MSE-101

Fundamentals of
Engineering Materials

Chapter 6
Mechanical Properties
Dr. Zubair Khan
1
Mechanical Properties of Engineering
Alloys

A suspension bridge is shown in Figure.

The weight of the bridge deck and automobiles
imposes tensile forces on the vertical suspender
cables. These forces are in turn transferred to the
main suspension cable, which sags in a more-or-
less parabolic shape.

Strength of the alloy(s) may be assessed from

tests performed using a tensile-testing apparatus
2
 Chapter 6:
Mechanical Properties
ISSUES TO ADDRESS...

• Stress and strain: What are they and why are

they used instead of load and deformation?
• Elastic behavior: When loads are small, how much
deformation occurs? What materials deform least?
• Plastic behavior: At what point does permanent
deformation occur? What materials are most
resistant to permanent deformation?
• Toughness and ductility: What are they and how
do we measure them?

3
Materials and Mechanical Behavior
• Structures and components carry loads and forces
Buildings, bridges, engine parts, aircraft wings

• Sometimes we need to change shape of materials in the solid state

Forging, Rolling, Machining

• A sound knowledge of the behavior of materials under such mechanical

forces is required for
* Safe design of the structures and components
* Long serviceability
* Efficient manufacturing
 Materials and Mechanical Behavior
• Loads on materials could be of several types
- Static tension or compression
- Complex bending or torsion
- Dynamic loads - fatigue
- High temperature loads - creep, plastic deformation

• Relevant mechanical properties are

o Tensile strength
o Hardness
o Fatigue strength
o Elastic modulus
o Creep strength
o Fracture toughness
Mechanical Testing Standards
• Different testing methods are required to determine different
properties

• In order to compare results obtained by various people at different

places Standards are used. Each test is described in standards.
- American Society of Testing of Materials (ASTM) Standards
- European Standards
- British Standards (BS)

• We must read the standards before conducting an authentic test.

 Introduction to stress and strain

• When we apply a force to a material, it can:

• deform elastically
• deform plastically,
• or it can break (fracture).

• How the material responds to applied forces (load) is called

the mechanical behavior of the material.
• Think of a rubber band, a
plastic comb, a piece of wood.
Mechanical Behavior

• Machines, vehicles, and structures

• Performance and economy
• Safe and durable
• Deformation and fracture
• Stress in a component must not exceed the strength of the material
Stress

Uniaxial Loading

Internal Forces

Equilibrium: internal forces = external forces

Distribution of internal forces = Stress

Uniformly distributed forces

Stress

N/m2 or lb/inch2
Stress

Positive

Negative
The Tensile Test
• Test is covered by ASTM standard E8 and E8M

• A test specimen machined from the material is deformed in

uniaxial tension until fracture.

• A testing machine is required to deform under controlled loading

conditions and to measure the load and deformation behaviour
of the specimen

• The output is a record of load vs extension curve. This could be

converted to a stress vs strain curve
Tensile Test
• Commonly used to measure mechanical properties of
materials
• Materials are tested under an uniaxial tensile load.

Load cell
The top end of the sample is fixed in the stationary
holder of test machine.
Exten-
Specimen
someter The bottom end is fixed in a moving holder of the
machine.
The moving end moves at a fixed rate of
Moving displacement and applies a load to the specimen.
cross-head
Test usually continues until the specimen fractures.

Schematic of a tensile test

Tensile Test Specimen
Assumptions
• The material studied is isotropic:
• the properties of the material is identical in all directions or invariant with
respect to direction.

• The material studied is homogeneous:

• the structure or composition of the material is uniform throughout.
Isotropic & Homogeneous
Elastic Deformation
• Reversible deformation

• Most materials exhibit linear stress-strain behaviour during

elastic deformation. The slope of the line is Young’s modulus.
Larger the Young’s modulus, the stiffer the material.

• Some materials exhibit non-linear elastic behaviour

Examples: grey cast iron, concrete, many polymers
For these materials, tangent or secant modulus is used
Elastic Deformation
1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload

bonds
stretch

return to
initial

F
F Linear-
elastic

Elastic means reversible! Non-Linear-

elastic
 18
Plastic Deformation (Metals)
1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload
bonds
stretch planes
& planes still
shear sheared

plastic
elastic + plastic F

linear linear
F elastic elastic

Plastic means permanent! plastic

19
Engineering Stress  Stress has units:
N/m2 or lbf/in2

• Tensile stress, : • Shear stress, :

Ft Ft F

Area, A Area, A Fs

Fs
Ft
Fs Ft
F lb N = F
 = t = 2f or 2 Ao
A o in m
original area
before loading
20
Common States of Stress
• Simple tension: cable
F F
A o = cross sectional
area (when unloaded)
F
=  
Ao
Ski lift (photo courtesy
P.M. Anderson)
• Torsion (a form of shear): drive shaft
M Fs Ao
Ac
Fs
 =
Ao
M
2R Note:  = M/AcR here. 21
OTHER COMMON STRESS STATES (1)
• Simple compression:

Ao

Canyon Bridge, Los Alamos, NM

(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)

F
=
Note: compressive
Balanced Rock, Arches structure member
National Park
(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)
Ao ( < 0 here).

22
STRESS–STRAIN BEHAVIOR
• The degree to which a structure deforms or strains depends on
the magnitude of an imposed stress.
• For most metals that are stressed in tension and at relatively
low levels,

• This is known as Hooke’s law, and the constant of

proportionality E (GPa or psi) is the modulus of elasticity, or
Young’s modulus.

• For most typical metals the magnitude of this modulus ranges

between 45 GPa
STRESS–STRAIN BEHAVIOR- Cont…
• The degree to which a structure deforms, or
strains depends on the magnitude of an
imposed stress.

• Deformation in which stress and strain are

proportional is called elastic deformation; a
plot of stress (ordinate) versus strain
(abscissa) results in a linear relationship

• Modulus of elasticity may be thought of as

stiffness, or a material’s resistance to elastic
deformation.
• The greater the modulus, the stiffer the
material, or the smaller the elastic strain
Tangent & Secant Moduli
• There are some materials (e.g., gray cast
iron, concrete, and many polymers) for
which this elastic portion of the stress–
strain curve is not linear
• For this nonlinear behavior, either tangent
or secant modulus is normally used.

• Tangent modulus is taken as the slope of

the stress–strain curve at some specified
level of stress

• Secant modulus represents the slope of a

secant drawn from the origin to some given
point
 Macroscopic elastic strain
• On an atomic scale, macroscopic elastic strain is manifested as small changes in the
interatomic spacing and the stretching of interatomic bonds.
• As a consequence, the magnitude of the modulus of elasticity is a measure of the
resistance to separation of adjacent atoms, that is, the interatomic bonding forces.
Imposition of compressive, shear, or torsional stresses

• Imposition of compressive, shear, or torsional stresses also evokes

elastic behavior. The stress–strain characteristics at low stress levels are
virtually the same for both tensile and compressive situations

• Shear stress and strain are proportional to each other through the
expression

G is the shear modulus, the slope of the linear elastic region of the
shear stress–strain curve.
Engineering Strain
• Tensile strain: • Lateral strain:
/2
−L
 =  L =
Lo Lo wo
wo

L /2
• Shear strain:

x  = x/y = tan 

y 90º - 
Strain is always
90º dimensionless.
Adapted from Fig. 6.1 (a) and (c), Callister 7e. 28
Stress-Strain Testing
• Typical tensile test • Typical tensile
machine specimen

Adapted from
extensometer specimen Fig. 6.2,
Callister 7e.

gauge
length

Adapted from Fig. 6.3, Callister 7e. (Fig. 6.3 is taken from H.W.
Hayden, W.G. Moffatt, and J. Wulff, The Structure and Properties of
Materials, Vol. III, Mechanical Behavior, p. 2, John Wiley and Sons,
New York, 1965.) 29
Linear Elastic Properties
• Modulus of Elasticity, E:
(also known as Young's modulus)

• Hooke's Law:
=E  F
E


Linear-
elastic F
simple
tension
test

30
Poisson's ratio, 
L
• Poisson's ratio, :

L
=− 


metals:  ~ 0.33 -
ceramics:  ~ 0.25
polymers:  ~ 0.40

Units: – > 0.50 density increases

E: [GPa] or [psi]
– < 0.50 density decreases
: dimensionless (voids form)

31
Other Elastic Properties
 M
• Elastic Shear
modulus, G:
G simple
 torsion
=G test

M
• Elastic Bulk P P
modulus, K:
V V P P
P = -K Vo
Vo K pressure
test: Init.
vol =Vo.
• Special relations for isotropic materials: Vol chg.
= V
E E
G= K=
2(1 + ) 3(1 − 2)
32
Young’s Moduli: Comparison
Graphite
Metals Composites
Ceramics Polymers
Alloys /fibers
Semicond
1200
1000 Diamond
800
600
Si carbide
400 Tungsten Al oxide Carbon fibers only
Molybdenum Si nitride
E(GPa) 200
Steel, Ni
Tantalum <111>
CFRE(|| fibers)*
Platinum Si crystal
Cu alloys <100> Aramid fibers only
100 Zinc, Ti
80 Silver, Gold
Glass -soda AFRE(|| fibers)* Based on data in Table B2,
Aluminum Glass fibers only
60
40
Magnesium,
Tin GFRE(|| fibers)* Callister 7e.
Concrete Composite data based on
109 Pa 20 GFRE*
CFRE*
reinforced epoxy with 60 vol%
of aligned
Graphite GFRE( fibers)*
10 carbon (CFRE),
8 CFRE( fibers) *
6 AFRE( fibers) *
aramid (AFRE), or
Polyester glass (GFRE)
4 PET
PS fibers.
PC Epoxy only
2
PP
1 HDPE
0.8
0.6 Wood( grain)
PTFE
0.4

0.2 LDPE 33
Modulus of elasticity versus temperature

34
Plastic (Permanent) Deformation
(at lower temperatures, i.e. T < Tmelt/3)

• Simple tension test:

Elastic+Plastic
engineering stress,  at larger stress

Elastic
initially
permanent (plastic)
after load is removed

p engineering strain, 

plastic strain Adapted from Fig. 6.10 (a),

Callister 7e.

35
Yield Strength, y
• Stress at which noticeable plastic deformation has
occurred.
when p = 0.002
tensile stress, 
y = yield strength
y

Note: for 2 inch sample

 = 0.002 = z/z
 z = 0.004 in

engineering strain, 
p = 0.002 Adapted from Fig. 6.10 (a),
Callister 7e.
36
For those materials having a
nonlinear elastic region, use of
the strain offset method is not
possible, and the usual practice
is to define the yield strength
as the stress required to
produce some amount of strain
(e.g., 0.005).

37
Yield Strength : Comparison Metals/
Graphite/
Composites/
Ceramics/ Polymers
Alloys fibers
Semicond
2000
Steel (4140) qt

Yield strength, y (MPa) 1000

Ti (5Al-2.5Sn) a

in ceramic matrix and epoxy matrix composites, since

700 W (pure)

since in tension, fracture usually occurs before yield.

in tension, fracture usually occurs before yield.

600 Cu (71500) cw
500 Mo (pure)
400 Steel (4140) a
Steel (1020) cd
300
Room T values

Hard to measure ,
Al (6061) ag

Hard to measure,
200 Steel (1020) hr ¨
Ti (pure) a
Ta (pure)
Cu (71500) hr Based on data in Table B4,
Callister 7e.
100 a = annealed
dry
70 PC
hr = hot rolled
60 Al (6061) a Nylon 6,6 ag = aged
50 PET
cd = cold drawn
40 PVC humid
cw = cold worked
PP
30 HDPE qt = quenched & tempered

20

LDPE
Tin (pure) 38
10
Tensile Strength, TS
• Maximum stress on engineering stress-strain curve.
Adapted from Fig. 6.11,
Callister 7e.
TS
F = fracture or
y
ultimate
engineering strength
stress
Typical response of a metal
Neck – acts
as stress
concentrator
strain
engineering strain
• Metals: occurs when noticeable necking starts.
• Polymers: occurs when polymer backbone chains are
aligned and about to break.
39
Tensile Strength : Comparison
Graphite/
Metals/ Composites/
Ceramics/ Polymers
Alloys fibers
Semicond
5000 C fibers
Aramid fib
3000 E-glass fib

Tensile strength, TS (MPa) 2000 Steel (4140) qt

AFRE(|| fiber)
1000 W (pure) Diamond GFRE(|| fiber)
Ti (5Al-2.5Sn)aa CFRE(|| fiber)
Steel (4140)
Cu (71500) cw Si nitride
Cu (71500) hr Al oxide
Steel (1020)
300 ag
Al (6061) a
Ti (pure)
200 Ta (pure) Room Temp. values
Al (6061) a
100 Si crystal wood(|| fiber) Based on data in Table B4,
<100> Nylon 6,6
Glass-soda PC PET Callister 7e.
40 Concrete PVC GFRE( fiber) a = annealed
PP CFRE( fiber)
30 hr = hot rolled
AFRE( fiber)
HDPE ag = aged
20 Graphite
LDPE cd = cold drawn
cw = cold worked
10 qt = quenched & tempered
AFRE, GFRE, & CFRE =
aramid, glass, & carbon
fiber-reinforced epoxy
wood ( fiber)
composites, with 60 vol%
fibers.
1 40
Ductility
Lf − Lo
• Plastic tensile strain at failure: %EL = x 100
Lo
smaller %EL
Engineering
tensile
stress,  Ao
larger %EL Lo Af Lf
Adapted from Fig. 6.13,
Callister 7e.

Engineering tensile strain, 

• Another ductility measure: Ao - Af

%RA = x 100
Ao
41
Toughness
• Energy to break a unit volume of material
• Approximate by the area under the stress-strain
curve.

Engineering small toughness (ceramics)

tensile large toughness (metals)
stress, 
Adapted from Fig. 6.13, very small toughness
Callister 7e. (unreinforced polymers)

Engineering tensile strain, 

Brittle fracture: elastic energy

Ductile fracture: elastic + plastic energy 42
Elastic Strain Recovery

Adapted from Fig. 6.17,

Callister 7e.

43
Hardness
• Resistance to permanently indenting the surface.
• Large hardness means:
--resistance to plastic deformation or cracking in
compression.
--better wear properties.
apply known force measure size
e.g., of indent after
10 mm sphere removing load

Smaller indents
D d mean larger
hardness.

most brasses easy to machine cutting nitrided

plastics Al alloys steels file hard tools steels diamond

increasing hardness
44
Hardness: Measurement
• Rockwell
• No major sample damage
• Each scale runs to 130 but only useful in range 20-100.
• Minor load 10 kg
• Major load 60 (A), 100 (B) & 150 (C) kg
• A = diamond, B = 1/16 in. ball, C = diamond

• HB = Brinell Hardness
• Load = 500 – 3000 kg
• TS (psia) = 500 x HB
• TS (MPa) = 3.45 x HB

45
Hardness: Measurement

46
Hardness: Measurement
Table 6.5

47
True Stress & Strain
Note: S.A. changes when sample stretched

• True stress T = F Ai T = (1 +  )

• True Strain T = ln ( i  o ) T = ln(1 +  )

Adapted from Fig. 6.16,

Callister 7e.

48
Hardening
• An increase in y due to plastic deformation.

large hardening
y
1
y small hardening
0


• Curve fit to the stress-strain response:
hardening exponent:
T = K T ( )
n n = 0.15 (some steels)
to n = 0.5 (some coppers)
“true” stress (F/A) “true” strain: ln(L/Lo)
49
Variability in Material Properties
• Elastic modulus is material property
• Critical properties depend largely on sample flaws
(defects, etc.). Large sample to sample variability.
• Statistics
n
• Mean  xn
x=
n
1
n 2
(x i − x ) 
2
• Standard Deviation s= 
 n −1 
 
where n is the number of data points
50
Design or Safety Factors
• Design uncertainties mean we do not push the limit.
• Factor of safety, N Often N is
y between
working = 1.2 and 4
N
• Example: Calculate a diameter, d, to ensure that yield does
not occur in the 1045 carbon steel rod below. Use a
factor of safety of 5.
d
y
working = 1045 plain
carbon steel:
N y = 310 MPa Lo
220,000N 5 TS = 565 MPa
(
 d2 / 4)
F = 220,000N
d = 0.067 m = 6.7 cm
51
Summary
• Stress and strain: These are size-independent
measures of load and displacement, respectively.
• Elastic behavior: This reversible behavior often
shows a linear relation between stress and strain.
To minimize deformation, select a material with a
large elastic modulus (E or G).
• Plastic behavior: This permanent deformation
behavior occurs when the tensile (or compressive)
uniaxial stress reaches y.
• Toughness: The energy needed to break a unit
volume of material.
• Ductility: The plastic strain at failure.

52
53
Resilience, Ur
• Ability of a material to store energy
• Energy stored best in elastic region

y
Ur =  d
0
If we assume a linear
stress-strain curve this
simplifies to

1
Ur  y  y
2
Adapted from Fig. 6.15,
Callister 7e.
54
Useful Linear Elastic Relationships
• Simple tension: • Simple torsion:
2ML o
 = FL o  = − Fw o =
L
EA o EA o r o4 G
F M = moment
/2  = angle of twist
Ao
Lo Lo
wo

2ro
L /2
• Material, geometric, and loading parameters all
contribute to deflection.
• Larger elastic moduli minimize elastic deflection.
55