General

Biology 2 12
General Biology 2 – Grade 12
Quarter 3 – Module 12 Evolutionary Relationships Among Organisms
First Edition, 2020

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 General
Biology 2
12
Quarter 3
Self-Learning Module 12
Evolutionary Relationships Among Organisms
Introductory Message
For the Facilitator:

Welcome to the General Biology 2 Self-Learning Module 12 on Evolutionary

Relationships Among Organisms!

This Self-Learning Module was collaboratively designed, developed and

reviewed by educators from the Schools Division Office of Pasig City headed by its
Officer-in-Charge Schools Division Superintendent, Ma. Evalou Concepcion A.
Agustin, in partnership with the City Government of Pasig through its mayor,
Honorable Victor Ma. Regis N. Sotto. The writers utilized the standards set by the K
to 12 Curriculum using the Most Essential Learning Competencies (MELC) in
developing this instructional resource.

This learning material hopes to engage the learners in guided and independent
learning activities at their own pace and time. Further, this also aims to help learners
acquire the needed 21st century skills especially the 5 Cs, namely: Communication,
Collaboration, Creativity, Critical Thinking, and Character while taking into
consideration their needs and circumstances.

In addition to the material in the main text, you will also see this box in the
body of the module:

Notes to the Teacher

This contains helpful tips or strategies that
will help you in guiding the learners.

As a facilitator you are expected to orient the learners on how to use this
module. You also need to keep track of the learners' progress while allowing them to
manage their own learning. Moreover, you are expected to encourage and assist the
learners as they do the tasks included in the module.
 For the Learner:

Welcome to the General Biology 2 Self-Learning Module 12 on Evolutionary

Relationships Among Organisms!

This module was designed to provide you with fun and meaningful
opportunities for guided and independent learning at your own pace and time. You
will be enabled to process the contents of the learning material while being an active
learner.

This module has the following parts and corresponding icons:

Expectations - This points to the set of knowledge and skills

that you will learn after completing the module.

Pretest - This measures your prior knowledge about the lesson

at hand.

Recap - This part of the module provides a review of concepts

and skills that you already know about a previous lesson.

Lesson - This section discusses the topic in the module.

Activities - This is a set of activities that you need to perform.

Wrap-Up - This section summarizes the concepts and

application of the lesson.

Valuing - This part integrates a desirable moral value in the

lesson.

Posttest - This measures how much you have learned from the
entire module.
 EXPECTATIONS

This module focuses on the discussion pertaining to the Evolutionary

Relationships Among Organisms based on the concrete Evidence/s of Evolution.
After completing this module, learners are expected to:
1. Deduce evolutionary relationships among living organisms using the
evidence of evolution.
2. Identify essential parameters which are used to determine and analyze
evolutionary relationships.
3. Distinguish between homologous structures and analogous structures.
4. Utilize the essential parameters in describing common evolutionary
relationships in a certain animal species.
5. Appreciate the unique and common features and characteristics of various
organisms.

PRETEST

Choose the letter of the best answer. Write the answer on a separate sheet of paper
or you can write it on your notebook.
_____1. Which of the following statements regarding analogies is correct?
A. Analogies occur only as errors.
B. Analogies are relatively similar with homologous traits.
C. Analogies are derived by response/s to similar environmental constraints.
D. Analogies are a form of genetic mutation.

_____2. These structures can be observed in various organisms that indicate their
relation to a common ancestor by virtue of their resemblance.
A. Vestigial structures
B. Homologous structures
C. Analogous structures
D. Parsimonious structures

_____3. What is true for species that are a member of the same clade?
A. Species share the same basic characteristics.
B. Species evolved from a shared ancestor.
C. Species are all on the same tree.
D. Species have identical phylogenies.

_____4. Which of the following statements correctly describes gene conservation?

A. Conserved genes can be observed only in higher forms of animals such as
primates
B. Conserved genes are the ultimate products of adaptations, mutations and
natural selection.
C. Genes are conserved from an organism when they are not transmitted
from one generation to succeeding generations.
D. Genes are said to be conserved when they are maintained by organisms
that are not closely related.
_____5. This refers to the hypothetical relationship between groups of organisms
especially in reference to lines of descent.
A. cladistics
B. systematics
C. phylogeny
D. evolutionary biology

RECAP

Identify the evidence of evolution described in each statement. Choose your answers
in the box and write the correct answers on the blank.

A. Fossil Records D. Physiology and Biochemistry

B. Biogeography E. Embryology

C. Homology F. Natural Selection

_____1. Staphylococcus aureus became resistant to common penicillin after its long
period of exposure to the drug.
_____2. Scientists found out that beak shapes of birds depend on their habitat and
the type of food they eat.

_____3. The bones of a horse’s front leg, bat’s wing, and human arm have structural
similarities.

_____4. Scientists were able to compare the gene responsible for the human muscle
protein to that of monkeys, chickens and crocodiles.
_____5. Developmental biologists were able to describe the similarities in the early
stages of development in fishes, reptiles, birds and mammals.

_____6. Scientists observed and analyzed structures preserved in a rock or rock layer
through relative and absolute dating.
 LESSON

Through anatomy, physiology, genetics, molecular evidence, evolutionary

relationships can demonstrate common ancestry for populations and organisms.
There are six (6) useful and significant parameters used in this lecture to define
interconnections between species that are also based on the fundamental evidence
of evolution.

1. Homologous Structures and Traits

Organisms that share similar physical features and genetic sequences tend to
be more closely related than those that do not. Homologous structures are organs
or skeletal components of animals that indicate their relation to a common ancestor
by virtue of their resemblance. Most of the time, these systems do not need to look
exactly identical, or have the same function. Homologous traits share an
evolutionary path that led to the development of the observed trait from an organism.

In figure 1, the bones in the flippers of dolphins, wings of bats, the foreleg of
a horse and cat, and the arm of humans are homologous structures. As you observe
these structures are not simply a single bone, but rather a grouping of several bones
arranged in a similar way in each organism even though the elements of the structure
may have changed shape and size.

Figure 1. Homologous Structures of Selected Mammals

Image Source: https://www.dreamstime.com/homologous-structure-vector-illustration-biological-species-example-

scheme-structures-labeled-structural-diagram-bone-titles-image168174606

2. Analogous Structures and Traits

When animals from different groups with different ancestors live in the same
environment, similar structures that have a certain purpose may often be created.
This is because their respective ecosystems have a common way of life. However, as
they have different ancestors and belong to different classes, despite their similar
functions, these structures appear to be very anatomically different.
These similarities in structures as the result of organisms’ gradual adaptation to the
environment are called analogous structure.

Some organisms may be very closely related, even though a minor genetic
change caused a major morphological difference to make them look quite different.

Figure 2. The skulls of

chimpanzees (a) and
humans (b) are almost
genetically similar with an
impressive degree of
similarity at 99%. With this
high percentage of similarity
still, chimpanzees and
humans show significant
anatomical differences,
including the degree to which
the jaw protrudes in the
adult and the relative lengths
of our arms and legs.
Image Source: http://www.opentextbooks.org.hk/ditatopic/34926

Unrelated species, however, can be distantly related but look very much alike,
generally because both have developed common adaptations to similar
environmental conditions. The streamlined body forms, the shapes of fins and
appendages, and the shape of tails in mammalian fish and whales are an example of
this.

Image Source: https://opened.cuny.edu/courseware/lesson/705/student/?task=2

Figure 3 shows a bird wing and a bat wing are similar in shape to the wing of
a honey bee and serve the same purpose (flight). The wings of birds and bats are
homologous structures. Nevertheless, the honey bee wing has a distinct structure
and embryonic roots (it is made of a chitinous exoskeleton, not a
boney endoskeleton). An analogy is demonstrated by the bee and bird or bat wing
styles, identical structures that do not share an evolutionary history.

Figure 4 shows
examples of Analogous
structures present in
sharks, penguins and
dolphins with their
streamline appendages

Image Source: Analogous and Homologous Traits - CLADISTICS (weebly.com)

Table 1. Difference between Analogous and Homologous Traits

Analogous Vs. Homologous Traits

ANALOGOUS
Different in anatomical features
Similar functions
Develop in distinct/unconnected
animals
Not inherited from a common ancestor
Developmental pattern is dissimilar
Dissimilar in structure and origin
HOMOLOGOUS
Comparable in anatomy
Different functions
Develop in associated/related animals
Inherited from a common ancestor
Developmental pattern is similar
Similar in structure and origin

Source: CLADISTICS - Home (weebly.com)

3. Molecular Comparisons – DNA sequencing

The field of molecular systematics, which describes the use of molecular level
data, including DNA sequencing, has flourished with the advancement of DNA
technology. Not only does modern molecular character research validate several
earlier classifications, but it also exposes previously made mistakes. Molecular
characteristics can include variations in a protein's amino-acid sequence, differences
in a gene's individual nucleotide sequence, or differences in gene arrangements.

Mutations can accumulate inside any given section of DNA over the course of
millions of years. To show the degree of evolutionary divergence, the number of
variations between comparable base sequences may be used. As mutations can occur
more readily in these sequences, non-coding sequences of DNA provide the best
means of comparison.

4. Gene Conservation
 Genes are DNA sequences which codify polypeptides (which constitute
proteins). With the sequencing of a number of genomes of species, it has been
found that many organisms still maintain specific genes in common that are not
closely related. These genes are said to be conserved and usually serve a critical
role in regulating organismal development. Based on studies, scientists consider
the number of conserved genes that can be used to show evolutionary relationships
between organisms.

These are some examples of ultra-conserved genes:

1. Regulatory genes (e.g. coding for protein-based hormones)

2. Genes encoding for tRNA (needed for translation to occur)
3. Genes involved in ATP production (e.g. coding for the cytochrome proteins in the
electron transport chain)

Figure 5 shows the

percentage of conserved genes
among some of the
representative animals.

Image Source: http://www.vce.bioninja.com.au/aos-4-change-over-

time/evolution/evolutionary-relationships.html

5. Mitochondrial Evolution

In tracing evolutionary relationships within species, scientists probe the

mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) which is structurally identical to nuclear DNA. However,
mitochondrial DNA differs significantly in terms of the following factors:

1. Descent via maternal line – Inherited from the mother only,

mitochondrial DNA provides a much clearer genetic lineage
2. Lack of recombination - Because mitochondrial DNA is transferred
directly from the mother, no recombination takes place, preserving the
maternal sequence's reliability.
3. Higher mutation rate - Non-conserved sequences tend to mutate at a
faster rate due to the production of reactive oxygen species in the
mitochondrion.
4. High copy number - Larger amounts of mitochondrial DNA can be
gathered for sampling due to multiple availability of mitochondria in every
cell.

Mitochondrial DNA sequencing is suitable for comparing organisms within a

species or those that have diverged within a relatively short period of time (~20
million years) due to these variations.

6. Genome Phylogeny
 Phylogeny defines a species' evolutionary growth. A branching diagram called
a phylogeny tree will portray this evolutionary divergence (or cladogram). These
diagrams can be used to differentiate between biological taxa or even groups of taxa,
and trace the evolutionary history of a given species.
Phylogeny tree branching may be based on structural features, protein
similarities or, more generally, comparisons of genomes. Species with fewer branch
points between them are more closely connected to each other.

ACTIVITIES

Activity 1 Mind Workout

Directions: Answer the following questions briefly. Write your answers on a

separate sheet of paper or on your biology lecture notebook.

1. Dolphins and fishes have relatively comparable body shapes. Is it more likely that
this feature is a homologous or analogous trait? Explain your answer.

2. Why is it so important for scientists, before building phylogenetic trees, to

differentiate between homologous and analogous features?

3. Explain the significance of mitochondrial DNA sequencing in tracing evolutionary

relationship of organisms belonging to the same species.

Activity 2 Fly High into The Sky!

Directions: Examine the picture below. The photo shows the wings of bat, bird,
Pteradactyl, and moth. After examining the various wings of sample organisms,
answer the following questions related to the photo below:

2
 Image Source: Homologous Analogous Vestigial Activity GP13.pdf (tamdistrict.org)
Guide Questions

1. Identify the wings of the abovementioned organisms. Write your answers in the
box (box 1 to 4)
2. Identify the forelimb structures above as to whether they are structures that are
homologous or analogous. Explain your answer.
3. What pattern of evolution is most likely to have caused these limbs to develop in
this manner? Justify your answer.
4. Color code the bones that are similar in each animal using color pencil or crayons.
5. Identify the number of fingers and/or toes of each of the animals.
6. Enumerate the similarities and differences in each part of the forelimb
7. Why would these wing structures have evolved differently?

Activity 3
Your Face Looks Familiar!

Directions: Examine the chart carefully. The chart below resembles to that of a
phylogenetic tree. The chart shows various facial features of the unknown animals.
After your deep scrutiny, you are tasked to answer the guide questions on the
following section of this activity.

Image Source: Part-2-Homology-Assignment_-HomologousandAnalogousStructuresWorksheet.pdf (claibornecountyschools.com)

GUIDE QUESTIONS

1. Which species on the chart (A, B, C, D, E, F) is the common ancestor? Justify

your
answer__________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
2. Did the round nose of Species E and Species F come from the common ancestor?
___________________________________________________________________

3. Is the round nose of Species E and Species F a homologous structure?

___________________________________________________________________

4. Did the square nose of Species D and Species G come from the common
ancestor? ____________________________________________________________________
5. Is the square nose of Species D and Species G a homologous structure?
____________________________________________________________________

6. Are the cat ears of Species D and Species F homologous structures?

____________________________________________________________________

7. Are the smiles of Species E and Species G homologous structures?

_____________________________________________________________________

Source:Part-2-Homology-Assignment_-HomologousandAnalogousStructuresWorksheet.pdf (claibornecountyschools.com)

WRAP-UP

Scientists make use of several parameters in order to determine and analyze

evolutionary relationships that exist among living organisms. These parameters are
also derived from the concrete pieces of evidence of evolution. To summarize the
valuable ideas in this module, make a conceptual table that can simply and clearly
present the importance of these parameters in identifying the underpinning
evolutionary relationships among organisms. Complete the following table below.

Parameters Mechanisms Best Example

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.
 VALUING

All organisms are uniquely created and equally important in our ecosystem.
Each individual organism has its own significant role in the environment thus
maintaining equilibrium in our earth’s biosphere. Evolutionary relationships among
organisms – including human beings simply show that we are purposively connected
with one another – as conceivably proven by science and categorically explained by
various religious beliefs.

POSTTEST

Identify the parameters of evolutionary relationships being described in each

statement. Choose your answers in the box and write the correct answers on the
blank.

A. Genome Phylogeny D. Homologous Structures/Traits

B. Mitochondrial DNA E. Gene Conservation

C. Molecular Comparisons F. Analogous Structures/Traits

_____1. Variations in a protein's amino-acid sequence, differences in a gene's

individual nucleotide sequence, or differences in gene arrangements.
_____2. The use of diagrams to differentiate between biological taxa and trace the
evolutionary history of a given species.
_____3. Identical structures that do not share an evolutionary history such as
structures demonstrated by the bee and bird or bat wing styles.

_____4. The prevalence of genes in numerous organisms such as the gene for
encoding cytochrome proteins during ATP production.

_____5. The structure of bones in the flippers of dolphins, wings of bats, the foreleg
of a horse and cat, and the arm of humans.
_____6. Suitable for comparing organisms within a species or those that have
diverged within a relatively short period of time.

KEY TO CORRECTION

6. B 6. A
5. D 5. E 5. C
4. E 4. D 4. D
3. F 3. C 3. B
2. A 2. B 2. B
1. C 1. F 1. C
Post Test Recap Pretest

References

Reference Books

Javier, Mark Archei O. (2017) General Biology 2. Makati City: DIWA Learning
Systems, Inc.
Rea, Maria Angelica D. and Nikki Heherson A. Dagamac (2017) General Biology 2.
Quezon City: Rex Book Store, Inc.

Electronic References

https://www.dreamstime.com/homologous-structure-vector-illustration-biological-species-example-scheme-
structures-labeled-structural-diagram-bone-titles-image168174606

http://www.opentextbooks.org.hk/ditatopic/34926

https://opened.cuny.edu/courseware/lesson/705/student/?task=2

Analogous and Homologous Traits - CLADISTICS (weebly.com)

CLADISTICS - Home (weebly.com)

http://www.vce.bioninja.com.au/aos-4-change-over-time/evolution/evolutionary-relationships.html

Homologous Analogous Vestigial Activity GP13.pdf (tamdistrict.org)

Part-2-Homology-Assignment_-HomologousandAnalogousStructuresWorksheet.pdf (claibornecountyschools.com)

Part-2-Homology-Assignment_-HomologousandAnalogousStructuresWorksheet.pdf (claibornecountyschools.com)