Med 7510:

CBTIS Module

Cell Parts and Functions

AMA School of Medicine

Academic Year 2020-2021
Cell
• Basic living, structural and functional unit of the body
Plasma Membrane
Plasma Membrane
• Forms the cell’s flexible outer surface, separating the cell’s internal
environment from the external environment
• Selective barrier that regulates the flow of materials into and out of a
cell
• Also plays a key role in communication among cells and between cells
and their external environment
Plasma Membrane
• Flexible yet sturdy barrier
• Fluid mosaic model
Functions of the Plasma Membrane
• Acts as a barrier separating inside and outside of the cell
• Controls the flow of substances into and out of the cell
• Helps identify the cell to other cells (for example, immune cells)
• Participates in intercellular signaling
Structure of the Plasma Membrane
Lipid Bilayer
• Basic structural framework of the plasma membrane
• Two back-to-back layers made up of three types of lipid molecules—
phospholipids, cholesterol, and glycolipids
• 75% of membrane lipids are phospholipids
• Cholesterol (20%) - steroid with an attached hydroxyl (-OH) group
• Glycolipids (5%)
Structure of the Plasma Membrane
Lipid Bilayer
• Phospholipids - amphipathic molecules
• Hydrophilic – polar part; phosphate-containing head
• Hydrophobic – non-polar part; 2 long fatty-acid tails
Structure of the Plasma Membrane
Lipid Bilayer
• Cholesterols
• Weakly amphipathic
• Interspersed among the other lipids in both layers of the membrane
• Glycolipids
• Appear only in the membrane layer that faces the extracellular fluid
Structure of the Plasma Membrane
Arrangement of Membrane Proteins
A. Integral proteins
• Extend into or through the lipid bilayer; firmly embedded in it
• Transmembrane proteins - span the entire lipid bilayer and protrude
into both the cytosol and extracellular fluid
• Amphipathic
Structure of the Plasma Membrane
Arrangement of Membrane Proteins
A. Integral proteins
• Many are glycoproteins – protrude into the extracellular fluid (ECF)
• Glycocalyx
• Acts like a molecular “signature” that enables cells to recognize one another
• Enables cells to adhere to one another
Structure of the Plasma Membrane
Arrangement of Membrane Proteins
B. Peripheral proteins
• Not as firmly embedded in the membrane
• Attached to the polar heads of membrane lipids or to integral
proteins at the inner or outer surface of the membrane
Functions of the Membrane Proteins
• Form ion channels, pores or holes that specific ions can flow through
to get into or out of the cell
• Act as carriers (or transporters)
• Serve as cellular recognition sites (receptors)
• Some proteins are enzymes
• May also serve as linkers
• Serve as cell identity markers
Membrane permeability
• Selective permeability – property of plasma membranes which permit
some substances to pass more readily than others
• Hydrophobic interior of the plasma membrane allows nonpolar
molecules to rapidly pass through
• Transmembrane proteins increase the membrane’s permeability to a
variety of ions and uncharged polar molecules
Gradients Across the Plasma Membrane
• Many ions and molecules are more concentrated in either the cytosol
or the extracellular fluid  Concentration gradient
• Difference in the distribution of positively and negatively charged ions
between the two sides of the plasma membrane  Electrical gradient
• Membrane potential – charge difference
• Electrochemical gradient – combined influence of the concentration
gradient and electrical gradient on movement of a particular ion
Transport Across the Plasma
Membrane
• Substances generally move across cellular membranes via transport
processes
• Depending on whether they require cellular energy
• Passive processes – simple diffusion
• Substance moves down its concentration or electrical gradient to cross the
membrane using only its own kinetic energy (energy of motion)
• Active processes – active transport
• Cellular energy is used to drive the substance “uphill” against its
concentration or electrical gradient

• Active processes – endocytosis or exocytosis

• Vesicles – tiny, spherical membrane sacs
Passive Processes
• Diffusion - a passive process in which the random mixing of particles
in a solution occurs because of the particles’ kinetic energy
• Both the solutes and the solvent undergo diffusion
• Move down the concentration gradient
• Particles become evenly distributed throughout the solution 
equilibrium
Passive Processes
Factors that influence the diffusion rate of substances across plasma
membrane:
• Steepness of concentration gradient
• Temperature
• Mass of the diffusing substance
• Surface area
• Diffusion distance
Passive Processes
Simple Diffusion
• Substances move freely through the lipid bilayer of the plasma
membranes without the help of transport proteins
• Nonpolar, hydrophobic molecules
• Small polar uncharged molecules
• Exchange of gases
• Route for absorption & excretion
Passive Processes
Facilitated Diffusion
• Solutes that are too polar or highly charged to move through the lipid
bilayer
• An integral membrane protein assists a specific substance across the
membrane
• Channel mediated
• Carrier mediated
Passive Processes
Channel-Mediated Facilitated Diffusion
• Solute moves down its concentration gradient across the lipid bilayer
through a membrane channel (ion channels)
• Slower than simple diffusion
• Said to be gated when part of the channel acts as a plug or gate
Passive Processes
Carrier-Mediated Facilitated Diffusion
• Moves a solute down its concentration gradient across the plasma
membrane without cellular energy required
• Solute binds to a specific carrier on one side of the membrane and is
released on the other side after the carrier undergoes a change in
shape
• Rate is determined by the steepness of concentration gradient across
the membrane
Passive Processes
Carrier-Mediated Facilitated Diffusion
• The number of carriers available in a plasma membrane places an
upper limit (transport maximum) on the rate at which diffusion occur
• Once all carriers are occupied, the transport maximum is reached
• Further increase in concentration gradient will not increase the rate
of diffusion
• Exhibits saturation
Passive Processes
Carrier-Mediated Facilitated Diffusion
• Glucose, fructose, galactose and some vitamins
Passive Processes
Osmosis
• There is net movement of a solvent through a selectively permeable
membrane
• Water moves through a selectively permeable membrane from an
area of lower solute concentration to an area of higher solute
concentration
• Occurs only when a membrane is permeable to water but is not
permeable to certain solutes
Passive Processes
Osmosis
• Water molecules move through the following ways:
• Move between neighboring phospholipid molecules in the lipid bilayer via
simple diffusion
• Move through Aquaporins
• Hydrostatic pressure
• Pressure exerted by liquid
Passive Processes
Osmosis
• Osmotic pressure – force exerted by the solution with impermeable
solute
• Proportional to the concentration of the solute particles that cannot cross the
membrane
• Pressure that would prevent water movement
Active Processes
Active Transport
• Some polar or charged solutes that must enter or leave body cells
need to move uphill, against their concentration gradient
• Energy is required
• Energy obtained from hydrolysis of adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
• Energy stored in an ionic concentration gradient
• Exhibit a transport maximum and saturation
• Ions, amino acids, monosaccharides
Active Processes
Primary Active Transport
• Energy derived from hydrolysis of ATP changes the shape of a carrier
protein
• Then “pumps” a substance across a plasma membrane against its
concentration gradient
• Sodium-Potassium pump or Na+-K+ ATPase
Active Processes
Secondary Active Transport
• Energy stored in a Na+ or H+ concentration gradient is used to drive
other substances across the membrane against their own
concentration gradients
• Indirectly uses energy obtained from the hydrolysis of ATP
• Carrier protein simultaneously binds to Na+ and another substance
and then changes its shape so that both substances cross the
membrane at the same time
Active Processes
Secondary Active Transport
• Symporters – transporters move two substances in the same direction
• Antiporters – move two substances in opposite directions
Active Processes
Transport in Vesicles
• Vesicle – small, spherical sac that important materials from and
release materials into extracellular fluid
• Endocytosis – materials move into a cell in a vesicle formed from the
plasma membrane
• Exocytosis – materials move out of a cell
• Both require energy supplied by ATP
Active Processes
Transport in Vesicles: Endocytosis
• 3 types
• Receptor-mediated endocytosis
• Phagocytosis
• Bulk-phase endocytosis
Active Processes
Transport in Vesicles: Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis
• Highly selective type of endocytosis by which cells take up specific
ligands
• Import materials that are needed by cells
• Cholesterol-containing low-density lipoproteins (LDLs), transferrin,
some vitamins, antibodies, and certain hormones
Active Processes
Transport in Vesicles: Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis
• Binding – On the extra-cellular side of the plasma membrane, particle
binds to a specific receptor
• Integral membrane proteins that are concentrated in regions called clathrin-
coated pits
• Clathrin attaches to the membrane on the cytoplasmic side
Active Processes
Transport in Vesicles: Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis
• Vesicle formation – the invaginated edges of the membrane around
the clathrin-coated pit fuse, and a small piece of the membrane
pinches off  clathrin-coated vesicle
Active Processes
Transport in Vesicles: Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis
• Uncoating - clathrin-coated vesicle loses its clathrin coat to become
an uncoated vesicle
Active Processes
Transport in Vesicles: Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis
• Fusion with endosome - The uncoated vesicle quickly fuses with an
endosome
Active Processes
• Transport in Vesicles: Receptor-Mediated
Endocytosis
• Recycling of receptors to plasma membrane -
most of the receptors accumulate in
elongated protrusions of the endosome
• Pinch off, forming transport vesicles that return
the receptors to the plasma membrane
Active Processes
Transport in Vesicles: Receptor-Mediated
Endocytosis
• Degradation in lysosomes - Other transport
vesicles bud off the endosome and soon
fuse with a lysosome
Image of Receptor Mediated Endocytosis of a low-density lipoprotein particle
Active Processes
Transport in Vesicles: Phagocytosis
• A form of endocytosis in which the cell engulfs large solid particles,
such as worn-out cells, whole bacteria, or viruses
• Vital defense mechanism that helps protect the body from disease
• Begins when the particle binds to a plasma membrane receptor on
the phagocyte  causing it to extend pseudopods
• Pseudopods surround the particle outside the cell, and the
membranes fuse to form a vesicle called a phagosome
Active Processes
Transport in Vesicles: Phagocytosis
• Phagosome fuses with 1 or more lysosomes, and lysosomal enzymes
break down ingested material
• Undigested materials in the phagosome remain indefinitely in a
vesicle called residual body
• Secreted via exocytosis
• Remain stored in the cell as lipofuscin granules
Image of Phagocytosis
Active Processes
Transport in Vesicles: Bulk-Phase Endocytosis
• Also called Pinocytosis
• Tiny droplets of extracellular fluid are taken up
• No receptor proteins are involved
• All solutes dissolved in the extracellular fluid are brought into the cell
• Occurs in most cells, especially absorptive cells in the intestines and
kidneys
Image of Bulk-Phase Endocytosis
Active Processes
Transport in Vesicles: Exocytosis
• Releases materials, wastes from a cell
• Important in two types of cells
• Secretory cells
• Nerve cells that release neurotransmitters
• Secretory vesicles – membrane enclosed vesicles that release their
contents into the extra-cellular fluid
Active Processes
Transport in Vesicles: Transcytosis
• May also be used to successively move a substance into, across, and
out of a cell
• Vesicles undergo endocytosis on one side of a cell, move across the
cell, and then undergo exocytosis on the opposite side
• Occurs most often across the endothelial cells that line blood vessels
Transport of Materials Into and Out of Cells
Transport of Materials Into and Out of Cells
Transport of Materials Into and Out of Cells
Cytoplasm
Cytoplasm
• Consists of all the cellular contents between the plasma membrane
and the nucleus
• Components
• Cytosol or intracellular fluid
• Organelles
Cytosol
• Fluid portion of the cytoplasm that surrounds organelles
• Constitutes 55% of the total cell volume
• 75–90% water plus various dissolved and suspended components
• Site of many chemical reactions required for a cell’s existence
Cytoskeleton
• Network of protein filaments that extends throughout the cytosol
• 3 types
• Microfilaments
• Intermediate filaments
• Microtubules
Cytoskeleton
Microfilaments
• Thinnest elements of the cytoskeleton
• Composed of the proteins actin and myosin
• Most prevalent at the edge of a cell
• 2 functions
• Help generate movement
• Provide mechanical support
Cytoskeleton
Microfilaments
• Involved in muscle contraction, cell division, cell locomotion, invasion
of tissues to infection, migration of tissues for wound healing
• Anchor the cytoskeleton to integral proteins in the plasma membrane
• Provide mechanical support for cell extensions called microvilli
• Abundant in cells involved in absorption
Cytoskeleton
Intermediate filaments
• Thicker than microfilaments but thinner than microtubules
• Found in parts of cells subject to mechanical stress
• Help stabilize the position of organelles
Cytoskeleton
Microtubules
• Long, unbranched hollow tubes composed mainly of tubulin
• Begins in centrosome
• Help determine cell shape
• Function in the movement of organelles, chromosomes during cell
division, and specialized cell projections
Organelles
• Specialized structures within the cell that have characteristic shapes
• Perform specific functions in cellular growth, maintenance, and
reproduction
• Numbers and types of organelles vary in different cells
• Cooperate to maintain homeostasis
• As a functional compartment for specific biochemical processes
Organelles
Centrosome
• Consists of a pair of centrioles and pericentriolar material
• Centrioles – cylindrical structures composed of nine clusters
of three microtubules (triplets) arranged in a circular pattern
• Surrounding the centrioles is pericentriolar material which
contains hundreds of ring-shaped complexes composed of
tubulin
Organelles
Centrosome
• Pericentriolar material of the centrosome
contains tubulins that build microtubules in
nondividing cells.
• The pericentriolar material of the centrosome
forms the mitotic spindle during cell division.
Organelles
Cilia
• Numerous, short, hairlike projections that extend from the surface of
the cell
• Core of microtubules with one pair in the center surrounded by nine
clusters of doublet microtubules
• Move fluids along a cell surface
Organelles
Flagella
• Moves an entire cell
• Generates forward motion along its axis by rapidly
wiggling in a wavelike pattern
Organelles
Ribosomes
• Sites of protein synthesis
• High content of one type of ribonucleic acid (ribosomal RNA, or rRNA)
• Consist of 2 subunits – large subunit, and small subunit
Organelles
Ribosomes
• Attached to the outer surface of the nuclear membrane and to the
endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
• Ribosomes attached to the ER synthesize proteins destined for
insertion in the plasma membrane or secretion from the cell
• Free ribosomes synthesize proteins used in the cytosol
Organelles
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
• Network of membranes in the form of
flattened sacs or tubules
• Extends from the nuclear envelope and
projects throughout the cytoplasm
Organelles
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
• Continuous with the nuclear membrane
• Folded into a series of flattened sacs
• Outer surface is studded with ribosomes
• Produces secretory proteins, membrane proteins, and many
organellar proteins
Organelles
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
• Does not have ribosomes on the outer surfaces of its membrane
• Synthesize fatty acids and steroids
• Inactivates and detoxifies drugs and other potentially harmful
substances
• Stores and releases calcium ions that trigger muscle contraction
• Removes phosphate group in glucose-6-phosphate
Organelles
Golgi Complex
• Consists of 3 to 20 cisternae
• Small, flattened membranous sacs with bulging edges that resemble a stack
of pita bread
• Curved, cup-like shape
• Entry or cis face
• Exit or trans face
• Medial cisternae
Organelles
Golgi Complex
• Modifies, sorts, packages and transports proteins received from the
rough ER
• Forms secretory vesicles that discharge processed proteins via
exocytosis into the extracellular fluid
• Forms membrane vesicles that ferry new molecules to the plasma
membrane
• Forms transport vesicles that carry other molecules to other
organelles
Organelles
Lysosomes
• Membrane-enclosed vesicles that form from the Golgi complex
• Contain as many as 60 kinds of powerful digestive and hydrolytic
enzymes
• Its interior has a pH of 5, which is 100 times more acidic than the pH
of the cytosol (pH 7)
• Can engulf another organelle, digest it, and return the digested
components to the cytosol for reuse
Organelles
Lysosomes
• Autophagy – process by which entire worn-out organelles are
digested
• Involved in cellular differentiation, control of growth, tissue remodeling,
adaptation to adverse environments, and cell defense
• Autolysis – process by which lysosomal enzymes destroy the entire
cell that contains them
• Accomplish extracellular digestion
Organelles
Peroxisomes
• Similar to lysosomes, but are smaller
• Contain several oxidases and catalases
• Contain enzymes that destroy superoxide
• Very abundant in the liver
• Can self-replicate
Organelles
Mitochondria
• “Powerhouse” of the cell
• A cell may have as few as a hundred or as many as several thousand
mitochondria, depending on its activity
• Active cells found in muscles, liver, and kidneys
• Self-replicate
Organelles
Mitochondria
• Consists of an outer and inner mitochondrial
membranes
• Mitochondrial cristae – series of folds in the
inner mitochondrial membrane
• Mitochondrial matrix – central fluid-filled
cavity, enclosed by the inner mitochondrial
membrane
Organelles
Mitochondria
• Play an important and early role in apoptosis
• Cytochrome c – initiate a cascade of activation of protein-digesting
enzymes that bring about apoptosis, when found in the cytosol
Nucleus
Nucleus
• Spherical or oval-shaped structure
• Most prominent feature of a cell
• Nuclear envelope – double membrane
• Separates the nucleus from the cytoplasm
• Nuclear pores – openings that extend in the nuclear envelope
• Control the movement of substances between nucleus and cytoplasm
Nucleus
Nucleoli
• One or more spherical bodies inside the nucleus
• Function in producing ribosomes
• Cluster of protein, RNA and DNA
• Sites of synthesis and assembly of rRNA and proteins into ribosomal
subunits
• Disperse and disappear during cell division and reorganize once new
cells are formed
Nucleus
• Within the nucleus are most of the cell’s hereditary units, called
genes
• Complex of DNA, proteins and some RNA are called chromatin
Nucleus
Chromatin
• Appears as a diffuse, granular mass in non-dividing
cells
• Beads-on-a-string structure
• Each bead is a nucleosome that consists of double-
stranded DNA wrapped twice around histones
• Linker DNA – string between the beads
Summary of Cell Parts and their Functions
Summary of Cell Parts and their Functions
Summary of Cell Parts and their Functions
References
• Hall, John (2015). Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology
(13th edition). USA: Elsevier.
• Tortora, Gerard and Bryan Derrickson (2014). Principles of Anatomy
and Physiology (14th edition). USA: John Wiley and Sons, Inc.
Thank You!