FACULTY OF GEOSCIENCES AND ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

ENVIRONMENTAL & SAFETY ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

Lecture Notes On
Basic First Aid at Work
(ES 130)

Compiled by:
Vivian Isabella Seshie (MSc)

July, 2023

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 COURSE AIMS & OBJECTIVES

Course Aims
This course provides students with the required Basic First Aid at Work knowledge. The course,
therefore, aims to provide students with the fundamental knowledge of the basic requirement of
giving first aid at the workplace. The objectives of the course are:

✓ To understand the basic definition of first aid.

✓ To determine and know the content of a first aid box.
✓ To understand the competency of a first aid provider in dealing with injuries and
conditions.
✓ To equip students on how to respond to life-threatening emergencies and confidence to
provide care when emergencies arise.

COURSE ASSESSMENT

Assessment of Student
The student's Assessment will be in two forms:

Continuous Assessment [40%] (Quizzes, Class Attendance, Assignments and Group Project)

End of Semester Examination [60%].

The results of the Continuous Assessment shall be made known to students before the End of
Semester Examinations start.

Assessment of Lecturer
At the end of the course, each student will be required to evaluate the course and the lecturer's
performance by answering a questionnaire specifically prepared to obtain the views and opinions
of the student about the course and lecturer.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Contents

1.2 Basic Terminologies .............................................................................................................. 8

1.3 Legal Aspects of Providing First Aid .................................................................................. 12

1.4 Emotional Aspects of Providing First Aid .......................................................................... 13

1.5 Infectious Diseases .............................................................................................................. 14

1.6 First Aid Box ....................................................................................................................... 14

1.6.1 What Are the Types of First Aid Kits? .............................................................................. 15

CHAPTER 2.................................................................................................................................. 16

RESPONDING TO EMERGENCIES .......................................................................................... 16

2.1 Roles and Responsibilities and Duties of a First Aid Provider ........................................... 16

2.1.1 Duties of a First Aider........................................................................................................ 16

2.2 Emergency Action Steps ..................................................................................................... 16

check for normal breathing; ............................................................................................... 17

take appropriate action. ...................................................................................................... 17

A Airway ................................................................................................................................ 18

To open the airway: ................................................................................................................... 18

place your hand on the casualty’s forehead and gently tilt the head back; ........................ 18

lift the chin with two fingertips. ......................................................................................... 18

B Breathing ............................................................................................................................ 18

Look, listen and feel for normal breathing for no more than 10 seconds: ................................. 18

look for chest movement; ................................................................................................... 18

listen at the casualty’s mouth for breath sounds; ............................................................... 18

feel for air on your cheek. .................................................................................................. 18

If the casualty is breathing normally: ........................................................................................ 18

place in the recovery position; ........................................................................................... 18

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 get help; .............................................................................................................................. 18

check for continued breathing. ........................................................................................... 18

If the casualty is not breathing normally: .................................................................................. 18

get help; .............................................................................................................................. 18

start chest compressions (see CPR) .................................................................................... 18

C CPR .................................................................................................................................... 18

To start chest compressions: ...................................................................................................... 18

lean over the casualty and with your arms straight, press down on the centre of the
breastbone 5–6 cm, then release the pressure; ........................................................................... 18

repeat at a rate of about 100 –120 times a minute;............................................................. 18

after 30 compressions open the airway again; ................................................................... 18

pinch the casualty’s nose closed and allow the mouth to open; ......................................... 18

take a normal breath and place your mouth around the casualty’s mouth, making a good
seal;19

blow steadily into the mouth while watching for the chest rising; ..................................... 19

remove your mouth from the casualty and watch for the chest falling; ............................. 19

give a second breath and then start 30 compressions again without delay; ....................... 19

continue with chest compressions and rescue breaths in a ratio of 30:2 until qualified help
takes over or the casualty starts breathing normally.................................................................. 19

2.3 Unresponsive and Responsive Victim ................................................................................. 19

Perform these steps quickly – in a minute or less...................................................................... 19

Emergency Action steps ............................................................................................................ 19

Assess Scene: If the scene is not safe or at any time become unsafe, GET OUT! ............ 19

Assess Victim: Victim is responsive? Identify yourself; ask if it is okay to help. If the
victim appears weak, seriously ill, injured or unresponsive………. ......................................... 19

Alert EMS, call 192, activate Emergency Action Plan. ..................................................... 19

Attend to ABCs. Ensure an open airway, normal breathing and control bleeding or
circulation. ................................................................................................................................. 19

2.4 Physical Assessment ............................................................................................................ 19

2.4.1 Conducting a Primary First Aid Survey............................................................................. 19

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 2.4.2 Questioning the Victim about the Incident ........................................................................ 21

2.4.3 Conducting a Secondary First Aid Survey......................................................................... 22

2.5 Recovery Position ................................................................................................................ 24

CHAPTER 3.................................................................................................................................. 25

BLEEDING, SHOCK AND SOFT TISSUE INJURIES .............................................................. 25

3.1 Severe Bleeding and Shock ................................................................................................. 25

3.1.1 Severe External Bleeding ................................................................................................... 26

3.1.2 Internal Bleeding ................................................................................................................ 27

3.1.3 Shock.................................................................................................................................. 29

3.2 Major Wounds ..................................................................................................................... 32

3.2.1 Amputation or Avulsion .................................................................................................... 32

3.2.2 Impaled Object ................................................................................................................... 32

3.2.3 Open Chest Wound ............................................................................................................ 32

3.2.4 Open Abdominal Wound ................................................................................................... 32

3.3 Minor Wounds ..................................................................................................................... 32

3.3.1 Splinter and Bruise ............................................................................................................. 32

3.4 Burns.................................................................................................................................... 32

3.4.1 Major Burns and Minor Burns ........................................................................................... 32

3.5 Eye and Nose Injuries .......................................................................................................... 32

3.5.1 Minor Irritated Eyes ........................................................................................................... 32

3.5.2 Object stuck in Eye ............................................................................................................ 32

3.5.3 Chemical Burn ................................................................................................................... 32

CHAPTER 4.................................................................................................................................. 33

BONE, JOINT AND MUSCLE INJURIE .................................................................................... 33

4.1 Fracture, Strains, Sprains, Dislocation ................................................................................ 33

4.1.1 Sprains and strains ............................................................................................................. 33

4.1.2 Fractures and dislocations .................................................................................................. 33

4.2 Suspected Spinal Injury ....................................................................................................... 35

4.3 Head Injury .......................................................................................................................... 35

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CHAPTER 5.................................................................................................................................. 38

SUDDEN ILLNESS OR SPECIFIC CONDITION ...................................................................... 38

5.1 Acute Coronary Syndrome (Heart Attack) .......................................................................... 38

5.2 Asthma/Reactive Airway Disease ....................................................................................... 38

5.3 Severe Allergic reaction ...................................................................................................... 38

5.4 Seizures ................................................................................................................................ 39

5.5 Poisoning ............................................................................................................................. 40

CHAPTER 6.................................................................................................................................. 41

HEAT-RELATED ILLNESS AND INJURIES............................................................................ 41

6.1 Heat Exhaustion and Heat Stroke ........................................................................................ 41

6.2 Frostbite and Hypothermia .................................................................................................. 42

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 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION TO FIRST AID

1.1 Background and Importance of First Aid

What Are the Types of First Aid?

The two types of workplace first aid are:

• Basic first aid

• Workplace-specific first aid

Basic first aid contains all the assistance you would expect from a first aider to know about.
These include:

• Dealing with cuts, scrapes, grazes, burns and other minor injuries

• Managing eye injuries of different kinds

• Immobilising fractures, sprains and strains of joints

• Preventing choking

• Stopping the excessive bleeding

• Helping unconscious patients

Unpleasant though it may be, the fact remains that accidents happen. Even experiencing it
as a bystander, an accident is not a pleasant scene. It is impossible to predict when an
accident will happen in the workplace. However, the employer must do everything in their
power to prevent accidents and provide access to first aid to their employees and everybody
who frequents their workplace. If an accident happens in the workplace, you cannot be a
helpless witness since simply standing by can potentially worsen the situation. This is why
it is important to have at least a basic knowledge of first aid. At its most basic, first aid is
the initial assistance given to a victim of injury or illness. Comprised of relatively simple
techniques that can be performed with rudimentary equipment, a layperson usually carries
out first aid until professional medical assistance arrives.

They provide quick medical treatment until professional assistance arrives.

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 The five (5) main aims of first aid are:

1. preserve life
2. prevent the escalation of the illness or injury
3. promote recovery
4. pain relief
5. protect the unconscious.

Preserve life – while the first aider is the person who has the certificate for first aid, they are
not medical professionals. They can do their best to ensure the patient is given the basic care
and help treat minor injuries like cuts and scrapes that don't need routine or emergency
attention. However, in case of severe situations that are a threat to the patient's life, they do not
focus on providing care but on preserving life long enough until the ambulance arrives

Prevent the escalation – again, the efforts of the first aiders are directed toward prolonging the
time the patient has until the ambulance arrives. For example, if the patient is bleeding
profusely, the first aider will not stitch the wound, but they will do their best to stop the bleeding
until the ambulance arrives. In that way, they will prevent further complications and health
deterioration.

Pain relief – this is done only if it is in any way possible and does not present a risk to the
patient. For example, some pain relief medications can be dangerous if a person is bleeding.
Therefore, if you are unsure if the pain medication is appropriate, it is better to ask the medical
experts first.

Protect the unconscious – one of the important factors in administering first aid is protection
and safety for both the patient and the first aider. Moreover, this extends to the people who are
nearby, as well. Protecting the unconscious can mean removing them from a dangerous
situation, like fire, flooded space or road with traffic.

Promote recovery – every action that a first aider takes should be in the direction of helping
the person who has suffered an injury or sudden illness gets better.

Promoting recovery usually means using the first aid kit. It is packed with supplies that are
necessary for the first aider to be able to help the person in need. You can understand that the
time of providing first aid is crucial. If your first aid is not well-stocked or it is not there at all
– that is a big problem.

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Various businesses require their employees to be trained in first aid. The type and extent of the
training depending on the job specifics. However, anyone who works in high-risk environments
should have basic first aid knowledge. As such, many employees in factories, machine shops
and industrial plants are provided with lessons in first aid procedures.

Accidents will always happen. Because of this, properly-trained individuals and the right
first aid equipment help ensure better safety for everyone. A simple injury could become
much more severe without proper first aid. Many fatalities resulting from accidents and
emergency situations result from a lack of immediate medical treatment. First aid doesn't
just facilitate recovery. It helps save lives.

1.2 Basic Terminologies

Abrasion:

A medical term refers to the damage to the skin through scraping or wearing away.

Acetaminophen:

An analgesic pain reliever is used to reduce fever and treat arthritis, headaches and
minor pain.

Adrenaline:

A hormone that increases the heart rate, pulse rate, and blood pressure cause blood
vessels to constrict and strengthen in response to stress. A surge of strength and energy
from a stressful event or dangerous situation is referred to as an adrenaline rush.

Airbag:

A safety device in a vehicle that inflates rapidly when there's an automobile collision
to protect the occupant from striking objects that may cause injuries.

Anaphylaxis:

An acute or severe allergic reaction to a chemical or an allergen is potentially life-

threatening. For possible severe allergic reaction/anaphylaxis cases, make
sure Anaphylaxis First Aid is administered.

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Anaesthetic:

A substance that causes a person to be insensitive to pain or lack of feeling/awareness,

especially during surgery and other painful procedures.–.

Asthma:

A lung condition that causes difficulty in breathing due to constrictions of the small air
tubes in the lungs. An allergic reaction or other hypersensitivities usually triggers it.
There is First Aid for Asthma Attacks that can be practised to provide immediate care.

Automated External Defibrillator:

A device that restores the heart's normal rhythm by delivering a controlled electrical
shock. A sudden cardiac arrest can happen anytime so AEDs installed in
workplaces are necessary as it is an opportunity for life-saving defibrillation.

Avulsion:

Soft tissue injury; is a tearing away of a section of the skin or other soft tissue from the
deeper layers causing severe bleeding.

Basic Life Support (BLS):

This is a level of medical care for victims of life-threatening injuries until full medical
care is given to them at the hospital. It can be provided by a BLS-trained person, a
paramedic or an emergency medical technician.

Blood pressure:

The pressure of the blood within the arteries. This is one of the vital signs being
monitored to indicate the body's wellness. It varies depending on activities, situations
and stress. Too low or too high blood pressure levels is not a good sign and will require
further medical care. Normal blood pressure in an adult is approximately 120/80 mm
Hg.

Bruise:

An injury caused by an impact damages soft tissues and underlying blood vessels.
Discolouration appears on the affected body area; another term for a contusion. When
you get bruises, check First Aid for Bruises to help you take care and patch them up.

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Burn:

An injury that gives a feeling of discomfort caused by exposure to heat, flame, chemical
agents, radiation, or electricity. In case you get caught or find the need to help another
person who had burns, check First Aid for Burns.

Cardiac:

Cardiac is the medical term which means relating to the heart. A sudden stop in effective
blood circulation due to the failure of the heart to contract is called cardiac arrest.
Immediate CPR and an AED can help restore the functioning of the heart.

Cardiopulmonary:

A medical term refers to or relates to the heart and the lungs.

Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation (CPR):

(AKA: Chest Compressions)/Rescue Breathing (AKA: Artificial Respiration) is Also

abbreviated as CPR. A life-saving first aid procedure of chest compressions is given to
patients in cardiac arrest. This medical process helps the patient's body pump blood
when the heart fails. To carry out this procedure, a trained person manually presses up
and down the casualty's chest (chest compressions) and performs a series of rescue
breaths using mouth-to-mouth resuscitation, which helps restore breathing and
circulation.

Chest Pain:

A feeling of tightness, heavy pressure, or crushing pain around the chest area – between
the neck and upper abdomen. It can result from angina, heart attack, and other important
diseases. Chest pain is a warning to seek medical attention.

Choking:

It is the inability to breathe because the trachea is blocked, constricted, or obstructed.

A lack of air also causes this. It is a common cause of an accident in young children
that may lead to death.

Compression:

Also known as cerebral compression, which is usually caused by a head injury. It occurs
when there is a build-up of pressure on the brain. Head injuries may lead to permanent
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 mental impairment, disability or even death. Head injury cases require immediate
medical attention. First aid for head injury should be administered to prevent further
damage to the brain.

Cuts:

Cuts or lacerations are wounds caused by a tear or a deep cut in the flesh or skin. It can
be minor or major, depending on the different types of cuts and its severity.

Defibrillator:

A device that uses electrical shocks to restore normal heartbeat and correct abnormal
heart rhythm.

Emergency Department:

Also known as ED or ER (emergency room). It is a medical treatment facility that

accommodates emergency cases and provides medical care to patients without prior
appointments.

Dislocation:

Also known as luxation. This happens when there's an undesirable separation in the
joint at the end of the bone; usually moved out of its normal connection with another
bone. Dislocation is usually caused by a sudden impact or fall.

Emergency:

A serious or dangerous situation requires immediate or urgent action to avoid

worsening the scenario. A situation is considered an emergency if it poses an immediate
threat to life, property, health or the environment.

Emergency Code:

Codes used by hospitals to quickly alert staff to different emergencies and relay
essential information without causing stress and panic among visitors and patients in
the hospital.

Fracture:

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 A medical term for a broken bone. Bone fractures usually require immediate hospital
care. Extra care is needed, do first aid for fractures while you wait for help (ambulance)
to arrive.

Laceration:

A medical term for deep cut or tears in the flesh or skin.

Seizure:

A seizure occurs when there is an abnormal or uncontrolled electrical activity in the

brain. It is used interchangeably with 'convulsion'. Seizures usually happens to people
with epileptic conditions.

Shock:

A condition where in the body is not getting enough blood flow which can be life-
threatening as the body will not be able to function properly due to lack of oxygen and
nutrients supplied to the body First aid for shock.

Unconscious:

The part of the mind that is not aware of the surroundings and oneself. This is due to
lack of oxygen, shock, or injury.

Wound:

An injury to living tissues usually characterised as skin cut or broken, typically open or
closed.

1.3 Legal Aspects of Providing First Aid

Legal Issues in First Aid: The Law Is (Mostly) On Your Side

It's a valid concern to ask what you might be legally liable for if you give first aid. Generally,
as long as you act reasonably and prudently when you give first aid, you don't need to worry
about being sued. In fact, most regions explicitly encourage bystanders to give first with called
Good Samaritan laws.

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The law protects citizens and medical professionals who act in good faith to give emergency
assistance to ill or injured persons at the scene of an emergency. According to experts in the
field of first aid, the following are reasonable actions:

• If the person is conscious, you must always get permission before helping.

• Move the person only if the person's life is endangered.

• Call EMS for professional help.

• Only do what you have been trained to do in a real first aid course offered by an
authorised agency.

• Check the person's airway, breathing, and circulation before providing further care.

• Continue to care for any life-threatening conditions until EMS personnel arrive.

• If the person requiring first aid is a child, seek permission from a parent if they are in
the immediate area. If the parent is not available, you do not need the child's permission
to help.

If there is ever a concern the courts will examine whether you did the best you could under the
circumstances. Proving negligence will require the plaintiff to prove that you did something
grossly wrong, which is hard to do. However, if you start administering first aid, you must
continue until EMS arrives. Stopping first aid once you've started can get you in trouble.

1.4 Emotional Aspects of Providing First Aid

Both the first aid provider and the victim may suffer emotional distress during and /or following
a traumatic incident. The seriousness or horror of the incident will be a factor in determining
the amount of emotional distress. It may be worse in human-made events; for example, terrorist
attack or mass shooting. Providing first aid care for a seriously injured or ill child is generally
more emotionally difficult than caring for an adult.
Symptoms of a traumatic stress reaction include a pounding heartbeat and fast breathing which
may begin during or within minutes of the traumatic event. Feelings of guilt for not having
done more, worrying about the safety of loved ones, nightmares and thinking about the event
repeatedly may follow the incident.
Stress reactions are a normal, human response to a traumatic event and are usually temporary.
With the help of family and friends, most people gradually feel better as times goes by. If you
feel you need extra help coping after a traumatic event, call your doctor or ask friends if they

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can recommend a mental-health professional. The organisation you work for may have an
Employee Assistant Program available to assist you.

1.5 Infectious Diseases

The risk of getting exposed to a disease while giving first aid is extremely low. Even so, it is
prudent to protect yourself from exposure.

Bloodborne pathogens are viruses or bacteria that are carried in blood and can cause diseases
in people. There are many different bloodborne pathogens but Hepatitis B (HBV) and the
Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) are the two diseases commonly addressed by health
and safety standards. "Universal Precautions" is a way to limit the spread of disease by
preventing contact with blood and certain body fluids. To "observe Universal Precaution"
means that whether or not you think the victim's blood or body fluid is infected, you act as if it
is.

1.6 First Aid Box

What Are The 10 Items in A First Aid Kit?

There is no legal requirement about what you need to put in a first aid kit. However, you can
expect to find the following 10 items in almost any workplace kit.

1. Bandages of different kinds

2. Adhesive tape and bandages

3. Sterile gauzes and eye pads

4. Wet wipes

5. Antibiotic ointment

6. Saline solution

7. Clasps and safety pins

8. Scissors and tweezers

9. CPR mask

10. First Aid Guide that includes first aider phone number

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However, the nature of your workplace will determine the contents of your first aid kits. For
example, workplaces with ovens, open fires and similar hazards will need more antibiotic
ointments and gauzes than anything else. Keep that in mind when choosing first aid
supplies.
1.6.1 What Are the Types of First Aid Kits?

Not all first aid supplies are the same. These, again, should be positioned and packed in a way
that ensures the most convenient use. Mostly, all the first aid kits are:

1. First aid cabinets – This type of first aid supply is not entirely movable. You can open
the cabinet and take the supplies you need from it, but you cannot carry them all at
once. The good side of this type of first aid kit is that you always know where it is. The
bad side is the impossibility of moving it.

2. First aid kits are usually the most common way to pack supplies. You can grab the
entire kit and take it with you directly to the place of the accident. That saves time and
prevents making several trips for this item or during treatment. On the other hand, there
is a possibility that this first aid kit to be misplaced.

3. Vehicle first aid kits – These kits are specially designed to be placed inside the vehicles
at all times. New Zealand companies that have vehicles must have a first aid kit in each
vehicle.

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 CHAPTER 2

RESPONDING TO EMERGENCIES

2.1 Roles and Responsibilities and Duties of a First Aid Provider

Responsibilities of a 'workplace' first aider

The Health and Safety (First Aid) Regulations 1981 require employers to provide adequate and
appropriate first aid equipment, facilities and people. To enable your employees to be given
immediate help if they are injured or taken ill at work.

What is 'adequate and appropriate' will depend on the circumstances in your workplace. The
minimum first aid provision on any work site is a suitably stocked first aid kit and an 'appointed
person' to take charge of first aid arrangements. Being an 'appointed person' for first aid is a
responsibility not to be undertaken lightly. First Aid Training Co-operative would recommend
that an 'Appointed Person" has a minimal level of first aid training, such as an Emergency First
Aid qualification.

The Health and Safety Executive (HSE) states that it is up to the employer to carry out a First
Aid Hazard Assessment to identify the requirements for their specific situation.

It is important to remember that accidents and illnesses can happen at any time. Therefore, first
aid provision must be available at all times when people are at work. These include when
driving or working away from the site. Therefore, the HSE expects every vehicle, company or
personal, used by someone at work or for the job to contain a first aid kit.

2.1.1 Duties of a First Aider

You should look after your psychological health and stress management. As a First Aider, your duties
include:
· Ensure first aid kits are provisioned
· Ensure first aid kit availability is adequate
· Record keeping and reporting
· Clearing up, communicating with EMS, reassuring bystanders, replenishing first aid kit and
talking things through with friends and colleagues.
2.2 Emergency Action Steps

What to do in an emergency

Priorities

Your priorities are to:

• assess the situation – do not put yourself in danger;

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 • make the area safe;
• assess all casualties and attend first to any unconscious casualties;
• send for help – do not delay.

Check for a response

Gently shake the casualty's shoulders and ask, 'Are you all right?' If there is no response, your
priorities are to:

• shout for help;

• open the airway;
• check for normal breathing;
• take appropriate action.

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A Airway

To open the airway:

• place your hand on the casualty's forehead and gently tilt the head back;

• lift the chin with two fingertips.

B Breathing

Look, listen and feel for normal breathing for no more than 10 seconds:

• look for chest movement;

• listen to the casualty's mouth for breath sounds;

• feel for air on your cheek.

If the casualty is breathing normally:

• place in the recovery position;

• get help;

• check for continued breathing.

If the casualty is not breathing normally:

• get help;

• start chest compressions (see CPR)

C CPR

To start chest compressions:

• lean over the casualty, and with your arms straight, press down on the centre of the
breastbone 5–6 cm, then release the pressure;

• repeat at a rate of about 100 –120 times a minute;

• after 30 compressions, open the airway again;

• pinch the casualty's nose closed and allow the mouth to open;

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 • take a normal breath and place your mouth around the casualty's mouth, making a good
seal;

• blow steadily into the mouth while watching for the chest rising;

• remove your mouth from the casualty and watch for the chest falling;

• give a second breath and then start 30 compressions again without delay;

• Continue with chest compressions and rescue breaths in a ratio of 30:2 until qualified
help takes over or the casualty starts breathing normally.

2.3 Unresponsive and Responsive Victim

Perform these steps quickly – in a minute or less

Emergency Action steps

• Assess Scene: If the scene is not safe or at any time becomes unsafe, GET OUT!

• Assess Victim: Victim is responsive? Identify yourself; ask if it is okay to help.

Suppose the victim appears weak, seriously ill, injured or unresponsive.

• Alert EMS, call 192 and activate Emergency Action Plan.

• Attend ABCs. Ensure an open airway, normal breathing and control bleeding or
circulation.

2.4 Physical Assessment

How to Conduct a Head‐to‐Toe Exam During First Aid

2.4.1 Conducting a Primary First Aid Survey

1. Write down the acronym "DR ABC". This is useful to remember the five steps for a
primary first-aid survey. A primary survey should be performed as soon as you
encounter an injured person to determine if they are suffering from any life-threatening
conditions. The five letters stand for:

• Danger

• Response

• Airway

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 • Breathing

• Circulation

2. Evaluate the situation to see if you put yourself in immediate physical danger by
assisting the victim. If so, either make the situation safe or do not help them.

This guidance may seem cold-hearted. However, the reality is that it is useless to attempt to
help an injured person if you are only going to injure yourself in the process.

For example, if the victim is in a precarious place or a situation with a dangerous animal, you
should first take steps to make the situation safer before you conduct a head-to-toe exam.

3. Check the victim's response to see if the victim is conscious. Next, verify the injured
person's level of consciousness and orientation. First, note if he is awake and alert by
verifying his eyes are open and focused.

• Ask the individual to tell you his name, where he is, the date, and what he was doing
before he was injured.

• If he can answer you correctly, he is conscious. If not, there is a possibility he has

suffered some cognitive damage.

4. Examine the victim's airway to determine if he is breathing normally. If the victim

is conscious and indicating that they are choking (hands around the neck, gasping for
breath, etc.), their airway is probably obstructed. Clear the airway by inserting your
pointer and middle finger into the victim's mouth, and use a "sweeping" motion to clear
the back of their throat. Common signs of choking in a victim are:
• Clasping hands around his neck.
• Struggling to breathe.
• It is useless—and potentially harmful—to administer mouth-to-mouth breathing (also
known as "rescue breathing") if the victim's airway is blocked.
5. Analyse the victim's breathing. Put your hand or cheek next to their mouth and nose
to feel their breath; you should watch the rise and fall of their chest. You may need to
put a hand on their upper chest to feel their breathing if their breaths are shallow.
• If the victim struggles to breathe, but their airway is not obstructed, tilt their head
back and lift their chin. This will open the airway as much as possible.

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 • If the victim is not breathing at all, begin giving him cardiopulmonary resuscitation
(CPR).
6. Check the victim's pulse (circulation) and examine their body for signs of bleeding.
If the victim is visibly bleeding, try to stop blood flow by applying firm pressure with
a piece of cloth (a sleeve torn off of your shirt, for example).
• Once you have stopped blood flow, you should treat the victim for shock. Have them
lie down in a safe place, then cover them with a blanket (or jacket) and elevate their
feet about 4 inches.
• This will cause blood to flow to their head and reduce the symptoms of shock.

2.4.2 Questioning the Victim about the Incident

1. Ask the victim about the history of the incident. Find out, in their words, what happened
that caused the individual to be hurt or to feel unwell.

• If the victim was hurt within the view of others, ask witnesses to describe what
happened.

• Use context clues to determine what injuries the victim could have sustained. For
example, fractured bones are likely if the victim fell while rock climbing.

2. Ask the victim to tell you their personal medical history. This should include events
that have before this particular incident. Once emergency responders (usually EMTs or
ambulance crews) arrive on the scene, be prepared to hand over your notes to them or
to verbally describe the victim's medical history. Ask specific questions; try asking:
• "Do you have any relevant allergies?"
• "Do you take any prescribed medications?"
• "Do you have any existing medical conditions affecting this incident?"
• "When was the last time that you ate a meal? What did you eat?"
3. Have the individual describe their symptoms to you. Often injured victims will have
symptoms not found by a simple first-aid exam. Consequently, it is valuable to hear
from the victim himself what hurts or has been injured.
• Ask specific questions: where does the victim feel pain? At what point did the pain
start?

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2.4.3 Conducting a Secondary First Aid Survey

1. Examine the victim's body. Once you have determined that the hurt individual is not in
immediate danger, can breathe, and has circulation, you can proceed with a more
nuanced secondary survey: a detailed head-to-toe examination. This will help you
confirm that there are no smaller, lingering injuries or problems.
• Unless you have medical qualifications, you should note and record this information to
pass it on to medical personnel when they arrive.
• The information you track in a Secondary survey will probably not reveal any
immediately life-threatening problems. However, your observations could still provide
emergency personnel with valuable information that will aid the victim's recovery.
2. Put on a pair of gloves before performing your head-to-toe Assessment. This will
prevent the spread of disease through contact with body fluids such as blood, urine, or
vomit.
• If the body fluids of an infected individual enter through a break in your skin, there is
a possibility of contracting a disease, so barrier protection is critical.
• You should use nitrile or latex gloves to protect your hands from touching blood and
faeces. However, opt for nitrile if you or the victim have a latex allergy.
• There are also vinyl gloves, which can be included in first aid kits and protect you from
blood and faeces. They are not as robust as the other types of gloves and tear more
easily, but feel free to use them, especially if your victim has no open wounds or
exposed body fluids.
• You can also improvise gloves with plastic bags, dish gloves, or leather work gloves.
3. Observe the injured person's head for proper shape and symmetry. Abnormalities in this
region can be a sign of damage to the skull or swelling in the brain. If you notice active
bleeding in any locations on the head, apply pressure to the area to stop the blood flow.
As you inspect the victim's head:
• Whisper in his ear to check for hearing loss.
• Check his nose for any breaks or drainage.
• Observe the patient's mouth for cuts, broken teeth, and blood.
• Prepare to relay all of this information to the EMTs or ambulance personnel.
4. Look at the condition of the person's skin. Check for cuts, scrapes, redness, bruising
and irritation, as these can be signs of physical trauma.

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• If the victim is bleeding, apply direct pressure to the wound using a clean piece of cloth.
If the cloth gets soaked with blood, do not remove it. Instead, apply another cloth on
top of it.
• Take note of the colour and temperature of his skin, as it may be abnormally hot or
cold.
5. Examine the person's chest. First, look for any obvious cuts or bruises. Then, watch the
person breathing to see if any part of the chest looks out of line or is moving differently
than the rest. Next, divide the chest into four quadrants, and place your hand lightly on
each section of the chest to watch for pain and unusual movement.
• Listen for a strong heartbeat and abnormal sounds such as wheezing, as these may be
signs of inner damage. Report any abnormal sounds to the emergency personnel.
6. Palpate the 4 quadrants of the person's abdomen: upper left and upper right (including
the shoulders and ribs, down to their waist) and lower left and lower right (including
the lower ribs and stomach). You are checking for tenderness, swelling, and lumps.
• Place your head close to the abdomen and listen for any abnormal sounds, such as
gurgling.
7. Examine the pelvis. If the person is uncomfortable with you touching them in that area,
do not continue with the exam. However, if they do not mind, put one of your hands on
each side of the pelvis and gently compress the pelvis together. If the person feels pain,
stop here.
• If they do not, gently rock the hips from side to side and look for unusual movement.
• If the victim complains of pain or you notice abnormal signs, pass this information on
to the emergency personnel.
8. Assess the person's capillary refill by pressing on their fingernail. The fingernail will
turn white when pressed and immediately turn pink again if proper circulation is
present. If the fingernail takes longer to regain its pink colour, the individual may have
a problem with their circulation.
• Check the pulse at the wrist: ensure the pulse is present and regular. If the victim's pulse
feels weak or beats irregularly or slowly, pass this information on to the emergency
personnel.
9. Examine the bones of the arms and legs to check for breakage. Then, place a hand on
each side of the limb and press inward, checking for the flexing of the bone.
• Ask the person if they feel any pain when pressing.

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 • Do not press on areas where there is an obvious protrusion of the bone, as it can do
more damage.

2.5 Recovery Position

The recovery position in first aid is designed to maintain the airway of an unconscious person.
There are several variations, but the principles are similar for all. First, the chin is placed in an
upward position to maintain the proper position of the epiglottis. Next, the person's arms and
legs are positioned to ensure that the airway will not be lost.

All forms of the recovery position share basic principles. The mouth is downward so that fluid
can drain from the patient's airway; the chin is well up to keep the epiglottis open. Arms and
legs are locked to stabilise the position of the patient

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 CHAPTER 3

BLEEDING, SHOCK AND SOFT TISSUE INJURIES

3.1 Severe Bleeding and Shock

Severe Bleeding and Clinical Shock

If someone is bleeding the priority is to stop the blood coming out! It is never a priority to wash
an injury – it will be cleaned in hospital.

Sit or lie the person down – to manage shock and prevent them from feeling dizzy and faint
Examine the area to see if there is anything stuck in the wound – if there is do not remove it
Elevate the bleeding area above the level of the heart to slow down the bleeding
Pressure – apply direct pressure on the wound to stop the blood coming out

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Keep them warm and get emergency help.If the person is pale, cold, clammy and showing signs
of shock, or if there is a lot of blood – help their circulation by lying them down and raising
their legs. Elevate the bleeding wound and apply direct pressure to control the bleeding.

3.1.1 Severe External Bleeding

External bleeding from an open cut, abrasion, laceration or puncture to the skin can put
a patient at high risk if untreated or unable to be controlled.

1. Apply pressure to the wound with a clean dry dressing or cloth to slow bleeding

2. If the wound is on a limb, elevate it above the heart and continue pressure for 5 minutes

3. Once bleeding has stopped: a) rinse the wound with water, saline or antiseptic b) carefully
remove any debris with sanitised tweezers c) pat dry and apply a sterile dressing

4. If a foreign object is protruding from the wound, do not try to remove - apply pressure and
padding around the object

5. If an amputation occurs, control bleeding and recover the severed part in a clean, press-seal
bag inflated and placed in a container of cold water

Call Triple Zero (000) or mobile 112 for an ambulance if:

- bleeding is continuously heavy or spurting

- a foreign object is protruding from the wound

- the wound is from an animal bite

For severe bleeding, take these first-aid steps and reassure the injured person.

1. Remove any clothing or debris on the wound. Don't remove large or deeply
embedded objects. Don't probe the wound or attempt to clean it yet. Your first job is to
stop the bleeding. Wear disposable protective gloves if available.

2. Stop the bleeding. Place a sterile bandage or clean cloth on the wound. Press the
bandage firmly with your palm to control bleeding. Apply constant pressure until the

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 bleeding stops. Maintain pressure by binding the wound with a thick bandage or a piece
of clean cloth. Don't put direct pressure on an eye injury or embedded object.

Secure the bandage with adhesive tape or continue to maintain pressure with your hands. If
possible, raise an injured limb above the level of the heart.

3. Help the injured person lie down. If possible, place the person on a rug or blanket to
prevent loss of body heat. Calmly reassure the injured person.

4. Don't remove the gauze or bandage. If the bleeding seeps through the gauze or other
cloth on the wound, add another bandage on top of it. And keep pressing firmly on the
area.

5. Tourniquets: A tourniquet is effective in controlling life-threatening bleeding from a

limb. Apply a tourniquet if you're trained in how to do so. When emergency help
arrives, explain how long the tourniquet has been in place.

6. Immobilize the injured body part as much as possible. Leave the bandages in place
and get the injured person to an emergency room as soon as possible.

Call 112 or emergency medical help for severe bleeding that you can't control.

3.1.2 Internal Bleeding

Internal bleeding is classified as either visible, in that the bleeding can be seen, or concealed,
where no direct evidence of bleeding is obvious. Internal bleeding is always to be considered
as a very serious matter, and urgent medical aid is necessary.

Internal bleeding involves the loss of blood that takes place inside the body.

Due to the nature of occurrence in which, happening inside the body and usually in lesser
amounts, it may take quite some time before the bleeding will be noticed.

In most instances, obtaining an adequate history of the incident or illness will give the first
aider the necessary clue as to whether internal bleeding may be present.

Remember that current signs and symptoms, or the lack of them, do not necessarily indicate
the casualty’s condition. Certain critical signs and symptoms may not appear until well after
the incident due to the stealth of the bleed, and may only be detected by the fact that the
casualty’s observations worsen despite there being no obvious cause.
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Visible internal bleeding

Visible internal bleeding can vary in appearance depending on the site of the bleed:

Lungs – frothy, bright red blood coughed up by the casualty

Stomach – dark ‘coffee grounds’, or red blood, in vomitus

Intestine/Bowel – dark, loose, foul smelling stools

Urinary Tract – dark or red coloured urine

Ears – bright, sticky blood or blood mixed with clear fluid

Bruising – the tissues look dark due to the blood under the skin. Caused by blows from blunt
instruments or by crushing.

Concealed internal bleeding

In these cases, the first aider is heavily reliant on history, signs and symptoms. Judgement and
experience play a part, but it may come down to a first aiders ‘gut feeling’. If you are unsure,
assume the worst and treat for internal bleeding.

The detection of internal bleeding relies upon good observations and an appreciation of the
physical forces that have affected the casualty. Remember to look at the important observations
that may indicate internal bleeding, which include:

▪ Skin appearance

▪ Level of consciousness

▪ Pulse rate

▪ Respiratory rate

Signs and Symptoms of internal bleeding

These signs and symptoms are similar to the signs and symptoms for shock

▪ pale, cool, clammy skin

▪ thirst

▪ rapid, weak pulse

▪ rapid, shallow breathing

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 ▪ ‘guarding’ of the abdomen

▪ pain

▪ nausea and vomiting

▪ visible swelling (‘distension’) of the abdomen

▪ gradually lapsing into shock

First aid for internal bleeding

Call for emergency medical help

Perform a primary survey

If conscious -> treat for shock

If unconscious -> recovery position

Treat any injuries found

Provide reassurance

3.1.3 Shock

Shock is ‘a lack of oxygen to the tissues of the body, usually caused by a fall in blood volume
or blood pressure.’

Shock occurs as a result of the body’s circulatory system failing to work properly, which means
that the tissues of the body, including the heart and the brain, struggle to get sufficient oxygen.
The body’s response to this is to shut down the circulation to the skin – causing it to become
pale, cold and clammy. The heart speeds up as it struggles to get sufficient blood supply and
oxygen and to draw the blood away from the gut, causing the casualty to feel sick and thirsty.
They may also feel anxious, dizzy and a bit confused as their brain suffers from the lack of
oxygenated blood too.

SYMPTOMS OF SHOCK

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Initially:

Rapid pulse

Pale, cold and clammy

As shock develops:

Grey-blue skin colour and blue tinge to the lips – cyanosed

Weak and dizzy

Nausea and vomiting

Thirst

Shallow, rapid breathing

As the brain is struggling for oxygen:

May become restless and possibly aggressive – a sense of ’impending doom’

Yawning and gasping for air

Eventually they will lose consciousness and become unresponsive and they may stop breathing

How much blood can you afford to lose?

Children have far less blood than adults.

A person has approximately 0.5 litres of blood per 7kgs of body weight or one pint of blood
per stone (although this does not increase if someone is over weight). An ‘average’ adult has
roughly 10 pints / 6 litres of blood – if they lose about a 5th of their blood volume it can cause
the body to shut down and go into shock.

The loss of a tea cup full of blood could be fatal for a baby – however please note that head
and facial injuries often lose a lot of blood and can look far more scary than they are – a tea
cup full of blood

would make a major mess!

Treating Shock

Apply pressure to the wound and get them to lie down.

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Elevate the legs to use gravity to help improve the circulation to the vital organs.

Cover them to keep them warm.

Shock is made worse when someone is cold, anxious and in pain – reasssuring them and
keeping them warm can make a real difference.

Moisten their lips if they are complaining of thirst – do not give them a drink, as they may need
an operation and it is safer to give someone a general anaesthetic when they have an empty
stomach.

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3.2 Major Wounds

3.2.1 Amputation or Avulsion

3.2.2 Impaled Object

3.2.3 Open Chest Wound

3.2.4 Open Abdominal Wound

3.3 Minor Wounds

3.3.1 Splinter and Bruise

3.4 Burns

3.4.1 Major Burns and Minor Burns

3.5 Eye and Nose Injuries

3.5.1 Minor Irritated Eyes

3.5.2 Object stuck in Eye

3.5.3 Chemical Burn

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 CHAPTER 4

BONE, JOINT AND MUSCLE INJURIES

4.1 Fracture, Strains, Sprains, Dislocation

4.1.1 Sprains and strains

If the casualty is unconscious, follow DRSABCD action plan

Danger– check for Danger.

Response– check for Responsiveness.

Send for help– Send for help.

Airway– clear and open Airway.

Breathing– check for normal Breathing.

CPR– commence CPR if not breathing (30 chest compressions:

Two (2) rescue breaths).

Defibrillator– apply Defibrillator if available and follow prompts.

2. Follow the RICE management plan

Rest the casualty and the injured part.

Icepacks (cold compress) wrapped in a wet cloth may be applied

to the injury for 15 minutes every 2 hours for 24 hours, then for

15 minutes every 4 hours for 24 hours.

Apply Compression elastic bandage firmly, extending well

beyond the injury.

Elevate the injured part.

4.1.2 Fractures and dislocations

If the casualty is unconscious, follow the DRSABCD action plan

Danger– check for Danger.

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Response– check for Responsiveness.

Send for help– Send for help.

Airway– clear and open Airway.

Breathing– check for normal Breathing.

CPR– commence CPR if not breathing (30 chest compressions:

Two (2) rescue breaths).

Defibrillator– apply Defibrillator if available and follow prompts.

2. Control any bleeding and cover any wound.

3. Check for fractures.

4. Ask the casualty not to move the injured part.

5. Immobilise fracture in a comfortable position

• Use broad bandages (where possible) to prevent movement in the

joints above and below the fracture.

• Support the limb, carefully passing bandages under the natural

hollows of the body.

• Place a padded splint along the injured limb (under the leg for

fractured kneecap).

• Place padding between the splint and the natural contours of the

body and secure tightly.

• Check bandages are not too tight or too loose every 15 minutes.

6. For leg fracture, immobilise foot and ankle

• Use the figure of eight bandages.

7. Watch for signs of circulation loss to the foot or hand.

8. Seek medical aid.

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4.2 Suspected Spinal Injury

Do not move the affected person if you suspect a back or neck (spinal) injury. Permanent
paralysis and other serious complications can result. Assume a person has a spinal injury if:

• There is evidence of a head injury with an ongoing change in the person's level of
consciousness

• The person complains of severe pain in his or her neck or back

• An injury has exerted substantial force on the back or head

• The person complains of weakness, numbness, or paralysis or lacks control of his or

her limbs, bladder or bowels

• The neck or body is twisted or positioned oddly

If you suspect someone has a spinal injury:

• Get help. Call emergency medical help.

• Keep the person still. Place heavy towels or rolled sheets on both sides of the neck or
hold the head and neck to prevent movement.

• Avoid moving the head or neck. Provide as much first aid as possible without moving
the person's head or neck. If the person shows no signs of circulation (breathing,
coughing or movement), begin CPR, but do not tilt the head back to open the airway.
Instead, use your fingers to grasp the jaw and lift it forward gently. If the person has no
pulse, begin chest compressions.

• Keep the helmet on. If the person is wearing a helmet, do not remove it. However, a
football helmet facemask should be removed if you need to access the airway.

• Don't roll alone. If you must roll the person because he or she is vomiting, choking on
blood, or making sure the person is still breathing, you need at least one other person.
With one of you at the head and another along the side of the injured person, work
together to keep the person's head, neck and back aligned while rolling the person onto
one side.

4.3 Head Injury

Head injury can be either closed or open (penetrating).

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 • A closed head injury means you received a hard blow from striking an object, but the
object did not break the skull.

• An open, or penetrating, head injury means you were hit with an object that broke the
skull and entered the brain. This is more likely to happen when you move at high speed,
such as going through the windshield during a car accident. It can also happen from a
gunshot to the head.

Injuries to the head should always be treated seriously as there may be damage to the brain.
However, sometimes this damage may not be evident for hours after the injury occurs.

1. Assess the patient

• Assess the patient's conscious state.

• If not fully conscious, place the patient in a supported position on the side.

• Check that the airway is clear and for signs of life every few minutes.

• If conscious, help the patient to rest in the position of greatest comfort.

• Sometimes patients with head injuries may become agitated.

Call an ambulance.

2. Give care until the arrival of the ambulance

• Cover any wound with a sterile dressing.

• Cover the area with a sterile dressing if there is any discharge from the ears or nose.

DO NOT pack the ears or nose with dressings.

3. Monitor the patient

• DO NOT leave the patient alone and keep a constant watch on breathing and
consciousness level.

• Check for and treat any other injuries that may have been overlooked.

4. Maintain body heat

• Cover the patient lightly with clothing or a blanket and protect from temperature
extremes.

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Always arrange for a doctor to check the patient in the case of a head injury, even if it appears
that a full recovery has occurred. In some cases, the recognition of serious head injuries may
be delayed for 24 to 48 hours due to a gradual increase in swelling or bruising around the brain.

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 CHAPTER 5

SUDDEN ILLNESS OR SPECIFIC CONDITION

5.1 Acute Coronary Syndrome (Heart Attack)

1. Call emergency help immediately and tell them you think someone has a heart attack.

2. Help move the casualty into a comfortable position. The best position is on the floor,
with their knees bent and their head and shoulders supported.

o You could place cushions behind them or under their knees.

3. Give them one aspirin tablet (300mg) and ask them to chew it slowly.

o Do not give aspirin to the casualty if they are under 16 or allergic to it.

4. Ask the casualty to take their angina medication if they have some.

5. Keep monitoring the casualty's level of response until emergency help arrives.

o If they become unresponsive at any point, prepare to start CPR.

5.2 Asthma/Reactive Airway Disease

1. Sit the person upright.

Give four puffs of blue reliever puffer. Make sure you shake the puffer, put one puff into a spacer at
a time and get the person to take four breaths of each puff through the spacer.

Remember: shake, one puff, four breaths.

If you don't have a spacer, give the person four puffs of their reliever directly into their mouth.
Repeat this until the person has taken four puffs.
2. Wait four minutes. If there is no improvement, give four more separate puffs as in step
2.
Remember: shake, one puff, four breaths.

3. If there is still no improvement, call for an ambulance. Tell the operator that someone
is having an asthma emergency. Give the person four puffs of reliever medication,
taking four breaths for each puff every four minutes until the ambulance arrives.

5.3 Severe Allergic reaction

• Immediately call a medical emergency number.

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 • Ask the person if he or she is carrying an epinephrine autoinjector (EpiPen, Auvi-Q,
others) to treat an allergic attack.

• If the person says he or she needs to use an autoinjector, ask whether you should help
inject the medication. This is usually done by pressing the autoinjector against the
person's thigh.

• Have the person lie still on his or her back.

• Loosen tight clothing and cover the person with a blanket. Don't give the person
anything to drink.

• If there's vomiting or bleeding from the mouth, turn the person on his or her side to
prevent choking.

• If there are no signs of breathing, coughing or movement, begin CPR. Do uninterrupted

chest presses — about 100 every minute — until paramedics arrive.

• Get emergency treatment even if symptoms start to improve. After anaphylaxis,

symptoms can recur. Monitoring in a hospital for several hours is usually necessary

5.4 Seizures

• Loosen clothing around the person's neck.

• Do not try to hold the person down or restrain him or her. This can result in injury. Do
not insert any objects in the person's mouth. This can also cause injury.

• Reassure bystanders who might be panicking and ask them to give the person room.

• Remove sharp objects (glasses, furniture, and other objects) around the person to
prevent injury.

• Position the person on his or her side or in a semi-prone position to maintain an open
airway and prevent the person from inhaling any secretions.

• After many seizures, there might be confusion for some time, and the person should not
be left alone.

• In many cases, especially if the person is known to have epilepsy, it is not necessary to
call an ambulance. However, call an ambulance if the seizure lasts longer than five
minutes, if another seizure begins soon after the first, or if the person cannot be

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 awakened after the movements have stopped. If you are concerned that something else
might be wrong, or if the person has heart disease or diabetes, contact a doctor
immediately.

5.5 Poisoning

• Swallowed poison. Remove anything remaining in the person's mouth. If the suspected
poison is a household cleaner or other chemical, read the container's label and follow
instructions for accidental poisoning.

• Poison on the skin. Remove any contaminated clothing using gloves. Rinse the skin
for 15 to 20 minutes in a shower or with a hose.

• Poison in the eye. Gently flush the eye with cool or lukewarm water for at least 15
minutes or until help arrives.

• Inhaled poison. Get the person into fresh air as soon as possible.

• If the person vomits, turn his or her head to the side to prevent choking.

• Begin CPR if the person shows no signs of life, such as moving, breathing or coughing.

• Have somebody gather pill bottles, packages or containers with labels and any other
information about the poison to send along with the ambulance team.

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 CHAPTER 6

HEAT-RELATED ILLNESS AND INJURIES

6.1 Heat Exhaustion and Heat Stroke

If you suspect heat exhaustion

Untreated heat exhaustion can lead to heatstroke, which is a life-threatening condition. If you
suspect heat exhaustion, take these steps immediately:

• Move the person out of the heat and into a shady or air-conditioned place.

• Lay the person down and elevate the legs and feet slightly.

• Remove tight or heavy clothing.

• Have the person drink cool water or other nonalcoholic beverage without caffeine.

• Cool the person by spraying or sponging with cool water and fanning.

• Monitor the person carefully.

Contact a doctor if signs or symptoms worsen or if they do not improve within one hour.

Call a local emergency number if the person's condition deteriorates, especially if he or she
experiences:

• Fainting

• Agitation

• Confusion

• Seizures

• Inability to drink

• Core body temperature — measured by a rectal thermometer — of 104 F (40 C)

(heatstroke)

If you suspect heatstroke, call 911 or your local emergency number. Then immediately move
the person out of the heat, remove excess clothing, and cool him or her by whatever means
available, for example:

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 • Place in a tub of cool water or a cool shower.
• Spray with a garden hose.
• Sponge with cool water.
• Fan while misting with cool water.
• Place ice packs or cool, wet towels on the neck, armpits and groin.
• Cover with cool, damp sheets.

Let the person drink cool water to rehydrate if he or she can. Don't give sugary, caffeinated or
alcoholic beverages to a person with heatstroke. Also, avoid very cold drinks, as these can
cause stomach cramps.

Begin CPR if the person loses consciousness and shows no signs of circulation, such as
breathing, coughing or movement.

6.2 Frostbite and Hypothermia

How do you treat Frostbite?

According to the Red Cross and Medline Plus, in order to treat Frostbite, you should:

• Handle the person gently. Do not rub the affected area.

• Move the person to a warmer area or try to shelter them from the cold.

• Since Frostbite is a precursor to hypothermia, which sometimes accompanies it, check

for signs of hypothermia in the victim and treat them accordingly.

• Warm the frostbite area by soaking it in warm water (not hot water) until it is red and
feels warm.

• Wrap the area in sterile dressings.

• If fingers or toes are frozen, place gauze between them to separate them.

• DO NOT let the area refreeze (refreezing and thawing cause the most damage to
tissues).

• DO NOT break any blisters.

• Get Medical attention quickly.

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How do you treat Hypothermia?

• Move the person out of the cold and into a warm area, lay them on their back on a
blanket or other warm item to insulate them from the ground

• Remove any wet clothing

• Make sure that the person is breathing normally. Administer CPR if needed.

• Use a warm, dry compress [chemical hot pack] to restore heat.

– Place this compress ONLY on the person's neck, chest, or groin.

– Placing on arms or legs could push cold back to the heart or lungs, causing body
temperatures to drop again.

• If they are conscious, give them warm beverages (non-alcoholic and non-caffeinated)

• Use your body temperature to warm the person if there is no other available heat source.

– Take off your clothes and theirs; lie next to them and wrap blankets around you.

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