑥= 2𝑎 and 𝑥 = 2𝑎 or
expressed in set notation, the solution set is
(−𝑏 + √𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐)⁄ (−𝑏 − √𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐)⁄

{ 2𝑎 , 2𝑎}
Example
Solve the equation 3𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 − 2 = 0 by completing the square
Solution:
3𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 − 2 = 0
3𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 = 2
𝑥 2 + 5⁄3 𝑥 = 2⁄3
2 2
(5) 2
(𝑏⁄2𝑎 ) = [5⁄2(3)] = ⁄(6)2 = 25⁄36
𝑥 2 + 5⁄3 𝑥 + 25⁄36 = 2⁄3 + 25⁄36
2
(𝑥 + 5⁄6) = 49⁄36
𝑥 + 5⁄6 = √49⁄36
𝑥 + 5⁄6 = ± 7⁄6
(−5 ± 7)⁄
𝑥= 6
𝑥 = 1⁄3 and 𝑥 = −2
Example
Use the quadratic formula to solve the equation 9𝑥 2 + 12𝑥 + 8 = 0
𝑎 = 9, 𝑏 = 12, 𝑐=8
(−𝑏 ± √𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐)⁄ (−12 ± √(12)2 − 4(9)(8))

𝑥= ⁄
2𝑎 = 2(9)
(−12 ± √−144)⁄ (−12 ± 12𝑖)⁄ (−2 ± 2𝑖)⁄

= 18 = 18 = 3

57
The solution set is
(−2 + 2𝑖)⁄ (−2 − 2𝑖)⁄

{ 3 , 3}
Word Problems Involving Quadratic Equations
Examples:
A rectangular pasture is to be fenced along four sides and divided into three
parts by two fences parallel to one of the sides. Find the dimension of the pasture if
the total amount of fencing is 800 yards and the area of the pasture is
19,200 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑦𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑠.
Let 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = 𝐿 and 𝑊𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ = 𝑊 = 𝑥
Total amount of fencing is 2𝐿 + 4𝑥 = 800
(800 − 4𝑥)⁄
Which sets the length 𝐿 = 2 and 𝐿 = 400 − 2𝑥
𝐿 = 400 − 2𝑥
𝑊=𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
𝐿 = 400 − 2𝑥
Using area 𝐴 = 19,200 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑦𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑠
𝐴 = 𝐿𝑊
𝐴 = (400 − 2𝑥)(𝑥)
19,200 = 400𝑥 − 2𝑥 2
Rearranging
2𝑥 2 − 400𝑥 + 19200 = 0
𝑥 2 − 200𝑥 + 9600 = 0
(𝑥 − 80)(𝑥 − 120) = 0
𝑥 = 80 𝑦𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑠 or 𝑥 = 120 𝑦𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑠

58
If the width is 𝑥 = 80 𝑦𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑠 the length is 𝐿 = 240 𝑦𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑠
If the width is 𝑥 = 120 𝑦𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑠 the length is 𝐿 = 160 𝑦𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑠
Examples:
A car travels 10 miles per hour faster than a truck. The car goes 400 miles in 2
hours less time than it takes the truck to travel the same distance. Find the rate of
each vehicle in miles per hour.
Solution
Speed (car is faster than truck by 10 miles per hour)
𝑥 = 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑐𝑘
𝑥 + 10 = 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑟
Time is distance divided by speed
400⁄ = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑐𝑘 𝑡𝑜 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑒 400 𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑒𝑠

𝑥
400⁄
(𝑥 + 10) = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑐𝑘 𝑡𝑜 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑒 400 𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑒𝑠
The difference of time of negotiating 400 miles is 2 hours.
400⁄ − 400⁄
𝑥 (𝑥 + 10) = 2
400𝑥(𝑥 + 10)⁄ − 400𝑥(𝑥 + 10)⁄

𝑥 (𝑥 + 10) = 2𝑥(𝑥 + 10)
400(𝑥 + 10) − 400𝑥 = 2𝑥 2 + 20𝑥
400𝑥 + 4000 − 400𝑥 = 2𝑥 2 + 20𝑥
2𝑥 2 + 20𝑥 − 4000 = 0
𝑥 2 + 10𝑥 − 2000 = 0
(𝑥 + 50)(𝑥 − 40) = 0 two solution 𝑥 = −50 and 𝑥 =

40 neglect negative value.
𝑥 = 40 𝑚𝑖 𝑝𝑒𝑟 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟 speed of truck
𝑥 + 10 = 40 𝑚𝑖 𝑝𝑒𝑟 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟 speed of car
Equations in Quadratic Forms
There are equations which are not quadratic, but which can be reduced
to a quadratic by the substitution of new variable.

59
Example: Solve the equation 𝑦 4 − 3𝑦 2 − 4 = 0
Solution
Let 𝑥 = 𝑦 2 then 𝑥 2 = 𝑦 4
Using new variable
𝑦 4 − 3𝑦 2 − 4 = 0 is transformed to 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 − 4 = 0
Factoring
𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 − 4 = 0 is (𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 4) = 0
Solution for new variable is 𝑥 = −1 and 𝑥 = 4
Hence at 𝑥 = −1
𝑥 = 𝑦2 is −1 = 𝑦 2 𝑦 = √−1 and 𝑦 = ±𝑖
And at 𝑥 = 4
𝑥 = 𝑦2 is 4 = 𝑦2 𝑦 = √4 and 𝑦 = ±2
The solution set is
{−𝑖, 𝑖, −2,2}
Note: Alternately the solution can be found by directly factoring the original
equation
𝑦 4 − 3𝑦 2 − 4 = 0 (𝑦 2 + 1)(𝑦 2 − 4) = 0
1⁄
Example: Solve the equation 𝑥 + 2𝑥 2 −8=0
Solution
1⁄
Let 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 then 𝑦 2 = 𝑥
Using new variable

1⁄
𝑥 + 2𝑥 2 −8=0 is transformed to 𝑦 2 + 2𝑦 − 8 = 0
Using Quadratic Formula
𝑎 = 1, 𝑏 = 2, and 𝑐 = −8
(−𝑏 ± √𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐)⁄ (−2 ± √22 − 4(1)(−8))

𝑦= = ⁄
2𝑎 2(1) = −1 ± 3
Solution for new variable is 𝑦 = −1 + 3 = 2 and 𝑦 = −1 − 3 = −4

60
Hence at 𝑦 = 2
1⁄ 1⁄
𝑦=𝑥 2 is 2=𝑥 2 𝑥 = 22 and 𝑥 = 4
And at 𝑥 = −4
1⁄ 1⁄
𝑦=𝑥 2 is −4 = 𝑥 2
1⁄ 1⁄
Note: we recall 𝑥 2 = +√𝑥 𝑛𝑜𝑡 − √𝑥 therefore 𝑥 2 = −4 has no solution.
The solution set is
{4}
(𝑥 2 − 4)⁄ 4𝑥
𝑥 − ⁄(𝑥 2 − 4) + 3 = 0
Solution:
(𝑥 2 − 4)⁄
Let 𝑦 = 𝑥 then 1⁄𝑦 = 𝑥⁄(𝑥 2 − 4)
Using new variable
(𝑥 2 − 4)⁄ 𝑥
𝑥 − 4 [ ⁄(𝑥 2 − 4)] + 3 = 0 is transformed to 𝑦 − 4⁄𝑦 + 3 = 0
Multiply by 𝑦
4(𝑦)⁄
𝑦(𝑦) − 𝑦 + 3(𝑦) = 0(𝑦) 𝑦 2 − 4 + 3𝑦 = 0 or 𝑦 2 + 3𝑦 − 4 = 0
Factoring
𝑦 2 + 3𝑦 − 4 = 0 is (𝑦 − 1)(𝑦 + 4) = 0
Solution for new variable is 𝑦 = 1 and 𝑦 = −4
Hence at 𝑦 = 1
(𝑥 2 − 4)⁄ (𝑥 2 − 4)⁄ 2 2
𝑦= 𝑥 is 1 = 𝑥 and 𝑥 = 𝑥 − 4 or 𝑥 − 𝑥 − 4 = 0
𝑎 = 1, 𝑏 = −1, and 𝑐 = −4
(−𝑏 ± √𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐)⁄ (−(−1) ± √(−1)2 − 4(1)(−4)) (1 ± √17)⁄

𝑥= ⁄
2𝑎 = 2(1) = 2
(1 + √17)⁄ (1 − √17)⁄
𝑥= 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥= 2

61
At 𝑦 = −4
(𝑥 2 − 4)⁄ (𝑥 2 − 4)⁄ 2 2
𝑦= 𝑥 is −4 = 𝑥 and −4𝑥 = 𝑥 − 4 or 𝑥 + 4𝑥 − 4 = 0
𝑎 = 1, 𝑏 = 4, and 𝑐 = −4
(−𝑏 ± √𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐)⁄ (−(4) ± √(4)2 − 4(1)(−4)) (−4 ± √32)⁄

𝑥= = ⁄ =
2𝑎 2(1) 2
(−4 ± √(16)(2))⁄ (−4 ± 4√(2))⁄

𝑥= 2 = 2 = −2 ± 2√(2)
𝑥 = −2 + 2√(2) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 = −2 − 2√(2)
Solution set is {−2 + 2√(2) , − 2 −
(1 + √17)⁄ (1 − √17)⁄
2√(2), 2, 2}
Equations Containing Radicals
An equation in which the variable appears under a radical sign is called

a radical, or irrational, equation. In this process we square members of the
equations. The new equation has all the roots of the original equation,
however, may have roots in addition to those of the original equation.
Therefore, a check must always be carried out by substituting all supposed
roots in the given equations.
Steps in solving second order radical equations
1. Arrange the members of the equation so that a single radical constitutes

one member.
2. Eliminate this radical by squaring both members of the equations.
3. Repeat steps 1 and 2, if necessary, until an equation free of radicals is
obtained.
4. Solve the resulting equation and check all of its roots in the given
equation. Reject any extraneous roots.
Example: Solve the equation √3𝑥 − 2 + √𝑥 − 1 − 3 = 0
Solution:
√3𝑥 − 2 + √𝑥 − 1 − 3 = 0 Given equation

62
√3𝑥 − 2 = 3 − √𝑥 − 1 Adding 3 − √𝑥 − 1
2 2
(√3𝑥 − 2) = (3 − √𝑥 − 1) Squaring
3𝑥 − 2 = 9 − 6√𝑥 − 1 + 𝑥 − 1
6√𝑥 − 1 = 10 − 2𝑥 Isolating radical
3√𝑥 − 1 = 5 − 𝑥 Dividing by 2
2
(3√𝑥 − 1) = (5 − 𝑥)2
9(𝑥 − 1) = 25 − 10𝑥 + 𝑥 2 Squaring
9𝑥 − 9 = 25 − 10𝑥 + 𝑥 2
𝑥 2 − 19𝑥 + 34 = 0 Simplifying
(𝑥 − 17)(𝑥 − 2) = 0 Factoring
The roots of the last equation are
𝑥=2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 = 17
Check: At 𝑥 = 2
√3𝑥 − 2 + √𝑥 − 1 − 3 = 0
√3(2) − 2 + √2 − 1 − 3 = 0
√4 + √1 − 3 = 0
2+1−3= 0
0=0
Check: At 𝑥 = 17
√3𝑥 − 2 + √𝑥 − 1 − 3 = 0
√3(17) − 2 + √17 − 1 − 3 = 0
√51 − 2 + √17 − 1 − 3 = 0
√49 + √16 − 3 = 0
7+4−3= 0
8≠0

63
Note: Although 𝑥 = 17 is a root of the resulting quadratic equation, it

is not a root of the given equation.
Solution set is {2 }
Example: Solve the equation √7𝑥 − 12 − √𝑥 + 1 − √2𝑥 − 5 = 0
Solution:
√7𝑥 − 12 = √𝑥 + 1 + √2𝑥 − 5
2 2
(√7𝑥 − 12) = (√𝑥 + 1 + √2𝑥 − 5)
7𝑥 − 12 = 𝑥 + 1 + 2√(𝑥 + 1)(2𝑥 − 5) + 2𝑥 − 5
4𝑥 − 8 = 2√2𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 − 5
2𝑥 − 4 = √2𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 − 5
2
(2𝑥 − 4)2 = (√2𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 − 5 )
4𝑥 2 − 16𝑥 + 16 = 2𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 − 5
2𝑥 2 − 13𝑥 + 21 = 0
(𝑥 − 3)(2𝑥 − 7) = 0
𝑥=3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 = 7⁄2
Check: At 𝑥 = 3
√7𝑥 − 12 − √𝑥 + 1 − √2𝑥 − 5 = 0
√7(3) − 12 − √3 + 1 − √2(3) − 5 = 0
√9 − √4 − √1 = 0
3−2−1= 0
0=0
Check: At 𝑥 = 7⁄2
√7𝑥 − 12 − √𝑥 + 1 − √2𝑥 − 5 = 0
√7(7⁄2) − 12 − √7⁄2 + 1 − √2(7⁄2) − 5 = 0

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√25⁄2 − √9⁄2 − √2 = 5⁄ − 3⁄ − √2 = 0
√2 √2
2⁄ − √2 = (2⁄ ) (√2⁄ ) − √2 = 0
√2 √2 √2
2√2 2√2⁄ − √2 = 0
⁄ 2 − √2 = 2
(√2)
√2 − √2 = 0
0=0
Solution set is {3, 7⁄2}
Equations Containing Radicals; nature of roots
The roots of quadratic equation 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 are given by the formulas
(−𝑏 + √𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐)⁄ (−𝑏_√𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐)⁄

𝑥1 = 2𝑎 and 𝑥2 = 2𝑎
The radicand 𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 is called as the discriminant
Properties that depend on the discriminant
1. If 𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 = 0, the roots are real and equal

2. If 𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 > 0, the roots are real and unequal
3. If 𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 < 0, the roots are imaginary and unequal
Furthermore,
4. If 𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 is a perfect square, the roots are rational
5. If 𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 is not a perfect square, the roots are irrational
Sum and product of roots
Considering the roots of 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0 as
(−𝑏 + √𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐)⁄ (−𝑏_√𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐)⁄

𝑥1 = 2𝑎 and 𝑥2 = 2𝑎
The sum is
(−𝑏 + √𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐)⁄ (−𝑏_√𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐)⁄ −2𝑏⁄ = − 𝑏⁄

𝑥1 + 𝑥2 = 2𝑎 + 2𝑎 = 2𝑎 𝑎
𝑥1 + 𝑥2 = − 𝑏⁄𝑎

65
The product is
(−𝑏 + √𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐)⁄ (−𝑏_√𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐)⁄ 4𝑎𝑐⁄ 𝑐⁄

𝑥1 𝑥2 = [ 2𝑎 ] [ 2𝑎 ] = 4𝑎2 = 𝑎
𝑥1 𝑥2 = 𝑐⁄𝑎
Example: Without solving, find the sum and product of the roots of 8𝑥 2 − 9𝑥 − 3
Solution:
(−9)⁄
𝑆𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠 = − 𝑏⁄𝑎 = − 9
8 = ⁄8
(−3)⁄
𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠 = 𝑐⁄𝑎 = 3
8 = − ⁄8
(2 + √3)⁄ (2 − √3)⁄
Example: Form a quadratic equation whose roots are 5 and 5
Solution:
(2 + √3)⁄ (2 − √3)⁄ 4
For the sum 5+ 5 = ⁄5
− 𝑏⁄𝑎 = 4⁄5
(2 + √3)⁄ (2 − √3)⁄ (4 − 3)
For the product [ 5] [ 5] = ⁄(5)(5) = 1⁄25
𝑐⁄ = 1⁄
𝑎 25
It follows
𝑏 = − 4𝑎⁄5 and 𝑐 = 𝑎⁄25
𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0
𝑎𝑥 2 + (− 4𝑎⁄5)𝑥 + 𝑎⁄25 = 0
𝑥 2 − 4⁄5 𝑥 + 1⁄25 = 0
25𝑥 2 − 20𝑥 + 1 = 0 quadratic equation
Example: Write a quadratic equation whose roots are
𝑥1 = − 3⁄2 and 𝑥2 = 5

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Solution:
For the sum − 3⁄2 + 5 = 7⁄2
− 𝑏⁄𝑎 = 7⁄2
For the product [− 3⁄2][5] = − 15⁄2
𝑐⁄ = − 15⁄
𝑎 2
It follows
𝑏 = − 7𝑎⁄2 and 𝑐 = − 15𝑎⁄2
𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0
𝑎𝑥 2 + (− 7𝑎⁄2)𝑥 + (− 15𝑎⁄2) = 0
𝑥 2 − 7⁄2 𝑥 − 15⁄2 = 0
2𝑥 2 − 7𝑥 − 15 = 0 quadratic equation
Solution of System of Quadratic Equations by Algebraic Methods; a

system with no xy or first degree terms
Any two independent quadratic equations in two variables can be

solved by algebraic methods which will yield exact values of all solutions,
both real and imaginary.
Both equations of a system are of the form
𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐶𝑦 2 + 𝐹 = 0
Example: Solve the system of equations
4𝑥 2 + 3𝑦 2 = 24 eq. 1
3𝑥 2 − 2𝑦 2 = 35 eq. 2

67
4𝑥 2 + 3𝑦 2 = 24 (4𝑥 2 )2 + (3𝑦 2 )2 = (24)2 8𝑥 2 + 6𝑦 2 = 48
3𝑥 2 − 2𝑦 2 = 35 (3𝑥 2 )3 − (2𝑦 2 )3 = (35)3 9𝑥 2 − 6𝑦 2 = 105
17𝑥 2 + 0 = 153
17𝑥 2 = 153
𝑥 2 = 153⁄17
𝑥 = √153⁄17 = √9 and 𝑥 = ±3
Then substitute value of x in eq. 1 (or 2)
4𝑥 2 + 3𝑦 2 = 24
At 𝑥 = 3 (note same root will result with 𝑥 = −3)
4(3)2 + 3𝑦 2 = 24
36 + 3𝑦 2 = 24
3𝑦 2 = −12
𝑦 = √− 12⁄3 = √−4 = ±2𝑖
Pairing values for x and y, the solution set is

{(3,2𝑖), (3, −2𝑖), (−3,2𝑖), (−3, −2𝑖)}

system with a linear and a quadratic equation
𝑥 2 − 𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2 − 7 = 0 eq. 1 𝑥 − 2𝑦 + 1 = 0 eq. 2
Solution: Solve the linear equation for x (or y) and substituting the
result in the quadratic equation.
From eq. 2 𝑥 = 2𝑦 − 1
Substitute to eq. 2
(2𝑦 − 1)2 − (2𝑦 − 1)𝑦 + 𝑦 2 − 7 = 0

68
4𝑦 2 − 4𝑦 + 1 − 2𝑦 2 + 𝑦 + 𝑦 2 − 7 = 0
3𝑦 2 − 3𝑦 − 6 = 0
𝑦2 − 𝑦 − 2 = 0
(𝑦 + 1)(𝑦 − 2) = 0
𝑦 = −1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦=2
Check: At 𝑦 = −1 substitute to eq. 2 (or eq. 1)
𝑥 = 2𝑦 − 1
𝑥 = 2(−1) − 1
𝑥 = −3
Check: At 𝑦 = 2
𝑥 = 2𝑦 − 1
𝑥 = 2(2) − 1
𝑥=3
Solution set is {3, 3}

system with xy but no first degree terms
Both equations are of the form 𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐵𝑥𝑦 + 𝐶𝑦 2 + 𝐹 = 0
5𝑥 2 − 2𝑥𝑦 − 𝑦 2 = 2 eq. 1
2𝑥 2 + 𝑥𝑦 − 2𝑦 2 = 1 eq. 2
Solution: Multiply the members of eq. 2 by 2 and subtract it from eq. 1.
5𝑥 2 − 2𝑥𝑦 − 𝑦 2 = 2 5𝑥 2 − 2𝑥𝑦 − 𝑦 2 = 2 5𝑥 2 − 2𝑥𝑦 − 𝑦 2 = 2
2𝑥 2 + 𝑥𝑦 − 2𝑦 2 = 1 (2𝑥 2 )2 + (𝑥𝑦)2 − (2𝑦 2 )2 = (1)2 −(4𝑥 2 + 2𝑥𝑦 −

4𝑦 2 ) = −(2)
𝑥 2 − 4𝑥𝑦 + 3𝑦 2 = 0

69
𝑥 2 − 4𝑥𝑦 + 3𝑦 2 = 0
(𝑥 − 𝑦)(𝑥 − 3𝑦) = 0 𝑥 − 𝑦 = 0 eq.3 𝑥 − 3𝑦 = 0 eq.4
Since 𝑥 − 𝑦 = 0 and 𝑥 − 3𝑦 = 0 are both solution of the system it may be

paired with either given equation, say eq.2 which is deemed simpler of the two
equations. The result is a system of second degree and linear equation.
2𝑥 2 + 𝑥𝑦 − 2𝑦 2 = 1 eq. 2
𝑥−𝑦 =0 eq.3
From eq. 3 𝑥=𝑦
Substitute to eq. 2
2(𝑦)2 + (𝑦)𝑦 − 2𝑦 2 = 1
𝑦2 = 1
𝑦 = √1 and 𝑦 = ±1
At 𝑦 = 1
𝑥 = 𝑦 and 𝑥 = 1
At 𝑦 = −1
𝑥 = 𝑦 and 𝑥 = −1
Consequently
2𝑥 2 + 𝑥𝑦 − 2𝑦 2 = 1 eq. 2
𝑥 − 3𝑦 = 0 eq.3
From eq. 3 𝑥 = 3𝑦
Substitute to eq. 2
2(3𝑦)2 + (3𝑦)𝑦 − 2𝑦 2 = 1 18𝑦 2 + 3𝑦 2 − 2𝑦 2 = 1
19𝑦 2 = 1
𝑦 = √1⁄19 and 𝑦 = √1⁄19 (√19⁄ ) = ± √19⁄19

√19
At 𝑦 = √19⁄19

70
𝑥 = 3𝑦 𝑥 = (3) √19⁄19 and 𝑥 = 3√19⁄19
At 𝑦 = − √19⁄19
𝑥 = 3𝑦 and 𝑥 = 3 (− √19⁄19) and 𝑥 = −3√19⁄19
Solution set is {(1,1),
(−1, −1); (3√19⁄19 , √19⁄19) , (−3√19⁄19 , − √19⁄19)} Example: Solve

the system of equations where 𝐹 = 0 in one equation.
5𝑥 2 + 2𝑥𝑦 − 𝑦 2 = 3 eq. 1
2𝑥 2 − 𝑥𝑦 − 𝑦 2 = 0 eq. 2
Solution: Factor eq.2 (equation where 𝐹 = 0 )
2𝑥 2 − 𝑥𝑦 − 𝑦 2 = 0 (2𝑥 + 𝑦)(𝑥 − 𝑦) = 0
2𝑥 + 𝑦 = 0 eq.3 and 𝑥 − 𝑦 = 0 eq.4
Eq. 1 and eq.3
5𝑥 2 + 2𝑥𝑦 − 𝑦 2 = 3 eq. 1
2𝑥 + 𝑦 = 0 eq.3
From eq. 3 𝑦 = −2𝑥
Substitute to eq. 1
5𝑥 2 + 2𝑥(−2𝑥) − (−2𝑥)2 = 3 5𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 2 = 3
−3𝑥 2 = 3 −𝑥 2 = 1
𝑥 = √−1 and 𝑥 = ±𝑖
At 𝑥 = 𝑖
𝑦 = −2𝑥 and 𝑦 = −2(𝑖)
𝑦 = −2𝑖
At 𝑥 = −𝑖
𝑦 = −2𝑥 and 𝑦 = −2(−𝑖)
𝑦 = 2𝑖

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Eq. 1 and eq.4
5𝑥 2 + 2𝑥𝑦 − 𝑦 2 = 3 eq. 1
𝑥−𝑦 =0 eq.4
From eq. 4 𝑦=𝑥
Substitute to eq. 1
5𝑥 2 + 2𝑥(𝑥) − (𝑥)2 = 3 5𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 2 − 𝑥 2 = 3
6𝑥 2 = 3 𝑥 2 = 1⁄2
𝑥 = √1⁄2 𝑥 = √1⁄2 (√2⁄ ) = √2⁄2

√2
𝑥 = ± √2⁄2
At 𝑥 = √2⁄2
𝑦 = 𝑥 and 𝑦 = √2⁄2
At 𝑥 = − √2⁄2
𝑦 = 𝑥 and 𝑦 = − √2⁄2
Solution set is {(𝑖, −2𝑖), (−𝑖, 2𝑖); (√2⁄2 , √2⁄2) , (−√2⁄2 , − √2⁄2)}
Word problems involving quadratic systems
Example:
A merchant has a square carpet priced at $1 per square foot and a

rectangular carpet, with length three times its width, priced at $1.50 per square
foot. The combined area of the carpets is 112 square feet, and the value of the
rectangular carpet is $8 more than the value of the square carpet. Find the
dimensions of each carpet.
Solution:
Let:
𝑥 = 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑡

72
𝑦 = 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑡
3𝑦 = 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑡
𝐴𝑆 = 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑡
𝐴𝑆 = (𝑥)(𝑥) = 𝑥 2
𝐴𝑅 = 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑡
𝐴𝑅 = (𝑦)(3𝑦) = 3𝑦 2
Square carpet Rectangular carpet

𝑥 3𝑦
𝑥 𝐴𝑆 = 𝑥 2 𝑦 𝐴𝑅 = 3𝑦 2
The combined area of the carpets is 112 square feet
𝐴𝑆 + 𝐴𝑅 = 112
𝑥 2 + 3𝑦 2 = 112 eq.1
The value of the rectangular carpet is $8 more than the value of the square
carpet (the value is equal to the product of the area and price per area)
𝐴𝑅 (1.5) − 𝐴𝑆 (1) = 8
3𝑦 2 (1.5) − 𝑥 2 (1) = 8
4.5𝑦 2 − 𝑥 2 = 8 or
−𝑥 2 + 4.5𝑦 2 = 8 eq.2
Solve the system of equations
𝑥 2 + 3𝑦 2 = 112 eq.1
−𝑥 2 + 4.5𝑦 2 = 8 eq.2
0 + 7.5𝑦 2 = 120
7.5𝑦 2 = 120
𝑦 = √120⁄7.5 = √16 = ±4 neglect the negative dimension
𝑦=4

73
At 𝑦 = 4 substitute to eq.2 (or eq.1)
−𝑥 2 + 4.5𝑦 2 = 8 eq.2
−𝑥 2 + 4.5(4)2 = 8
𝑥 2 = 64
𝑥 = √64 = ±8 neglect the negative dimension
𝑥=8
Hence, the required dimensions are
Square: 8𝑓𝑡 𝑏𝑦 8𝑓𝑡, Rectangle: 4𝑓𝑡 𝑏𝑦 12𝑓𝑡
Word problems involving progression; sequences
A succession of numbers in which one number is designated as the

first, another as the second, another as the third, and so on, is called a
sequence. Each number of the sequence is called a term.
Example:
4, 7, 11, 14, 17
The succession of numbers forms a sequence. If we let 𝑎1 stand for the

first term of a sequence, 𝑎2 for the second term, 𝑎3 for the third term, and so
on, we can denote the sequence by
𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 ,… 𝑎𝑛
The term 𝑎𝑛 is called a general term or the nth term.
Expression given in terms of n by which the terms of a sequence can be

obtained by substituting 1, 2, 3, and so on, for n.
Example:
𝑛2 stands for a general term, the sequence is
12 , 22 , 32 , and so on.
We indicate the sequence by
1, 4, 9, 16, 25, … 𝑛2

74
Example:
𝑎𝑛 = 𝑛⁄𝑛2 + 1 stands for a general term. The terms of this sequence

are
1⁄ , 2⁄ , 3⁄ , 4⁄ , 5⁄ , … , 𝑛⁄
2 5 10 17 26 𝑛2 + 1
Example:
Let the first term 𝑎1 be given and let a formula be given by which each
term of a sequence, after the first, may be computed from the preceding term.
Choose a formula 𝑎𝑛 = 3𝑎𝑛−1 + 2 and let 𝑎1 = 3
Then for the first four terms,
𝑎1 = 3
𝑎2 = 3(3) + 2 = 11
𝑎3 = 3(11) + 2 = 35
𝑎4 = 3(35) + 2 = 107
A formula like 𝑎𝑛 = 3𝑎𝑛−1 + 2 of this example is called recursion formula.
Word problems involving arithmetic progression
Definition
A sequence in which each term after the first is formed by adding a

fixed number to the preceding term is called an arithmetic progression. The
fixed number is called common difference.
Example:
The sequence 2,5,8,11,14 is an arithmetic progression with common

difference 3.
Example:
The sequence 10,7,4,1,-2,-5 is an arithmetic progression with common

difference -3
If 𝑎1 stands for the first term and d for the common difference of an
arithmetic progression, the successive terms by repeated addition of d can be
written.

75
𝑎1 , 𝑎1 + 𝑑, 𝑎1 + 2𝑑, 𝑎1 + 3𝑑, . . ., 𝑎1 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑
Note: We obtain the last or nth term by observing that the coefficient
of d in each term is one less than the corresponding order number of the terms.
Denoting the nth term by 𝑎𝑛 , we have the formula.
𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎1 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑
Example:
Find the 30th term of the arithmetic progression 2, 6, 10, . . .
Solution:
𝑎1 = 2, 𝑑 = 4, 𝑛 = 30
𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎1 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑
𝑎30 = 2 + (30 − 1)𝑑4 = 2 + 116
𝑎30 = 118
Example:
Insert five arithmetic means between 7 and 25.
Solution:
The first term 𝑎1 = 7 is given and the last term 𝑎𝑛 = 25 is also given.
Since the problem is requiring 5 more terms in between it is seen that the
sequence have 7 terms in all, hence
𝑛 = 7. It follows that the last term coefficient for common difference is 𝑛 −
1 = 7 − 1 = 6.
Then, the common difference d can be found by

𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎1 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑
25 = 7 + 6𝑑
𝑑=3
The progression is 7, 10, 13, 16, 19, 22, 25
Sum of the Terms of Arithmetic Progression
Including first and last term
𝑆𝑛 = 𝑛⁄2 (𝑎1 + 𝑎𝑛 )
Including first term and common difference

76
𝑆𝑛 = 𝑛⁄2 [2𝑎1 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑]
Example:
Given the elements 𝑑 = 3, 𝑎𝑛 = 33, and 𝑆𝑛 = 195, find 𝑎1 and 𝑛.
Solution:
Using 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎1 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑 33 = 𝑎1 + (𝑛 − 1)3 𝑎1 + 3𝑛 = 36 eq.1
Using 𝑆𝑛 = 𝑛⁄2 (𝑎1 + 𝑎𝑛 ) 195 = 𝑛⁄2 (𝑎1 + 33) 𝑛(𝑎1 + 33) = 390 eq.2
From 𝑎1 + 3𝑛 = 36 eq.1
𝑎1 = 36 − 3𝑛
Substitute to 𝑛(𝑎1 + 33) = 390 eq.2
𝑛[(36 − 3𝑛) + 33] = 390 𝑛[69 − 3𝑛] = 390
69𝑛 − 3𝑛2 = 390 3𝑛2 − 69𝑛 + 390 = 0
𝑛2 − 23𝑛 + 130 = 0 (𝑛 − 10)(𝑛 − 13) = 0
𝑛 = 10 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑛 = 13
At 𝑛 = 10 substitute to eq.1 (or eq. 2)
𝑎1 + 3𝑛 = 36
𝑎1 + 3(10) = 36
𝑎1 = 6
First solution set {𝑛 = 10, 𝑎1 = 6}
At 𝑛 = 13 substitute to eq.1 (or eq. 2)
𝑎1 + 3𝑛 = 36
𝑎1 + 3(13) = 36
𝑎1 = −3
Second solution set {𝑛 = 13, 𝑎1 = −3}
Example:
A man buys a refrigerator priced at $600. He agrees to pay $100 down

and to pay each month, beginning one month after the purchase date, $100 on

77
the debt plus an interest charge of 0.5% on the debt outstanding during one
month. Find the total amount of interest which the buyer will pay.
Solution:
The first interest charge will be 0.5% of $500 (%600minus $100 down
payment) or
0.005(500) = 2.50
Since the debt is reduced by $100 each month, the interest charge is
reduced by
0.005(100) = 0.50 each month. Therefore, the last interest charge will be
$0.50.
Using
𝑆𝑛 = 𝑛⁄2 (𝑎1 + 𝑎𝑛 ), the total interest charge will be

𝑆𝑛 = 5⁄2 (2.50 + 0.50)
𝑆𝑛 = $7.50
Example:
A contractor agreed to pay a penalty if he failed to remodel a certain

building in a specified length of time. The penalties for excess time were $40
for the first day and $10 for each additional day. If the total penalty was
$2700, how many excess days did he use in completing the job.
Solution:
The penalty payment formed an arithmetic progression in which
𝑎1 = 40, 𝑑 = 10, and 𝑆𝑛 = 2700
Using
𝑆𝑛 = 𝑛⁄2 [2𝑎1 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑]
2700 = 𝑛⁄2 [2(40) + (𝑛 − 1)10]
2700 = 𝑛[40 + 5𝑛 − 5]
2700 = 35𝑛 + 5𝑛2
𝑛2 + 7𝑛 − 540 = 0
(𝑛 + 27)(𝑛 − 20) = 0

78
𝑛 = −27 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑛 = 20 reject negative value
𝑛 = 20 number of excess days.
Word problems involving geometric progression

Definition
A sequence in which each term after the first is a fixed number times
the preceding term is called a geometric progression. The fixed number,
denoted by r, is called the common ratio.
Example:
The sequence 2, 4, 8, 16 is a geometric progression with common ratio

2.
Example:
The sequence 1, -3, 9, -27 is a geometric progression with common ratio -3.
𝑎1 stands for the first term and r for the common ratio, n the number
of terms, 𝑎𝑛 the nth term, and 𝑆𝑛 the sum of n terms. The first and last terms
of a geometric progression are called the extremes, and the term between are
called means.
Geometric progression can be written as
𝑎1 , 𝑎1 𝑟, 𝑎1 𝑟 2, 𝑎1 𝑟 3, . . . , 𝑎1 𝑟 𝑛−1
Note: We obtain the last or nth term by observing that the exponents of
r in each term is one less than the number of the terms. Denoting the nth term
by 𝑎𝑛 , we have the formula.
𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎1 𝑟 𝑛−1
Example:
Find the 6th term of the geometric progression 9, -6, 4, . . .
Solution:
𝑎1 = 9

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𝑎2 𝑎
A useful tool maybe used to find r. ⁄𝑎1 = 3⁄𝑎2 … = 𝑟
−6⁄ = 4⁄ … = − 2⁄ = 𝑟
9 −6 3
6−1 5
𝑎6 = 9(− 2⁄3) = 9(− 2⁄3) = 9(− 32⁄243)
𝑎6 = − 32⁄27
Example:
Insert three geometric means between 81 and 16
Solution:
𝑎1 = 81 and 𝑎𝑛 = 16
Counting the two extremes and the three means makes 𝑛 = 5.
Using 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎1 𝑟 𝑛−1
16 = 81𝑟 5−1 or 16 = 81𝑟 4
𝑟 4 = 16⁄81
4
𝑟 = √16⁄81
𝑟 = ± 2⁄3 two values of r suggest to progressions
At 𝑟 = 2⁄3: 𝑎1 = 81 first term
𝑎1 𝑟 = 81(2⁄3) = 54 second term
2
𝑎1 𝑟 2 = 81(2⁄3) = 81(4⁄9) = 36 third term
3
𝑎1 𝑟 3 = 81(2⁄3) = 81(8⁄27) = 24 fourth term
4
𝑎1 𝑟 4 = 81(2⁄3) = 81(16⁄81) = 16 fifth term
Hence the sequence for 𝑟 = 2⁄3 is 81, 54, 36, 24, 16
At 𝑟 = − 2⁄3: 𝑎1 = 81 first term
𝑎1 𝑟 = 81(− 2⁄3) = −54 second term
2
𝑎1 𝑟 2 = 81(− 2⁄3) = 81(4⁄9) = 36 third term

80
3
𝑎1 𝑟 3 = 81(− 2⁄3) = 81(− 8⁄27) = −24 fourth term
4
𝑎1 𝑟 4 = 81(− 2⁄3) = 81(16⁄81) = 16 fifth term
Hence the sequence for 𝑟 = − 2⁄3 is 81, -54, 36, -24, 16
Sum of the Terms of Arithmetic Progression
Including 𝑎1 , r, and n
𝑎1 (1 − 𝑟 𝑛 )⁄
𝑆𝑛 = 1−𝑟
𝑎1 − 𝑎1 𝑟 𝑛⁄
𝑆𝑛 = 1−𝑟
Including 𝑎1 , r, 𝑎𝑛 , and n
𝑎1 − 𝑟𝑎𝑛
𝑆𝑛 = ⁄1 − 𝑟
Example:
A certain geometric progression has 𝑎1 = 3, 𝑎𝑛 = 16, and 𝑆𝑛 =

513. Find r, n, and the terms of progression.
Solution: Use
𝑎1 − 𝑟𝑎𝑛
𝑆𝑛 = ⁄1 − 𝑟
(16)𝑟⁄
513 = 3 − 1−𝑟
513 − 513𝑟 = 3 − 768𝑟
𝑟 = −2
Use
𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎1 𝑟 𝑛−1
768 = 3(−2)𝑛−1
256 = (−2)𝑛−1 transform 256 to exponential form with base -2
(−2)8 = (−2)𝑛−1
8=𝑛−1
𝑛=9
𝑎1 = 3 first term

81
𝑎1 𝑟 = 3(−2) = −6 second term
𝑎1 𝑟 2 = 3(−2)2 = 3(4) = 12 third term
𝑎1 𝑟 3 = 3(−2)3 = 3(−8) = −24 fourth term
𝑎1 𝑟 4 = 3(−2)4 = 3(16) = 48 fifth term
𝑎1 𝑟 5 = 3(−2)5 = 3(−32) = −96 sixth term
𝑎1 𝑟 6 = 3(−2)6 = 3(64) = 192 seventh term
𝑎1 𝑟 7 = 3(−2)7 = 3(−128) = −384 eighth term
𝑎1 𝑟 8 = 3(−2)8 = 3(256) = 768 ninth term
𝑆𝑛 = 513
Hence the progression is 3, -6, 12, -24, 48, -96, 192, -384, 768
Example:
Find the sum of a geometric progression in which 𝑎1 = 3, 𝑛 = 10,

and 𝑟 = 1.
𝑎1 − 𝑎1 𝑟 𝑛⁄
Note: The formula 𝑆𝑛 = 1 − 𝑟 cannot be used here as 1 − 𝑟 will
be zero.
Solution: When 𝑟 = 1, refer to formula
𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎1 𝑟 𝑛−1
𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎1 (1)𝑛−1 (1)𝑛−1 = 1 for any value of n
𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎1 this means that each of the 10 terms is 3.
The progression is 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3
Hence the sum is 𝑆𝑛 = 10(3) = 30
Word problems involving infinite geometric progression
𝑎1 (1 − 𝑟 𝑛 )⁄
The sum of a geometric series is 𝑆𝑛 = 1−𝑟
Assuming 𝑎1 and 𝑟 are rational numbers, as n increases to a certain
definite value the sum will result to a rational number.
When n increases infinitely and the value of r is nowhere between -1

and 1, that is 𝑟 ≤ −1 and 𝑟 ≥ 1, the sum has no limit (increases infinitely).

82
But when n increases infinitely and the value of r is in between -1 and

1, that is |𝑟| < 1 or −1 < 𝑟 < 1, the sum of corresponding series converges
to a definite value of rational number.
𝑎1 (1 − 𝑟 𝑛 )⁄
The formula of the sum 𝑆𝑛 = 1 − 𝑟 can be transformed as
𝑎1 𝑎 𝑟𝑛
𝑆𝑛 = ⁄1 − 𝑟 − 1 ⁄1 − 𝑟
The factor 𝑟 𝑛 as 𝑛 → ∞ can approach zero if and only if −1 < 𝑟 < 1.
𝑎 𝑎 𝑟𝑛
𝑆𝑛 = lim ( 1⁄1 − 𝑟 − 1 ⁄1 − 𝑟 )
𝑛→∞
𝑎 𝑎 𝑟𝑛
𝑆𝑛 = lim ( 1⁄1 − 𝑟) − lim ( 1 ⁄1 − 𝑟 ) 0
𝑛→∞ 𝑛→∞
Sum of infinite geometric series is

𝑎1
𝑆𝑛 = ⁄1 − 𝑟
Example:
Find the sum of the infinite geometric progression 3⁄2, -1, 2⁄3, − 4⁄9
Solution:
𝑎1 = 3⁄2
𝑎2 𝑎
To find r. ⁄𝑎1 = 3⁄𝑎2 … = 𝑟
2⁄
−1 3⁄ … = − 2⁄ = 𝑟
⁄(3⁄ ) = −1 3
2
𝑟 = − 2⁄3
Hence
𝑎1
𝑆𝑛 = ⁄1 − 𝑟
3⁄ 3⁄
𝑆𝑛 = 2⁄ = 2⁄ = (3⁄ )(3⁄ )
1 − (− 2⁄3) 5⁄
3
2 5
𝑆𝑛 = 9⁄10
Example:
Express the repeating of a decimal 4.767676 . . . as a rational number

83
Solution: The fraction 0.767676 . . . maybe written as
0.76 + 0.0076 + 0.000076 + 0.00000076 + …
𝑎1 = 0.76
𝑎2 𝑎
To find r. ⁄𝑎1 = 3⁄𝑎2 … = 𝑟
0.0076⁄ 0.000076⁄
0.76 = 0.0076 … = 0.01 = 𝑟
𝑟 = 0.01
Sum of the fraction

𝑎1
𝑆𝑛 = ⁄1 − 𝑟
𝑆𝑛 = 0.76⁄1 − 0.01 = 0.76⁄0.99 = 0.76⁄0.99 (100⁄100)
𝑆𝑛 = 76⁄99
Include the whole number 4
4.767676 … = 4 + 0.76 + 0.0076 + 0.000076 + 0.00000076 + … = 4 + 76⁄99
As a rational number
4.767676 … = 472⁄99
Word problems involving harmonic progression
A sequence of numbers whose reciprocals form an arithmetic

progression is called an harmonic progression.
Example:
The sequence 1⁄3, 1⁄7, 1⁄11, 1⁄15, 1⁄19, 1⁄23 is an harmonic

progression because the reciprocals form the arithmetic progression 3, 7, 11,
15, 19, 23 (common difference is 4).
Similarly the sequence
1⁄ , 1⁄ 1 1
𝑎1 𝑎1 + 𝑑, ⁄𝑎1 + 2𝑑 , . . . ⁄𝑎1 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑
is an harmonic progression since the reciprocals form the arithmetic

progression

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𝑎1 , 𝑎1 + 𝑑, 𝑎1 + 2𝑑, . . . 𝑎1 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑
Example:
Find the 8th term of the harmonic progression 1⁄2, 1⁄5, 1⁄8, . . .
Solution: The common difference of the reciprocals is 𝑑 = 3 and the first

term is 𝑎1 = 2.
At the eighth term using the formula
𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎1 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑
𝑎8 = 2 + (8 − 1)3 = 23
The 8th term is 1⁄𝑎8
Hence the eighth term is 1⁄23
Example:
Insert four harmonic means between 1⁄9 and 1⁄5
Solution: Consider first an arithmetic progression. With 𝑎1 = 9 and

𝑎𝑛 = 5
as part of progression plus four means, it is found that 𝑛 = 6
Then, the common difference d can be found by

𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎1 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑
5 = 9 + (6 − 1)𝑑
−4 = 5𝑑
𝑑 = − 4⁄5
𝑎1 = 9 + (1 − 1)(− 4⁄5) = 9 1st term
𝑎2 = 9 + (2 − 1)(− 4⁄5) = 9 − (4⁄5) = 41⁄5 2nd term
𝑎3 = 9 + (3 − 1)(− 4⁄5) = 9 − 2(4⁄5) = 37⁄5 3rd term
𝑎4 = 9 + (4 − 1)(− 4⁄5) = 9 − 3(4⁄5) = 33⁄5 4th term
𝑎5 = 9 + (5 − 1)(− 4⁄5) = 9 − 4(4⁄5) = 29⁄5 5th term

85
𝑎6 = 9 + (6 − 1)(− 4⁄5) = 9 − 5(4⁄5) = 5 6th term
The arithmetic progression is 1⁄9, 1⁄41 , 1⁄37 , 1⁄33 , 1⁄29 , 1⁄5

⁄5 ⁄5 ⁄5 ⁄5
Rearranging 1⁄9, 5⁄41, 5⁄37, 5⁄33, 5⁄29, 1⁄5
The Binomial Theorem and Mathematical Induction; fractional notation
Definition
If n is any positive integer, the product of the integers from 1 to n

inclusive is designated by 𝑛! (read “n factorial” or “factorial n”).
Symbolically, 𝑛! = (1)(2)(3) … 𝑛.
Example:
1! = 1 2! = 1(2) 3! = 1(2)(3) 4! = 1(2)(3)(4)
Example:
Simplify the fraction 7!⁄4!
7! = 1(2)(3)(4)(5)(6)(7)
4! 1(2)(3)(4)
7! = (5)(6)(7) = 210
4!
The following equations represent two ways to express 𝑛!
𝑛! = 𝑛(𝑛 − 1)(𝑛 − 2)(𝑛 − 3)! eq.1
and
𝑛! = 𝑛(𝑛 − 1)! eq.2
Note: When 𝑛 = 1, eq.2 becomes
𝑛! = 𝑛(𝑛 − 1)!
1! = 1(1 − 1)!
1! = 1(0)!
To be consistent, 0! must be equal to 1, hence the definition for zero

factorial.

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0! = 1
Example:
(𝑛 + 1)!
Simplify the expression ⁄(𝑛 − 1)!
Solution: Simplify the fraction by reducing it to lowest term
(𝑛 + 1)! = 1(2)(3) … (𝑛 − 2)(𝑛 − 1)(𝑛)(𝑛 + 1)
(𝑛 − 1)! 1(2)(3) … (𝑛 − 2)(𝑛 − 1)
(𝑛 + 1)! = (𝑛)(𝑛 + 1)
(𝑛 − 1)!
The Binomial Theorem and Mathematical Induction; binomial expansion
Consider the expansions
(𝑎 + 𝑥)1 = 𝑎 + 𝑥
(𝑎 + 𝑥)2 = 𝑎2 + 2𝑎𝑥 + 𝑥 2
(𝑎 + 𝑥)3 = 𝑎3 + 3𝑎2 𝑥 + 3𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑥 3
(𝑎 + 𝑥)4 = 𝑎4 + 4𝑎3 𝑥 + 6𝑎2 𝑥 2 + 4𝑎𝑥 3 + 𝑥 4
(𝑎 + 𝑥)5 = 𝑎5 + 5𝑎4 𝑥 + 10𝑎3 𝑥 2 + 10𝑎2 𝑥 3 + 5𝑎𝑥 4 + 𝑥 5
In each of the expansions we observe the following facts
1. The number of terms in each expansion is one more than the exponent of
the binomial.
2. The first term is a with an exponent the same as the exponent of the
binomial, and the exponent of a decreases by 1 from term to term.
3. The exponent of x in the second term is 1, and it increases by 1 from term
to term.
4. The sum of the exponents of a and x in any term is equal to the exponent
of the binomial.
5. The coefficient of the terms equidistant from the first term and the last
term are equal.
6. The coefficient of the second term is the same as the exponent of the
binomial. The coefficient of any term farther on may be computed from
the previous term by multiplying the term’s coefficient by the exponent of
a and dividing by 1 more than the exponent of x.
Example: Check the expansion (𝑎 + 𝑥)5 = 𝑎5 + 5𝑎4 𝑥 + 10𝑎3 𝑥 2 +

10𝑎2 𝑥 3 + 5𝑎𝑥 4 + 𝑥 5 ,

87
we observe that the second term is 5𝑎4 𝑥, then the coefficient of the next
term is
(5)(4) = 20 (multiplying the term’s coefficient (5) by the exponent of a
(4)) and
(20)/(1 + 1) = 10 (dividing by 1 more than the exponent of x (1)).
Theorem
If n is any positive integer, then
(𝑎 + 𝑥)𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛 + 𝑛𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 + 𝑛(𝑛 − 1)⁄2! 𝑎𝑛−2 𝑥 2 +

𝑛(𝑛 − 1)(𝑛 − 2)⁄ 𝑎𝑛−3 𝑥 3
3!
+ 𝑛(𝑛 − 1)(𝑛 − 2)(𝑛 − 3)⁄4! 𝑎𝑛−4 𝑥 4 + … 𝑥 𝑛

this is called the binomial formula.
Example:
Expand (2 + 𝑥)6 and simplify each term
(2 + 𝑥)6 = 26 + 6(2)6−1 𝑥 + 6(6 − 1)⁄2! (2)6−2 𝑥 2 +
6(6 − 1)(6 − 2)⁄ (2)6−3 𝑥 3

3!
+ 6(6 − 1)(6 − 2)(6 − 3)⁄4! (2)6−4 𝑥 4 +
6(6 − 1)(6 − 2)(6 − 3)(6 − 4)⁄ (2)6−5 𝑥 5

5!
+ 6(6 − 1)(6 − 2)(6 − 3)(6 − 4)(6 − 5)⁄6! (2)6−6 𝑥 6
(2 + 𝑥)6 = 64 + 6(2)5 𝑥 + 6(5)⁄(1)(2) (2)4 𝑥 2 +

6(5)(4)⁄ (2)3 𝑥 3
(1)(2)(3)
+ 6(5)(4)(3)⁄(1)(2)(3)(4) (2)2 𝑥 4 + 6(5)(4)(3)(2)⁄(1)(2)(3)(4)(5) (2)1 𝑥 5
+ 6(5)(4)(3)(2)(1)⁄(1)(2)(3)(4)(5)(6) (2)0 𝑥 6
Simplifying, the expansion is
(2 + 𝑥)6 = 64 + 192𝑥 + 240𝑥 2 + 160𝑥 3 + 60𝑥 4 + 12𝑥 5 + 𝑥 6
Example:
Expand (𝑎2 + 3𝑦)7 and simplify each term

88
(𝑎2 + 3𝑦)7 = (𝑎2 )7 + 7(𝑎2 )6 (3𝑦)1 + 7(6)⁄ (𝑎2 )5 (3𝑦)2 +

1(2)
7(6)(5)⁄ (𝑎2 )4 (3𝑦)3

1(2)(3)
+ 7(6)(5)(4)⁄1(2)(3)(4) (𝑎2 )3 (3𝑦)4 +
7(6)(5)(4)(3)⁄ (𝑎2 )2 (3𝑦)5

1(2)(3)(4)(5)
7(6)(5)(4)(3)(2)
+ ⁄1(2)(3)(4)(5)(6) (𝑎2 )1 (3𝑦)6
+ 7(6)(5)(4)(3)(2)(1)⁄1(2)(3)(4)(5)(6)(7) (𝑎2 )0 (3𝑦)7
(𝑎2 + 3𝑦)7 = 𝑎14 + 7𝑎12 3𝑦 + 21𝑎10 9𝑦 2 + 35𝑎8 27𝑦 3 + 35𝑎6 81𝑦 4 + 21𝑎4 243𝑦 5
+7𝑎2 729𝑦 6 + 2187𝑦 7
(𝑎2 + 3𝑦)7 = 𝑎14 + 21𝑎12 𝑦 + 189𝑎10 𝑦 2 + 945𝑎8 𝑦 3 + 2835𝑎6 𝑦 4 + 5103𝑎4 𝑦 5
+5103𝑎2 𝑦 6 + 2187𝑦 7
Example:
Expand (𝑎 − 𝑥)6 and simplify each term
Solution: Let 𝑎 − 𝑥 = 𝑎 + (−𝑥)
[𝑎 + (−𝑥)]6 = 𝑎6 + 6𝑎5 (−𝑥)1 + 30⁄2 𝑎 4 (−𝑥)2 + 120⁄6 𝑎3 (−𝑥)3 + 360⁄24 𝑎2 (−𝑥)4
+ 720⁄120 𝑎1 (−𝑥)5 + 720⁄720 𝑎0 (−𝑥)6
[𝑎 + (−𝑥)]6 = 𝑎6 − 6𝑎5 𝑥 + 15𝑎4 𝑥 2 − 20𝑎3 𝑥 3 + 15𝑎2 𝑥 4 − 6𝑎𝑥 5 + 𝑥 6
The Binomial Theorem and Mathematical Induction; the nth term of

binomial formula
In each of the expansions we observe the following fact
1. The exponent of x in each term is one less than the number of the term.
Therefore, the exponent of x in the rth term is 𝑟 − 1.
2. Since the sum of the exponents of a and x in any term is equal to n, the
exponent of a in the rth term is 𝑛 − (𝑟 − 1) or 𝑛 − 𝑟 + 1.
3. The denominator of the coefficient of each term in which x appears is the
factorial of the exponent of x in the term. Hence the denominator of the
coefficient of the rth term is (𝑟 − 1)!

89
4. The number of factors in the numerator of each coefficient, after the first,
is equal to the exponent of x in the term. Then the numerator of the
coefficient in the rth term has 𝑟 − 1 factors. The first factor is n; the
second, 𝑛 − (2) + 1, the third, 𝑛 − (3) + 1; the fourth 𝑛 − (4) + 1, and
so on. The (𝑟 − 1)𝑠𝑡 factor is 𝑛 − (𝑟 − 1) + 1 = 𝑛 − 𝑟 + 2.
From the foregoing observation we may write
𝑟𝑡ℎ 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 = 𝑛(𝑛 − 1)(𝑛 − 2) … (𝑛 − 𝑟 + 2) 𝑎𝑛−𝑟+1 𝑥 𝑟−1
(𝑟 − 1)!
Example:
Write and simplify the 7th term of the expansion of (2𝑥 − 𝑦)11
Solution: Employing the formula
(𝑟 − 1)!
𝑛 − 𝑟 + 2 = 11 − 7 + 2 = 6
𝑛(𝑛 − 1)(𝑛 − 2) … (𝑛 − 𝑟 + 2) = (11)(10)(9)(8)(7)(6) = 332640
(𝑟 − 1)! = (7 − 1)! = 6! = 1(2)(3)(4)(5)(6) = 720
𝑛 − 𝑟 + 1 = 11 − 7 + 1 = 5
𝑟−1= 7−1= 6
7𝑡ℎ 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 = (332640⁄720)(2𝑥)5 (−𝑦)6
7𝑡ℎ 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 = (462)(2𝑥)5 𝑦 6 = (462)(32)𝑥 5 (−𝑦)6
7𝑡ℎ 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 = 14784𝑥 5 𝑦 6
Example:
12
Find the term involving 𝑥 9 in the expansion of [𝑥 2 + (1⁄𝑥 )]
Solution: Using 𝑛 = 12, 𝑎 = 𝑥 2 , and 𝑥 = 1⁄𝑥

𝑟−1 𝑟−1
𝑎𝑛−𝑟+1 𝑥 𝑟−1 = (𝑥 2 )12−𝑟+1 (1⁄𝑥) = (𝑥 2 )13−𝑟 (1⁄𝑥) = 𝑥 26−2𝑟 𝑥1−𝑟
= 𝑥 27−3𝑟
And so 27 − 3𝑟 = 9

90
𝑟=6
Employing the formula
(𝑟 − 1)!
12
in the expansion of [𝑥 2 + (1⁄𝑥 )]
𝑛 − 𝑟 + 2 = 12 − 6 + 2 = 8
𝑛(𝑛 − 1)(𝑛 − 2) … (𝑛 − 𝑟 + 2) = (12)(11)(10)(9)(8) = 95040
(𝑟 − 1)! = (6 − 1)! = 5! = 1(2)(3)(4)(5) = 120
𝑛 − 𝑟 + 1 = 12 − 6 + 1 = 7
𝑟−1= 6−1= 5
5
6𝑡ℎ 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 = (95040⁄120)(𝑥 2 )7 (1⁄𝑥)
6𝑡ℎ 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 = (792)𝑥14 (1⁄ 5 )

𝑥
6𝑡ℎ 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 = 792𝑥 9
Pascal’s Triangle
(𝑎 + 𝑥)0 1
(𝑎 + 𝑥)1 1 1
(𝑎 + 𝑥)2 1 2 1
(𝑎 + 𝑥)3 1 3 3 1
(𝑎 + 𝑥)4 1 4 6 4 1
(𝑎 + 𝑥)5 1 5 10 10 5 1
(𝑎 + 𝑥)6 1 6 15 20 15 6 1
The array of the numbers in the Pascal’ Triangle was named in honor of Blaise
Pascal (1623-1662).
This triangle is helpful in obtaining some of the expansions of binomials.
Example done previously in formula method:
Expand (𝑎 − 𝑥)6 and simplify each term

91
Solution:
Expand the binomial momentarily assigning arbitrary letter constants

for the coefficient.
Let 𝑎 − 𝑥 = 𝑎 + (−𝑥)
[𝑎 + (−𝑥)]6 = 𝑐1 𝑎6 + 𝑐2 𝑎5 (−𝑥)1 + 𝑐3 𝑎4 (−𝑥)2 + 𝑐4 𝑎3 (−𝑥)3 + 𝑐5 𝑎2 (−𝑥)4
+𝑐6 𝑎1 (−𝑥)5 + 𝑐7 𝑎0 (−𝑥)6
[𝑎 + (−𝑥)]6 = 𝑐1 𝑎6 − 𝑐2 𝑎5 𝑥 + 𝑐3 𝑎4 𝑥 2 − 𝑐4 𝑎3 𝑥 3 + 𝑐5 𝑎2 𝑥 4 − 𝑐6 𝑎𝑥 5 + 𝑐7 𝑥 6
From Pascal’s Triangle expansion to the 6th exponent (or 𝑛 = 6)
(𝑎 + 𝑥)6 1 6 15 20 15 6 1
𝑐1 𝑐2 𝑐3 𝑐4 𝑐5 𝑐6 𝑐7
It follows
𝑐1 = 1, 𝑐2 = 6, 𝑐3 = 15, 𝑐4 = 20, 𝑐5 = 15, 𝑐6 = 6, 𝑐7 = 1
Hence
[𝑎 + (−𝑥)]6 = 𝑎6 − 6𝑎5 𝑥 + 15𝑎4 𝑥 2 − 20𝑎3 𝑥 3 + 15𝑎2 𝑥 4 − 6𝑎𝑥 5 + 𝑥 6
The Binomial Theorem and Mathematical Induction
Certain mathematical theorems and formulas can be proved by a process of

reasoning called mathematical induction.
Axiom
The mathematical induction axiom.
Let A stand for a set of positive integers such that:
1. The integer 1 belongs to A.

2. If k belongs to A, it follows that 𝑘 + 1 belongs to A.
Then the set A consists of all positive integers
This axiom indicates, there are two essential parts in the proof of a theorem by
mathematical induction.
Example:

92
Prove that the sum of the first n positive odd integers is 𝑛2 . That is,
show that
1 + 3 + 5 + … + (2𝑛 − 1) = 𝑛2
Note
(2𝑛 − 1) represents odd number which starts at 1 when 𝑛 = 1. Take note

(2𝑛 + 1) may also represent odd number but at 𝑛 = 1, the number series will
start at 3.
The proof has two separate parts
Part I
For 𝑛 = 1, 1 = 12 or 1=1
For 𝑛 = 2, 1 + 3 = 22 or 4=4
For 𝑛 = 3, 1 + 3 + 5 = 32 or 9=9
The formula is true for 𝑛 = 1, 𝑛 = 2, and 𝑛 = 3. But this does not

prove the formula for other values of n.
Part II
For any values of n, say 𝑛 = 𝑘, then consequently it also holds for 𝑛 =

𝑘 + 1. That is, if
𝑘 2 is the sum of the first k positive odd integers, then it must be shown that
(𝑘 + 1)2 is the sum of the first 𝑘 + 1 positive odd integers.
Substituting k for n
1 + 3 + 5 + … + (2𝑘 − 1) = 𝑘 2
If the sum of the left member of the equation is equal to the value
computed at the right of the equation, then it should follow that adding the
next positive odd integer to both sides of the equation will hold true.
The next positive integer for 2𝑘 − 1 is 2𝑘 which is an even number,

hence the next positive odd integer after 2𝑘 − 1 is 2𝑘 + 1.
Add 2𝑘 + 1 to both sides of the equation
1 + 3 + 5 + … + (2𝑘 − 1) + (2𝑘 + 1) = 𝑘 2 + (2𝑘 + 1)
1 + 3 + 5 + … + (2𝑘 − 1) + (2𝑘 + 1) = 𝑘 2 + 2𝑘 + 1 = (𝑘 + 1)(𝑘 + 1)

93
1 + 3 + 5 + … + (2𝑘 − 1) + (2𝑘 + 1) = (𝑘 + 1)2
Hence the formula is true for 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1, provided it is true for 𝑛 = 𝑘.
It should be noted that both parts of a proof by mathematical induction

are essential. The failure of either part means that the formula holds for no
value of n or, at most, for only some values of n.
Example:
1 + 2 + 3 + … + 𝑛 = 2𝑛 − 1
Part I
For 𝑛 = 1, 1 = 2(1) − 1 or 1=1
For 𝑛 = 2, 1 + 2 = 2(2) − 1 or 3=3
For 𝑛 = 3, 1 + 2 + 3 = 2(3) − 1 or 6 ≠ 5 fails!
It does not hold for other values of n, so Part II could not be established.
Example:
5 + 10 + 15 + … + 5𝑛 = 5⁄2 𝑛(𝑛 + 1) − 1
Assuming doing Part II
5 + 10 + 15 + … + 5𝑘 = 5⁄2 𝑘(𝑘 + 1) − 1
The next positive integer for 5𝑘 is 5𝑘 + 5.
Add 5𝑘 + 5 to both sides of the equation
5 + 10 + 15 + … + 5𝑘 + (5𝑘 + 5) = 5⁄2 𝑘(𝑘 + 1) − 1 + (5𝑘 + 5)
5 + 10 + 15 + … + 5𝑘 + (5𝑘 + 5) = 5⁄2 𝑘(𝑘 + 1) − 1 + 5(𝑘 + 1)
5 + 10 + 15 + … + 5𝑘 + (5𝑘 + 5) = (𝑘 + 1)(5⁄2 𝑘 + 5) − 1
5 + 10 + 15 + … + 5𝑘 + (5𝑘 + 5) = 5⁄2 (𝑘 + 1)(𝑘 + 2) − 1
Note: At 𝑘 + 1; 5⁄2 𝑘(𝑘 + 1) − 1 becomes
5⁄ (𝑘 + 1)[(𝑘 + 1) + 1] − 1 = 5⁄ (𝑘 + 1)(𝑘 + 2) − 1
2 2

94
Thus Part II of the proof is established, but if we try Part 1
Part I
We recall
5 + 10 + 15 + … + 5𝑛 = 5⁄2 𝑛(𝑛 + 1) − 1
For 𝑛 = 1, 5 = 5⁄2 (1)(1 + 1) − 1 or 5 ≠ 4 fails!
The relation as given holds for no value of n.
Example:
Prove by mathematical induction that
12 + 22 + 32 + … + 𝑛2 = 1⁄6 𝑛(𝑛 + 1)(2𝑛 + 1)
Part I
For 𝑛 = 1, 12 = 1⁄6 (1)(1 + 1)[2(1) + 1] or 1 = 1
For 𝑛 = 2, 12 + 22 = 1⁄6 (2)(2 + 1)[2(2) + 1] or 5 = 5
For 𝑛 = 3, 12 + 22 + 32 = 1⁄6 (3)(3 + 1)[2(3) + 1] or 14 = 14
The formula is true for 𝑛 = 1, 𝑛 = 2, and 𝑛 = 3. But this does not

prove the formula for other values of n.
Part II
12 + 22 + 32 + … + 𝑘 2 = 1⁄6 𝑘(𝑘 + 1)(2𝑘 + 1)
The next positive integer for 𝑘 2 is (𝑘 + 1)2 .
Add (𝑘 + 1)2 to both sides of the equation
12 + 22 + 32 + … + 𝑘 2 + (𝑘 + 1)2 = 1⁄6 𝑘(𝑘 + 1)(2𝑘 + 1) + (𝑘 + 1)2
12 + 22 + 32 + … + 𝑘 2 + (𝑘 + 1)2 = (𝑘 + 1)[1⁄6 𝑘(2𝑘 + 1) + (𝑘 + 1)]
12 + 22 + 32 + … + 𝑘 2 + (𝑘 + 1)2 = 1⁄6 (𝑘 + 1)[𝑘(2𝑘 + 1) + 6(𝑘 + 1)]
12 + 22 + 32 + … + 𝑘 2 + (𝑘 + 1)2 = 1⁄6 (𝑘 + 1)[2𝑘 2 + 𝑘 + 6𝑘 + 6]
12 + 22 + 32 + … + 𝑘 2 + (𝑘 + 1)2 = 1⁄6 (𝑘 + 1)[2𝑘 2 + 7𝑘 + 6]

95
12 + 22 + 32 + … + 𝑘 2 + (𝑘 + 1)2 = 1⁄6 (𝑘 + 1)(𝑘 + 2)(2𝑘 + 3)
Note: At 𝑘 + 1; 1⁄6 𝑘(𝑘 + 1)(2𝑘 + 1) becomes
1⁄ (𝑘 + 1)[(𝑘 + 1) + 1][2(𝑘 + 1) + 1] = 1⁄ (𝑘 + 1)(𝑘 + 2)(2𝑘 + 3)

6 6
Thus Part II of the proof is established. Hence the formula is true for
𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1.
D. Activities/Exercises
Activity 1
Instructions:

1. Combine numbers into a single number (2 points each)

a. + 7 – ( 4)
b. – 9 - (+ 5)
c. – 3 – (+ 5)
d. + 2 – (- 8)
e. + 10/– 5
f. – 9/+ 3
g. – 6/- 2
h. + 12/– 4
2. Remove the symbol of grouping and combine like terms (2 points each)
a. 4x + 2(5y – 3z)
b. 10a – [3a + 2(b – 3c) – 6]
c. 15 – 2[5 – 3(13 – 9) + 11]
d. 7a – [6b – (c – d) + e]

a. 6a + b, a + 7b
b. – 3a + b – c, 6a – 4b – c
c 3x4 + x3 – 7x + 2, 6x3 + 2x2 + x – 5

a. a + 5b, 8a + b
b. – a + b – 3c, 7a – 4b – 4c

96
c. x4 + 5x3 – x + 2, x3 + x2 + 7x – 11
5. Find the product of the following polynomials (2 points each)

a. 3x2 + 6x – 5, x + 7
b. 6x2 – x + 12, 3x – 5
c. x2 + 2, x2 – 2
d. x2 + 9x + 10, x2 + x + 4
6. Find the value of x (2 points each)

a. 4x – 5 = x + 1
b. 5x – 8 = 2x + 7
c. 6x + 13 = 11x - 10
d. 3x + 2 – 4(x – 3) = 2(5x – 4)
7. Find x and y from the given equations (2 point each)

a. 3x + y = 44, and 2x + y = 31
b. 4x – 6y = 35, and 7x + 11y = 29
c. 2x + 8y = 79, and 2x - 2y = - 38
d. 3x + 2y + z = - 4, 5x - 6y + z = 92 and 4x + 7y – z = - 67
8. Factor completely (2 points each)

a. 51x5y2 – 119 x2y5 f. x2 – 4xy – 5y2
b. 27x2 - 12y2 g. 36x2 + 60xy + 25y2
c. (m + n)2 – 25 h. 6x2 – 11x – 10
d. 98a3 – 72a i. x4 – 13x2 + 36
e. x2 – 10x + 24 j. x2 – 5x – 24
Activity 2
Instructions:

1. Combine into a single fraction (2 point each)

7 2
a. -
10x 15x2
5 x−2
b. -
6x 4x2
2b
c. 3a + 5c

97
3 2
e. +
x+y x−y
7x−3 2x−5
f. – 2x+5
x+3
2. Find the product of the following (2 points each)

2x x2
a. ( )( )
3 5
x y2
b. ( )( )
3y 5
x−y x+y
c. ( )( )
y x
3. Find the quotient of the following (2 points each)

x 2x
a. ( )÷ ( )
3y y
5 5
b. (4 - ) ÷ (4 + x )
x
b b
c. (a - ) ÷ (c - a )
c
x2 −10x+24 x2 +4x−32
d. ( ) ÷ ( x2 +4x−12 )
x2 +10x+24
x 1 x 1
e. ( − ) ÷ ( x−1 + )
x2 − 1 x+ 1 x+1
3 5
a. − = 0
x−7 x+7
3x 4
b. − = 3
x−4 x+5
x 2 1
c. + =
3x+4 5x+7 3
2 3 12
d. + =
2x+3 2x−3 9−4x2
5. Solve the inequality (2 points each)

a. 10x – 3 < 3x + 4
b. x2 + 3x – 4 > 0
6−2𝑥
c. –2< < 4
3
𝑥+1
d. 𝑥−5
≤4
6. Solve for x from the given equations (2 points each)

3 5
a. − = 0
x−7 x+7
3x 4
b. − = 3
x−4 x+5
x 2 1
c. + =
3x+4 5x+7 3
2 3 12
d. + =
2x+3 2x−3 9−4x2
7. Simplify, and combine like terms (2 points each)

a. √8 + 3√2

98
b. √27 + √75 − √12

1
c. 3√2 −
√3
4 1
d. − √3 + √27
√3
8. Remove factors from and introducing them into radicals (2 points each)
a. √4𝑥 3
3
b. √27𝑥 6
4
c. √16𝑥 8
d. √− 25𝑥 4
9. Reduce the index of a radicals (2 points each)

3
a. √125𝑥 6
4
b. √64𝑥 8
4
c. √𝑥 6 𝑦 8
8
d. √16𝑥 4
10. Perform the indicated operations and simplify results (2 points each)
a. 2√3 .5√7
3
b. √2x 2 y . √2x 2 y
4 4
c. √8x 2 . √4x 2
3
d. √3 . √2
11. Solve the equation by determinants (2 points each)

a. 5x + 2y = 2
2x – 3y = 16
b. 5x – y + 4z = 5
2x + 3y + 5z = 2
7x – 2y + 6z = 5
a. √x + 1 + 3 = 0
b. √3x + 7 + √x + 1 - 2 = 0
c. 6x2 + 10x + √3x 2 + 5x + 1 = - 1
d. √x 2 + 2x − 2√x 2 − 2x + 10 - x = 0

99
Activity 3
Instructions:

1. Find the sum and product of the following equations (2 points each)
a. x2 + 7x + 12 = 0
b. 7 – 8x – 9x2 = 0
c. 8x2 – x + 22 = 0
d. 32x2 – 5x = 0
2. Obtain the roots of the following (2 points each)

a. x4 – 2x3 + 2x2 – 2x + 1 = 0
b. x3 + 3x2 + 3x + 1 = 0
c. x5 + x4 – 7x3 - 11x2 – 8x - 12 = 0
d. 4x3 – 21x – 10 = 0

a. 3x = 5
b. logx64 = 6
c. x = log381
1
d. Log4 2 = x
e. (3x)(23x – 1) = 62x + 1

a. Manie is 12 years older than Benny. 9 years ago Mannie was twice as old as Benny.
Find their present ages.
b. John can work 5 times faster than Rolly and takes 40 days less than Rolly to complete
the work. In how many days does John and Rolly individually can complete the
work?
c. How many pounds of water must be evaporated from 50 pounds of a 3 % salt solution
so that the remaining solution will be 5 % salt?
d. Flying with the wind, a Philippine Eagle, managed speed of 90 kph. But flying against
the wind of only half the speed, it only made 30 kph. Find the speed of the wind and
eagle’s rate of flying when there is no wind.
e. Mely has 6 more quarters than dimes. The total value of her coins is $6.05. Find how
many of each coin Mely has?
f. Find the smaller angle formed by the clocks hands at 4:44.
g. Divide the number 48 into two parts such that they are in the ratio 3 : 5.
h. Solve the proportion ( x + 1 ) : ( 2x – 1 ) = 2 : 3.

100
i. Find the third proportional to 2 and 4.
E. Evaluation/Post-test
This test will measure your mastery in Lesson 1 covered in this module.
Instructions:


a. 16a + 9b, 5a
b. – 3a – 7b – 31c, 6a – 14b – 44c
c. 3x4 – x3 – 7x + 2, x3 + 2x2 – x – 11

a. ab + bc – cd, ac + bc – bd
b. 3a2b + 3ab2, 5a2b – 18 ab2 – a3b2
c. x3 + x2 + 7x + 2, 5x3 – 2x3 – 10x + 8
3. Find the quotient of the following polynomials (2 points each)

a. (x3 – 7x2 + 2x + 4) ÷ (x – 5)
b. (a3 – b3) ÷ (a – b)
c. (a3 + b3) ÷ (a + b)
d. (6x3 + 5x2 – 2x – 8) ÷ (2x + 3)
4. Remove factors from and introducing them into radicals (2 points each)
a. √16x 3
b. √75a2 b 3
3
c. √54x 4 y 5 z 6
3
d. √− 250x10
e. √2a2 + 4ab + 2b 2
5. Reduce the index of radicals (2 points each)

6
a. √27x 27
5
b. √729a3
12
c. √a8 b 3 c 9
6 125x3
d. √343y9

101

1 1
a. + x−2 = 0
x+2
4x 4
b. − = 3
x−4 x+1
a. √x − 5 + 3 = 0
b. √5x + 7 + √x − 1 - 4 = 0
7. Find x and y from the given equations (2 points each)

a. x2 + y2 = 13,
2x + y = 8
b. 3x2 - 8y2 = 80,
5x2 + 6y2 = 56
c. 7x2 + 8y2 = 17,
8x2 + 9y2 = 20
d. x2 + 2xy = 16,
xy = 6
e. x2 + xy = - 2,
2xy + y2 = 3
8. Solve the equation by determinants (2 points each)

a. 2x + 8y = 79
2x – 5y = - 38
b. 4x – y + 4z = 2
2x + 3y + 5z = 2
7x – 2y + 6z = 5
9. Obtain the roots of the following (2 points each)

a. 9x2 + 42x + 49 = 0
b. 4x3 - 21x - 10 = 0
c. x4 - x3 - 3x2 + x + 2 = 0
d. x5 + x 4 – 6x3 = 0

a. John is 12, Peter is 3. How many years will it take for John to be 3 times as old as
Peter?
b. Kim is three times as old as Sally. Two years from now, the sum of their ages will be
22. Find how old are Kim and Sally today.
c. When Danny and Janice work together, they finished a job in 10 days. But when she
joined only after he had worked for 7 days, they finished the same job in 5 more
days. In how many days can each of them finish the job alone?
d. Two pipes are used to fill a water tank. The first pipe can fill the tank in 4 hours
alone. The two pipes can fill the tank in two hours less time than the second pipe

102
alone. How long will it take the second pipe to fill the tank alone?
e. Aling Merly who owns a coffee store in Puerto Princesa Market wishes to mix first-
class Batangas coffee that sells at $4.0 per kilogram with 25 kilograms of imported
coffee from Singapore that sells at $3.0 per kilogram. How many kilograms of
Batangas coffee must be mixed with the Singapore coffee to obtain a mixture worth of
$3.50 per kilogram? How much of the mixture will be produced?
f. A 20% of HCL solution and a 70% HCL solution are to be mixed to obtain 900 ml of
a 30% HCL solution. How many milliliters of each solution must be mixed?
g. A Jeepney leaves Dan’s house at 60 kph. Two hours later, a Taxi leaves the same
place at 80 kph. How long will it take Taxi to overtake the Jeepney?
h. Two airplanes left airports which are 60 miles apart and flew toward each other. One
plane flew 20 miles per hour faster than the other. If they passed each other at the end
of an hour and 12 minutes, what were their rates?
i. Jerry has $1.15 in his wallet, which contains 18 coins in nickels and dimes. Find how
many of each kind of coin he has in his wallet?
j. The quarters, nickels and dimes totaled 20 and their value was $1.90. How many of
each kind were there if there were 4 times as many nickels as quarters?
k. What is the measure of the smaller angle between the hands of an analog clock at
5:23. l. Find the angle between hour minute hand of a clock at (a) 5:15 pm, (b) 3:40,
and (c) 8:30.

103
References
Rainville, E., Love, C., (1981). Differential and Integral Calculus. Macmillan Publishing
Co., Inc.
Quirino D., Mijares, J., (1993). Analytic Geometry. Royal Publishing House, Inc.
Kern W., Bland, J., (1967). Solid Mensuration. John Willy & Sons, Inc.
Rider P., (1971). Plane and Spherical Trigonometry. Macmillan Publishing Co., Inc.
Fuller, G., (1982). College Algebra. Brooks/Cole Publishing Company.

104
Congratulations for completing this module!
Student’s Information
Name:
Program:
Year and Section:
Contact No.:
E-mail address:
Facebook Account:
Messenger Account:

105
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A Strong Partner for Sustainable Development

College of Engineering and Technology

1st Semester 2021-2022

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

INSTRUCTION TO THE USER

Reminders in using this module:

1. Keep this material neat and intact.

Hi! I’m Blue Bee, your WPU Mascot.

Welcome to Western Philippines University!

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

This module focuses on the study of plane and spherical trigonometry,

At the end of the module, you can

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

25. solve word problems related to frustum,

1. Find the LCM or LCD of the following (2 points each)

2. Combine numbers into a single number (2 points each)

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

5. Add the following polynomials (2 points each)

6. Subtract the following polynomials (2 points each)

7. Determine the domain of the following (2 points each)

8. Solve the equations by determinants (2 points each)

9. Factor completely the following polynomials (2 points each )

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

10. Combine into a single fraction (2 points each)

13. Solve for x in the following equations (2 points each)

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

14. Solve for x and y in the following equations (2 points each)

15. Obtain the roots of the following equations (2 points each)

16. Solve for x (2 points each)

17. Solve the following word problems (2 points each)

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

A. Specific Learning Outcomes:

At the end of the lesson, you can

B. Time Allotment: 4 weeks (September 15 to October 15)

Algebra, like geometry and many other areas of mathematics which

Any quantity maybe replaced by an equal quantity.

Axiom E-3. If 𝑎 = 𝑏, and 𝑏 = 𝑐 then 𝑎 = 𝑐 (transitive property)

Quantities equal to the same quantity are equal to each other.

Axiom E-4. If 𝑎 = 𝑏, and 𝑐 = 𝑑 then 𝑎 + 𝑐 = 𝑏 + 𝑑

And, since 𝑑 = 𝑐, 𝑎 + 𝑐 = 𝑏 + 𝑐 (addition property)

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

If equals are added to equals, the sum are equal.

Axiom E-5. If 𝑎 = 𝑏, and 𝑐 = 𝑑 then 𝑎𝑐 = 𝑏𝑑

And, since 𝑑 = 𝑐, 𝑎𝑐 = 𝑏𝑐 (addition property)

If equals are multiplied by equals, the products are equal.

Field Axioms of Real Numbers

Axiom 1. The closure laws. For any a, b ∈ R

The operation of addition and multiplication on two numbers which

The sum 𝑎 + 𝑏 and the product 𝑎𝑏 are real numbers.

Axiom 2. The commutative laws. For any a, b ∈ R

Axiom 3. The associative laws. For any a, b, c ∈ R

(𝑎 + 𝑏) + 𝑐 = 𝑎 + (𝑏 + 𝑐) and (𝑎𝑏)𝑐 = 𝑎(𝑏𝑐)

Axiom 4. The distributive laws. For any a, b, c ∈ R

𝑎(𝑏 + 𝑐) = 𝑎𝑐 + 𝑏𝑐 and (𝑏 + 𝑐)𝑎 = 𝑏𝑎 + 𝑐𝑎

A particular product is equal to a sum and, conversely, the sum is equal to a

For any a ∈ R there exist a real number called “one,” denoted by 1,

𝑎 ∗ 1 = 𝑎 and 1 ∗ 𝑎 = 𝑎 ( Note: symbol * is used here for

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

The number 0 is called the identity element for addition.

The number 1 is called the identity element for multiplication.

𝑎 + (−𝑎) = 0 and (−𝑎) + 𝑎 = 0

𝑎 ∗ 1⁄𝑎 = 1 and 1⁄𝑎 ∗ 𝑎 = 1 ( Note: symbol * is used here for