Year 12 Mathematical Methods Transition notes

Set notation and sets of numbers: 1A

Notation
A “set” is a collection of things (usually numbers in mathematics). We often write the elements of a set inside { }
brackets. We also use notation to indicate when something belongs to a set, when two sets “overlap”, when
something is excluded from a set, and so on. This is a re-cap of some of the most common notation:

∈  is an element of
∉  is not an element of
⊆ is a subset of (“is contained within”)
∩  intersection (“and”)
∪  union (“or”)
¿  excluding

Example 1
Consider the sets A={3 , 5 , 8 ,9 } and B={1, 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 }

a) Is 5 ∈ B ?
b) Is A ⊆ B ?
c) Is {4, 5} ⊆ B ?
d) Write down:
i. A ∩ B
ii. A ∪ B
iii. A ¿

Sets of numbers
Natural numbers (N) are the “counting” numbers – whole numbers from 1 upwards.
Integers (Z) are all whole numbers – positive, negative and zero.
a
Rational numbers (Q) are all numbers that can be written as a fraction where a and b are integers.
b
Real numbers (R) all rational or irrational numbers (numbers like π and √2 are irrational, but real numbers).

All natural numbers are integers, all integers are rational, and all rational numbers are real.
Hence, N ⊆ Z ⊆ Q⊆ R .

We also use:
R ¿ 0 } to represent all real numbers except zero
+¿ ¿
R to represent all positive real numbers
−¿¿
R to represent all negative real numbers

Interval notation
We can use interval notation to represent a set of numbers on
a number line, as shown in the diagram at right.

An open circle indicates that the number is excluded, a closed

circle indicates that the number is included.
Example 2
Represent the following number sets on a number line:
a) [–2, 3) b) x: 1< x ≤ 4 c) R+

d) [0,2] ∩ (1, 5) e) R+ ∪ {0}

Identifying and describing relations and functions: 1B

Relations
A relation is a set of ordered pairs (i.e. a set of x values and y-values). It is usually defined by an equation or rule
involving x and y.
The domain is the set of all possible x values for which the rule is defined.
The range is the set of all possible y values generated by the rule, given the possible x values.
Example 3
Consider the relation defined by the rule: y = x2 – 4

a) Sketch the graph of y

b) What is the domain? c) What is the range?

Functions
A function is a type of relation where every x value has only one possible y value.

The easiest way to test is with a vertical line test. Any vertical line should only cut the graph once if the graph is that
of a function.

Example 4
State whether each of the following are functions or not functions.
Function notation
If the rule and domain of a function is given then the function is fully defined.
There are numerous ways to describe the same function.

The co-domain is the set of y values from which the range may be taken. It is not necessarily equal to the range, but
in some cases it can be.

The domain (possible x values) of the function f is denoted dom f.

The range (possible y values) is denoted ran f.

Example 5
For the function g(x) = x2 – 2x, determine:

a) g(5) b) g(a + 1) c) { x: g(x) = 0}

Linear equations: 2A
A linear equation is one where all variables have a power of 1.
For instance, 3 x−4 y=1+2 z is a linear equation with three variables.
5
Equations such as 2 m2=5 and √ x−1=0 and 3− =a are called non-linear.
a

Solving Linear Equations

To solve a linear equation usually requires the use of inverse operations. Sometimes we may also need to expand
brackets and collect like terms first.

Example 6
Solve the following equations:
x−4 x +1
a) −2 ( 3 x+ 4 )=−5 x−7 b) + =6
5 3
Solving worded problems
In these cases we are often required to use written information to create and solve an equation.
In general, we should:
 define and assign a variable to represent the unknown value(s)
 establish an equation or equations to represent the given scenario
 solve to determine the required value(s)

Example 7
A hiker leaves their campsite and walks to a nearby town. Their average speed for this walk is 5km per hour. The
hiker then walks back from the town to the campsite at an average speed of 7km per hour. If the total trip took 3
hours, how far away is the town from the campsite?

Solving simultaneous linear equations

Simultaneous equations can be solved by hand, using elimination or substitution. They can also be solved on the CAS
calculator.

Example 8
Solve the following simultaneous equations by hand, then check your answers using CAS.

a) 3 x−4 y=10 b) x + y=5

5 x−4 y=18 y=3 x−19

CAS tips
1. Use “Action  Advanced  Solve” to solve any equation
2. The button can be used to solve simultaneous equations
 Literal equations: 2B
Literal equations are comprised of many pronumerals and may also contain numbers. They are solved in the same
way as a standard equation. The only difference is our answer will contain pronumerals (sometimes referred to as
parameters).

Example 9
Solve ax + b = c for x

Example 10
Solve the following simultaneous for x and y
x + y=k
y= jx−i

Linear coordinate geometry: 2C

Review of linear graphs
The general form of a linear equation is y = mx + c, where m is the gradient and c is the y-intercept.
The following rules can be applied to linear relationships:
y 2− y 1
For a line connecting points (x 1 , y 1 ) and (x 2 , y 2 ) the gradient, m =
x 2−x 1
(which we know informally as “rise over run”)

We can also calculate gradient using m=tan ( θ ), where θ is the angle formed with the positive direction of the x
axis.

When the gradient and a point, (x 1 , y 1 ) are known, the equation of a straight line can be determined using:
y− y 1=m(x−x 1)
(note: we can also use y = mx + c)

If two lines are parallel, they have the same gradient. That is, m 1=m2

−1
If two lines are perpendicular, then m 1=
m2
 The midpoint of two points(x 1 , y 1 ) and (x 2 , y 2 ) is found by: ( x +2 x , y +2 y )
1 2 1 2

The straight line distance between two points (x 1 , y 1 ) and (x 2 , y 2 ) can be calculated using:

√ 2
d= ( x 2−x 1 ) + ( y 2− y 1)
2

Example 11
For the line 4x + 6y = 12
a) determine the gradient

b) sketch the graph over the domain (–3, 3]

c) state the range of the graph, using interval notation.

d) determine the equation of the line that is perpendicular to the graph drawn and which passes through (2, 1).

Quadratic Functions: 4A
Solving quadratic equations

Factorising polynomials
One of the most common methods of solving polynomial equations is to factorise, then apply the null factor law.
Therefore it is useful to re-call some of the various methods of factorising expressions.

Factorising quadratics methods

 highest common factor
 inspection (e.g. “cross” method)
 difference of two squares  a 2−b2=(a−b)(a+b)
 perfect squares  a 2+2 ab +b2= ( a+b )2

When none of these methods are applicable, we can also:

 complete the square to solve (or convert to turning point form if sketching)
−b ± √ b2−4 ac
 use the quadratic formula to solve  x=
2a
Example 12
Solve the following equations for x:
a) 3 x 2−75=0 b) x 2+ 9 x−36=0
c) x 2=6 x−3

Sketching parabolas
When we sketch parabolas, it is important to identify and label the location of the turning point and the axis
intercepts. The method used for sketching may depend on what form the equation is written.
Turning point form Polynomial form Factorised form
2 2
y=a ( x−h ) +k y=a x +bx +c y=a(x−m)(x−n)

 Turning point at (h, k) −b  x intercepts at m and n

 x coordinate of TP =
 a is the dilation factor 2a m+ n
 if a < 0, graph will be reflected  x coordinate of TP =
 can complete the square to 2
in the x-axis (upside down)
get turning point form

Example 13
Sketch the graphs of the following parabolas, labelling axis intercepts and the turning point with their co-ordinates:
a) y=2 ( x +1 )2−8 b) y=x 2−2 x−15

The discriminant
For a quadratic equationa x 2 +bx +c=0 the discriminant is equal to b 2−4 ac . The discriminant can be used to
determine the number of solutions to the equation.
For a quadratic equation in the form a x 2 +bx +c=0 if b 2−4 ac> 0, there will be two solutions if b 2−4 ac=0,
there will be one solution if b 2−4 ac< 0, there will be no solution
Example 14
Use the discriminant to show that the graph of y=−5 x 2 +4 x−1 has no x-intercepts.

Example 15
For what value(s) of k will the equation 3 x 2+ kx+ 3=0 have:
a) one solution?

b) two solutions?

c) no solution?
CAS Tip: “solve” can also be used for inequalities.
Tap Keyboard  Math3 to find the < and > symbols
Determining the rule for a parabola: 4B
Generally, we can determine the equation of a parabola using three different methods, depending on what
information is known:

If we know the x-intercepts and another point

Use y = a(x–n)(x–m) where n and m are the x-intercepts and we sub in the other point to find a

If we know the turning point and another point

2
Use y = a(x–h) + k where (h,k) is the turning point and we sub in the other point to find a

If we know any three points

2
Use y = ax + bx + c and sub in three points to create three equations and solve simultaneously

(note that similar techniques can also be used for higher order polynomial functions)

Example 16
Determine the equation of a quadratic that passes through the points (–2, –6) , (2, 6) and (10, –18).

Example 17
Find the equation of the parabola shown: