Disaster-Resilient Urban Design in Japan: Study of a Nation in Crisis 1

SEMESTER IV, 2023

DISASTER RESILIENT
URBAN DESIGN IN JAPAN
STUDY OF A NATION IN CRISIS

TERM PAPER
URBAN DESIGN AND CONSERVATION

AYUSH BASU SENGUPTA

BP/882/2021

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Disaster-Resilient Urban Design in Japan: Study of a Nation in Crisis

- Ayush Basu Sengupta (BP/882/2021)

‘Our ancestors have overcome many difficulties and each time emerged stronger’
Shinzo Abe, Former Japanese Prime Minister

Abstract
As the world faces the growing pressures of climate change and rising sea levels, disaster-
resilient urban design has become an increasingly important area of research and practice in
response to the future threats posed by natural disasters. Japan, an economically-developed
country located in the infamous Pacific ‘Ring of Fire’, highly vulnerable to earthquakes,
typhoons, and tsunamis, has been at the forefront of such urban design practices, and has
developed some of the most advanced disaster response systems in the world. This paper
explores the main principles and approaches to disaster-proof urban planning and design in
Japan, with a focus on the role of its historical development as a response to the pressures of
natural disasters, strategies and approaches adopted, the underlying laws and policy
frameworks, along with relevant case studies.

Introduction
The Japanese Home Islands are located in the Pacific Ring of Fire, a zone of extreme crustal
instability. Annual earthquake counts can reach as high as 1,500, and magnitudes of 4 (light)
to 6 (strong) are not unusual. In one region of the nation or another, minor earthquakes happen
virtually every day, generating some minor shaking of buildings. Major earthquakes, which
can take thousands of lives and cause great damage to cities occur intermittently, such as the
Great Kantō earthquake of 1923, in which 130,000 people died, and the 2011 Tōhoku
earthquake, the fifth largest under human record. Undersea earthquakes also expose the
Japanese coastline to danger from tsunamis, which are often even more costly in terms of
human lives than earthquakes.
In response to repeated natural disasters, Japan has developed a unique approach to urban
design that prioritizes disaster-risk reduction (DRR). Disaster-resilient urban design is an
essential aspect of ensuring the safety and sustainability of Japan's cities, infrastructure, and
communities in the event of a disaster.
The purpose of this research paper is to examine the key features of DRR-oriented urban design
in the East Asian nation and to assess their effectiveness in mitigating the impact of natural
disasters. This paper will explore the various strategies and approaches that it has implemented
to create urban environments less vulnerable to natural disasters, including the use of disaster-
preventive infrastructure, buffer zones, modification of urban structures into disaster-adaptive
evacuation routs and shelters, and its unique and rigorous building code. This will be followed
by a look into the overlying legal and policy frameworks.

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The paper will also examine a case study of a recent disaster that has occurred in Japan- that
of the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami that devastated the north-eastern part of the
country. The case studies will provide insights into the effectiveness of such urban design
strategies and highlight the areas where improvements can be made.
The research paper will be structured as follows. The first section will provide an overview and
historical perspective of disaster-resilient urban design and its importance in Japan. The second
section will examine the various strategies and approaches used in the country to create DRR-
adaptive urban environments. The third section will look into the underlying legal and policy
basis that has provided the framework for Japan’s disaster-adaptive urban strategies.
The fourth and final section will present a case study of the 2011 natural disaster in Japan and
analyse the efficacy of these approaches and policies in mitigating its impact. Finally, the
conclusion will summarize the key findings in this area.
Overall, this research paper aims to contribute to the understanding of disaster-resilient urban
design in Japan and what makes its approach unique than other countries. While these standards
have not been flawless in the face of calamity, they have helped to quickly evacuate large
numbers of people, as well as reducing the intensity of disasters. These provide lessons which
are crucial to ensuring the adaptability of urban areas across the world to natural disasters.

Image 1: Pacific ‘Ring of Fire’, which covers the entire Japanese landmass. Source: USGS, Public Domain

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Section 1: History and Overview

Natural disasters are a frequent occurrence in Japan since time immemorial, with earthquakes,
typhoons, and tsunamis being a constant threat to the safety and well-being of its citizens. Over
the past centuries, they have wreaked havoc upon vulnerable coastal settlements and densely
packed fire-prone towns. Meanwhile, these urban settlements have always undergone
reconstruction, often at an extremely rapid pace. However, these have not induced any large-
scale change in urban design environment and often, the cities were rebuilt much the same as
before, with little innovations in building codes or urban form.
In the absence of any organised government response to often devastating calamities,
traditional Japanese architecture has acclimatised to such threats in a variety of ways. Wood
construction, for example, provides flexibility in the event of tremors, and heavy roofing helps
to stabilize houses battered by typhoon-strength winds. The prevalence of wooden architecture,
however caused further problems in densely packed urban residential and commercial districts,
where they hastened the spread of fires throughout conurbations.
In the Edo Period (1603-1867), for example, when conflagrations were so common in Edo
(present-day Tokyo), they were called Edo no hana, or the ‘flowers of Edo’, the location and
structure of disaster-prone cities were rarely challenged. The military government attempted to
reduce the spread of fires through the creation of broad open spaces (hiyokechi)- a precursor to
modern-day buffer zones and green spaces designed to contain the impact of natural disasters,
and through ordinances requiring the use of fire-proof materials. However, they were rarely
followed outside of government lands and densely-packed commoners districts did not benefit
much from government intervention.

Image 2: Traditional Japanese street consisting of wooden houses in modern-day Kyoto. Source: Solio, 2014

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In the early post-war period, Japan experienced extensive damage from a series of typhoons,
further exacerbated due to the near-total destruction of urban infrastructure by wartime air-
raids, such as the calamitous Isewan Typhoon in 1959. This weakness became an opportunity
as the Basic Act on Disaster Countermeasures to prevent damage by natural disasters was
enacted in 1961. This Law requires that each municipality prepare comprehensive disaster
prevention including creating disaster prevention plans, and has been crucial for Japan’s
disaster-management structure.
In the 1980s, places with high risk of fire-spread by earthquakes such as densely built-up urban
areas with wooden apartment buildings and the areas not designated as fire-prevention areas
received further attention to improve their safety. Creation and improvement of evacuation
routes and the designated evacuation areas was especially emphasized. Consequently,
construction of fire-prevention zones such as surrounded by high-width roads and fire-proof
buildings around designated evacuation sites was endorsed.
Following the Great Hanshin earthquake in 1995, the concept of ‘disaster prevention living
area’ was also proposed. This aims to promote disaster-resilience such as the planning and
development of disaster prevention roads and parks and support disaster-mitigation actions
through community-based activities. This concept is located and based on an area under daily
use, such as an elementary school surrounded by fire-prevention roads.
The most recent major harbinger of change in its DRR in was the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and
tsunami. Numerous structures proved too flimsy to endure the earthquake and shattered under
pressure. Even through many buildings with strong building codes survived the earthquake,
they ultimately proved too vulnerable to the tsunami, requiring a re-evaluation to the building
code. Similar cases were noticed with many of the seawalls which did not perform well against
storm surges, causing mass casualties.

Section 2: Strategies and Approaches

By investing in technical solutions, community engagement, and disaster risk reduction efforts,
Japan has been able to significantly reduce the impact of natural disasters on its cities and
communities.
 Building Codes and Retrofitting- A crucial strategy for disaster-resilient urban design
is the development of new building codes and the retrofitting and improvement of older
buildings to meet modern standards. The Japanese building code (Kenchiku kijun-hō)
has undergone several modifications over the years to reduce disaster risk and promote
healthy urban design practices.

One of the most significant modifications to the building code is the rigidly-enforced
implementation of modern seismic design standards. Buildings in Japan are required to
be designed to withstand earthquakes of a certain magnitude, depending on the location
and type of structure. The seismic design standards include provisions for reinforced
concrete, steel, and wood structures, among others. Buildings are also required to
undergo periodic seismic inspections to ensure their continued safety.

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Image 3: Tokyo Skytree tower is believed to be totally earthquake-proof. It uses seismic dampers on its base which connect
to a central pillar that can absorb an earthquake’s shock. Source: New Atas

Another key innovation is the requirement for tsunami-resistant buildings in coastal

areas. After the devastating 2011 earthquake and tsunami, which caused widespread
damage and loss of life, the Japanese government introduced standards to ensure that
buildings in tsunami-prone areas are designed and constructed to withstand the impact
of tsunamis. These include provisions for the elevation and reinforcement of buildings,
the use of tsunami-resistant materials, and the implementation of evacuation measures.

Finally, there are also provisions accounting for typhoon resilience. Buildings and
structures near the coasts must be constructed to resist to withstand strong winds, heavy
rainfall, and storm surges associated with typhoons. These provisions include the use
of wind-resistant materials, reinforced structures, and adequate drainage systems..

 Green Spaces and Buffer Zones- Green spaces and buffer zones are also important
aspects of disaster-proof urban design, as they can help to absorb the impact of natural
disasters and reduce the risk of damage to buildings and infrastructure. In recent
decades, many local governments have developed new green spaces and buffer zones,
particularly in coastal areas. For example, the city of Ishinomaki in Miyagi Prefecture
developed a 300-hectare forest along the coast as a buffer zone against future tsunamis.

In a smaller scale, this has been implemented further inland to act as a check against
riverine flooding. An instance of this is Tokyo's Arakawa River, which has been
transformed into a green corridor with parks and green spaces that act as a buffer zone
against flooding. The riverbanks have been raised and reinforced to prevent overflow
during heavy rain or flooding, and the surrounding areas have been designed to be
flood-resistant. The green spaces have multiple uses as they also provide recreational
areas for residents, thereby providing spaces for greater community engagement.

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Image 4: Green space beside the Arakawa River to prevent flooding Source: Kinmonth, 2019

Urban designers and planners also aim at implementing wide pedestrian areas and
creating more space between buildings to reduce the spread of fire and mitigate a
building falling onto another, especially in highly urbanised spaces and city centres,
which remain as densely packed as ever even today. This is especially ideal for wooden
houses in residential zones (wood remains widely prevalent as a building element in
Japan) when buildings close by collapse and prevents the spread of fires caused by
earthquakes or other disasters.

 Evacuation Routes- Evacuation routes are an integral part of the nation’s disaster
management policy. Clear and efficient evacuation routes are crucial to ensure the
safety of people during disasters. Many local governments have developed new
evacuation plans and warning systems that include multiple routes and a variety of
evacuation sites, depending on the level of the disaster. The system also includes real-
time information on the location and severity of the disaster, which can be accessed via
smartphones and other devices.

One of the vital features of Japan's evacuation routes is their multi-layered and
redundant nature. The country's disaster response system involves a tiered approach
that starts with local communities, then expands to the prefectural and national levels
as needed. The government has established evacuation plans and maps for different
disaster scenarios, which highlight the location of evacuation centres, transport routes,
and assembly points for affected communities depending on the type, severity, duration
and the areas affected by the event, along with other factors. This means that evacuation
routes are designed to provide multiple options for safe evacuation, taking into account
factors such as topography, population density, and transportation infrastructure.

Moreover, Japan has also developed innovative solutions to improve the accessibility
and safety of evacuation routes. For instance, some areas have implemented a system
known as ‘vertical evacuation’, where multi-story buildings are designed to provide

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safe refuge for residents during disasters. These buildings are equipped with emergency
supplies, medical equipment, and communication devices to support residents during
emergencies.

Ubiquitous elements of the Japanese city such as elevated pedestrian walkways have
also been similarly constructed to serve as evacuation routes in the event of a disaster.
These walkways are typically located above street level and connect various buildings
and public spaces, providing a relatively safe and quick route for residents to evacuate,
for example during flooding on the street level.

Other than this, large, sturdy public buildings and edifices, such as schools and
community centres, have been designated by local and prefectural governments into a
nationwide network of disaster shelters. These shelters are strategically located
throughout urban areas and are intended to be easily accessible via designated
evacuation routes. They are often constructed to meet specific structural requirements,
such as earthquake-resistant design, reinforced walls, and elevated floors to protect
against flooding.

 Disaster Prevention Infrastructure- Japan has developed an extensive disaster

prevention infrastructure, including seawalls, dams, and floodgates to protect coastal
areas from tsunamis and storm surges. There is also an early warning system for
earthquakes, typhoons, and tsunamis that provides timely and accurate information to
residents.

The island nation’s long and vulnerable shores are ringed off by an extensive network
of seawalls and breakwaters. These structures, which cover at least 43 percent of Japan's
29,751 km long coastline is lined with concrete seawalls or other structures intended to
protect coastal areas from maritime calamities. For instance, after the 2011 Tohoku
earthquake and tsunami, the Japanese government constructed a 400-kilometer-long
seawall along the coastline of the affected regions to provide better protection against
future tsunamis. In some cases, they have been incorporated into the overall design of
the city, such as the seawalls in Tokyo Bay which are used as a recreational area for
residents
.
However, these have at times been unsuccessful, such as failure of the world's largest
seawall, which cost $1.5 billion to construct, in the aftermath of the 2011 disaster. The
risks of dependence on seawalls were most evident in the crisis at the Fukushima
Daiichi and Fukushima Daini nuclear power plants, both located along the coast close
to the earthquake zone, as the tsunami washed over walls that were supposed to protect
the plants. This shall be further explored in Section 4.

Another component of the country’s DRR infrastructure is the network of river

embankments and floodgates. Due to the frequent occurrence of typhoons and heavy
rainfall, Japan has developed an extensive system of river embankments and floodgates
to prevent flooding and protect urban areas. These structures are typically designed to
withstand a certain level of flooding, ensuring that the impact of any flood is limited.

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Image 5: Seawalls in Kesennuma, Miyagi Prefecture. Miyagi Prefecture was one of the worst affected by the 2011
Earthquake and Tsunami. Source: Business Insider

In coastal areas of Japan, there are multistorey vertical evacuation structures that are designed
to provide refuge for residents in the event of a tsunami- tsunami evacuation towers. These
structures can be multi-story buildings that are built to withstand the force of the water and
debris that can come with a tsunami. In addition to serving as such, many of these buildings
have other purposes as well. For example, some tsunami towers are designed to serve as
community centres or multi-purpose facilities that can be used for meetings, events, or other
activities, or even as hotels and residential buildings.

Section 3: Underlying Policies and Legal Frameworks

The creation of Japan’s robust DRR-aimed urban design strategies and infrastructure have been
underpinned by a range of policies, laws and programs that provide the basis for its
implementation. They will be explored in this section.
A key policy is the Basic Act on Disaster Countermeasures, established in 1961 and revised in
2013. It sets out the basic principles of disaster management in Japan, including the promotion
of comprehensive and systematic disaster countermeasures, the development of disaster
prevention measures, and the establishment of a disaster management system. Thereby this
policy provides the framework for ensuring that disaster risk reduction is incorporated into all
aspects of urban design and planning.
Another important legal component is the Building Standards Act which produced the
country’s stringent disaster-adaptive building code. This sets out the standards for construction

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and ensures that all buildings are designed and constructed to withstand earthquakes, typhoons,
and other natural disasters. It also includes guidelines for retrofitting existing establishments to
meet these standards.
Other laws and regulations that specifically address disaster-resilient urban design in Japan
include the Urban Renewal Act, which provides for the creation of urban renewal plans that
allow for disaster prevention and mitigation of older, more vulnerable areas, and the Act on
Promotion of Measures for Structural Improvement, which provide guidance on earthquake-
construction and the modification of existing structures.
Furthermore, a range of guidelines and standards have been established directed towards
ensuring that designs conform to DRR norms, such as the Guidelines for Urban Disaster
Prevention and Mitigation, which provide recommendations on the development of evacuation
plans, establishing emergency shelters, and the design of disaster-resistant constructions.
Finally, the state also provides financial incentives and support for disaster-resilient urban
design, including grants, subsidies, and low-interest loans for the reconstruction and retrofitting
of existing structures to reduce their vulnerability to disasters. and the construction of new
disaster-resistant buildings through a variety of measures, such as the Seismic Retrofitting Act
and the Tilt-up Retrofitting Subsidy Program for concrete structures.

Section 4: A Case Study of the 2011 Tōhoku Earthquake

On March 11th, 2011 a Magnitude 9.0 earthquake struck off the northeast coast of Japan, near
the Tōhoku region. The force of the earthquake sent a tsunami rushing towards the Tōhoku
coastline, a black wall of water which wiped away entire towns and villages. Sea walls were
overrun. 20,000 lives were lost. The scale of destruction to housing, infrastructure, industry
and agriculture was extreme in Fukushima, Iwate, and Miyagi prefectures. In addition to the
hundreds of thousands who lost their homes, the earthquake and tsunami contributed to an
accident at the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant, requiring additional mass evacuations.

Image 6: Tsunami in Miyagi Prefecture. Source: Earthquake Case Study

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Image 6: Destruction in Ōfunato, Iwate prefecture. Source: Associated Press

Japan's disaster-resilience policies were put to the test in the aftermath of the 2011 earthquake
and tsunami. The country's building codes, evacuation plans, and infrastructure were all subject
to scrutiny in the aftermath of the disaster. Japan’s stringent and robust building codes and
regulations that were put in place to ensure earthquake and tsunami resistance proved one of
the main strengths of the country’s resistance to the earthquake. They ensured that many
buildings withstood the earthquake, including hospitals, schools, and other critical
infrastructure. However, in many seaside areas where earthquake-resistant structures had
endured the earthquake without taking serious damage, the proved weaker against the tsunami
waves, which turned out to exceed their predicted heights for many areas, thereby causing large
amounts of damage and casualties.
In other areas in the country, the buffer zones proved very efficient in reducing the scale of the
disaster, or in helping the residents by providing a safe place to evacuate, for e.g., green spaces.
In Sendai city, which was severely affected by the disaster, the Yagiyama Zoological Park had
been designated as an evacuation area due to its elevated location and open space. The park
was able to accommodate over 3,000 evacuees and provided a safe haven for those affected by
the disaster.
Seawalls too performed well against tsunami waves in areas where due precautions were taken,
for e.g., in the city of Kamaishi, where a breakwater and seawall helped to redirect the energy
of the tsunami and protect the city's harbour. In nearby Ishinomaki, tsunami evacuation towers
built to provide safety for evacuees escaping flooding, provided a refuge for residents who
were unable to evacuate before the waves hit.

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One of the major failures was failure was the inadequate height of the anti-tsunami seawalls
along the coast, which were only designed to withstand tsunamis with a maximum height of
5.7 meters. However, the tsunami was much higher, with waves reaching up to 40 meters,
overwhelming the walls and causing mass destruction.
There were severe criticisms of the design and construction of some evacuation centres, which
were overcrowded and lacked basic facilities such as adequate toilets and water supplies. There
have also been criticisms of the design and construction of some evacuation centres, which
were overcrowded and lacked basic facilities such as adequate toilets and water supplies.
Furthermore, the disaster exposed vulnerabilities in critical facilities, including transportation
systems, communication networks, and energy systems. For example, many roads and railways
were damaged or destroyed, making it difficult for emergency responders to reach affected
areas and for residents to evacuate. In addition, the loss of power and communication networks
hindered the response efforts and made it difficult for affected individuals to communicate with
their loved ones and access critical information.
All of these issues led to a critical evaluation of the country’s disaster-resilient infrastructure.
Several improvements were made based on these lessons and to reduce the possibility for risks
against future disasters. The government increased the height of seawalls and other measures
along the coast for future disasters. They also improved evacuation routes and centres, and
implemented a system to provide early warnings and alerts to residents in affected areas.

Image 7: Tsunami Evacuation Tower, Ishinomaki. Source: Breakthrough Bandwagon Books

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Image 7: A public housing complex, part of the reconstruction process of Onagawa, Miyagi Prefecture. Source: KYODO.

In some areas, seawalls were raised by several meters, and in others, they were widened to
provide a greater barrier against tsunami waves. Their designs were also improved to make
them more resilient to natural disasters. Seawalls are now constructed with materials such as
reinforced concrete and steel, which provide greater strength and durability. New technologies
and systems were also employed to monitor the condition of seawalls and respond to potential
failures.
Japanese cities also invested in new emergency evacuation buildings to provide safe refuge for
residents in the event of a disaster. These buildings were designed to be earthquake-resistant
and to withstand the force of a tsunami. One example of these buildings is the Miracle Pine
disaster prevention center in the city of Rikuzentakata, which was built to replace the city's
original disaster center, which was destroyed in the tsunami. The Miracle Pine center features
a rooftop helipad, a multipurpose hall, and other facilities to support emergency response
efforts in future disasters.
Tsunami-evacuation towers were built throughout the nation’s coasts following their stellar
performance in the calamity. They were also modified to feature emergency equipment such
as generators, water tanks, and ventilation systems to provide basic life support to residents in
the event of an adversity for a period of days.
Important new steps and policies were also taken, as mentioned in Section 3. These include the
revision of Japan’s Building Standards Act in 2013 which encompassed several new provisions
to improve building standards and ensure that structures are more resistant to natural disasters.
This includes the use of modern techniques such as seismic-resistant design and the inclusion

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of features such as base isolation systems and energy-absorbing structures. The Act on
Promotion of Seismic Retrofitting was also passed in 2014 to provide financial incentives for
building owners to retrofit their structures to improve seismic resilience.
Conclusion and Lessons
In culmination, this paper studied the history of Japan’s steps and measures against natural
disaster, from traditional wooden homes in the distant past to the concrete tsunami evacuation
towers of today. Its past experiences have proved extremely helpful in the creation of its
subsequent policies.
Japan has implemented various disaster-resilient urban design strategies and policies to reduce
the impact of natural disasters on its urban areas. These strategies include evacuation routes,
disaster shelters, green spaces, buffer zones, earthquake-resistant construction, and disaster
prevention infrastructure. To provide a proper structure for this, several target policies have
been taken, such as to
Although the 2011 earthquake and tsunami highlighted some serious vulnerabilities and
failures of the island nation’s disaster-resilience policies, the country learned valuable lessons
from them and made significant improvements to its disaster-resilient urban design. It
thereafter updated its building codes, provided incentives for retrofitting buildings, and
implemented more comprehensive evacuation plans. New improved infrastructures were built
which improved upon the vulnerabilities that had so failed before. These include
Overall, Japan's approach to disaster-resilient urban design serves as an example for other
countries facing similar challenges. While no system can completely eliminate the risk of
natural disasters, Japan's approach has proven effective in mitigating the impact and saving
lives. With continued improvements and innovations, Japan can continue to lead the way in
disaster-resilient urban design and provides a model to aspire for the rest of the world.
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