ENERGY METHODS

In this chapter we will show how to apply energy methods to solve problems invovlving
deflection.

External work and strain energy

We will define the work caused by an external force and couple moment and show how to
express the work in terms of a body’s strain energy.

Work of a force

In mechanics a force does a work when it undergoes a displacement dx that is in the same
direction as the force. The work done is a scalar, defined as dUe = Fdx. If the total displacement
is x, the work becomes

x
U e =∫ Fdx
0 (1)

If the material behaves in a linear – elastic manner, then the force will be directly proportional to
the displacement, that is

F= ( PΔ ) x
Substituting into (1) and integrating from 0 to Δ, we get
Δ Δ
P PΔ
=∫ Fdx=∫ xdx=
0 0 Δ 2

Work of a couple moment

A couple moment M does work when it undergoes a rotational displacement dθ along its line of
action. The work done is defined as dUe = Mdθ. If the total angle of rotational displacement is θ
rad. The work becomes
θ
U e =∫ Md θ
0 (2)

As in the case of force, if the couple moment is applied to a body having linear elastic material
behavior, such that its magnitude is increased gradually from zero at θ = 0 to M, the work is

1
U e = Mθ
2
STRAIN ENERGY

When loads are applied to a body, they will deform the material. Provided energy is lost in the
form of heat, the external work done by the loads will be converted into internal work called
strain energy. This energy, which is always positive, is stored in the body and is caused by the
action of either normal or shear stress.
 1. Normal stress

If the volume element is subjected to the normal stress σz, then the force created on the top and
bottom faces is dFz = σz dA= σz dxdy

If this force is applied gradually to the element, its magnitude is increased from zero to dFz ,
while the element undergoes a displacement dΔz = εzdz

1 1
dU i= dF z dΔ z = ( σ z dxdy ) ε z dz
The work done by dFz is therefore 2 2 . Since the volume of the
element is dV =dxdydz , we have

1
dU i= σ z ε z dV
2 (3)

Notice that Ui is always positive, even if σz is compressive, since σz and εz will always be in the
same direction.

In general then, if the body is subjected only to a uniaxial normal stress σ, acting in a specified
direction, the strain energy in the body is then

σε
U i =∫ dV
V
2 (4)

Also, if the material behaves a linear elastic manner, Hooke’s law applies σ = Eε, and therefore
we can express the strain energy in terms of the normal stress as

σ2
U i =∫V dV
2E (5)

2. Shear stress

Here the shear stress causes the element to deform such that only the shear force dF = τdA =
τ(dxdy) acting on the top face of the element is displaced γdz relative to the bottom face. The
vertical faces only rotate, and therefore the shear forces on these faces do no work. Hence the
strain energy stored in the element is
 1 1
dU i= [ τ ( dxdy ) ] γ dz dU i= τγ dV
2 or 2 (6)

Where dV = dxdydz is the volume of the element.

Integrating over the body’s entire volume to obtain the strain energy stored in the body, we have

τγ
U i =∫V dV
2
Like the case of normal stress, shear strain energy is always positive since τ and γ are always in
the same direction. If the material is linear – elastic, then applying Hooke’s law, we can express
the strain energy in terms of the shear stress as

τ2
U i =∫V dV
2G (7)

3. Multiaxial stress

For a body subjected to a general state of stress, the strain energies associated with each of the
normal and shear stress components can be obtained from equations (3) and (6)

U i =∫V
[ 1
2
1 1 1 1 1
]
σ x ε x + σ y ε y + σ z ε z + τ xy γ xy + τ yz γ yz + τ xz γ xz dV
2 2 2 2 2 (8)
Generalized Hooke’s law

If the material at a point is subjected to a state of triaxial stress σx, σy σz associated normal
strains εx εx ε z are developed in the material. The stresses can be related to the strains by using
the principle of superimposition, Poisson’s ratio, εlat = - νεlong and Hooke’s law, as applied in the
σ
ε=
uniaxial direction, E . When σx is applied, the element elongates in the x direction and the
strain εx’ in this direction is

σx
εx '=
E

Application of σy causes the element to contract with strain εx’’ in the x direction. Here

σy
ε x ''=−ν
E

Likewise, application of σz causes a contraction in x direction such that

σz
ε x '''=−ν
E
When these three normal strains are superimposed, the normal strain εx is determined for the
state of stress in fig. (a). Similar equations can be developed for normal strains in the y and z
directions. The final results can be written as

1
E[ x
ε x= σ −ν ( σ y + σ z ) ]

1
E[ y
ε y= σ −ν ( σ x + σ z ) ]

1
E[ z
ε z= σ −ν ( σ x + σ y ) ]
(a)

These equations express Hooke’s law in a general form for a triaxial state of stress. If we apply a
shear stress τxy to the element (fig.a), experimental observations indicate that the material will
deform only due to a shear strain γxy. Likewise, τyz and τxz respectively. Hooke’s law for shear
stress and shear strain can therefore be written as

1 1 1
γ xy = τ γ yz = τ γ xz= τ
G xy G yz G xz (b)

The strains can be eliminated by using the generalized form of Hooke’s law (a) and (b). After
substituting in equation (8) the values (a) and (b), and combining terms, we have

If only the principal stresses σx, σy σz act on the element, this equation reduces to a simple
form

U i =∫V
[ 1
(
2E 1
ν
]
σ 2 +σ 2 + σ 2 )− ( σ 1 σ 2 +σ 2 σ 3 + σ 1 σ 3 ) dV
2 3 E

ELASTIC STRAIN ENERGY FOR VARIOUS TYPES OF LOADING

1. Axial load
 Consider a bar of variable yet slightly tapered cross section, which is subjected to an axial
load coincident with the bar centroidal axis. The internal axial force at the section
located at a distance x from the end is N. If A is the area of the section the normal stress
σ2 σ 2
N2
U i =∫V dV U i =∫V
x
dV =∫V dV
σ = N/A. Applying (5) 2 E , we have 2E 2 EA 2

If we choose an element or differential slice having a volume dV = A dx, the general formula
for the strain energy in the bar is
L
N2
U i =∫ dx
0 2 AE (9)

For the more common case of a prismatic bar of constant cross sectional area A, length L,
and constant axial load N, when integrated,

N2 L
U i=
2 AE (10)

2. Bending moment

The bending moment develops a normal stress σ. We can use equation (5)

σ2 M×y
U i =∫V dV σ=
2E , I

If the volume of the element is dV = dAdx, where dA = Area of its exposed face and dx its
length

The elastic strain energy Ui in the beam is

U i =∫V (
1 M× y 2
2E I )dAdx
The integral over the volume can be expressed as the product of an integral over the beam
cross sectional area A and an integral over its length .Thus,
L
M2
U i =∫ 2
dx ∫A y 2 dA
0 2 EI

But the second area integral represents the moment of inertia of the beam about the neutral
axis, and it can be written as
L
M2
U i =∫ dx
0 2 EI (11)

3. Transverse shear
−
A y FQ
τ =F× =
Ib Ib

Where F = shear force

−
y = Distance of the C.G of the area A from the N.A

A = Area of section above the level EF

I = MoI of the total section about the N.A

B = Width of beam at level EF

U i =∫V
τ2
2G
dV =∫V
1 FQ 2
2 G Ib ( )
dAdx

If the internal shear force F on a section at x is F, the shear stress acting on the volume
element of material having a length dx and area dA,
 FQ
τ=
Ib

( )
L
F2 2
U i =∫ 2 ∫A Q2 dA dx
0 2 GI b

The integral in parentheses is evaluated over the beam cross sectional area. To simplify this
expression we will define the form factor for shear force as

A Q2
f s= ∫ dA
I 2 b2 (12)
L
f s F2
U i =∫ dx
And 0
2 GA (13)

For a beam with a rectangular cross section, fs = 6/5

4. Torsional moment
L
τ=
T×ρ
I0
U i =∫V
τ2
2G
dV =∫V
( )
1 Tρ 2
2G I0
dAdx=∫
T2
0 2 GI 0
dx ∫ A ρ dA

L
T2
U i =∫ dx
0 2 GI 0 (14)

If the shaft has a constant cross sectional area and T = constant,

T2 L
U i=
2 GI 0
CONSERVATION OF ENERGY

All energy methods used in mechanics are based on a balance of energy, often referred to as
the conservation of energy. In this chapter, only mechanical energy will be considered in the
energy balance. Energy developed by heat, chemical reactions, electromagnetic effect will be
neglected, then physically, the external loads tent to deform the body so those loads do
external work Ue as they are displaced. This external work caused by the loads is transformed
into internal work or strain energy Ui, which is stored in the body.

Ue = Ui (15)

Considering a known acting load P on the beam, and a vertical displacement Δ under P, the
ΔP
Ue=
external work is 2 . In this case, the strain energy would be the result of internal shear
and moment loading caused by P. the contribution of strain energy due to shear is generally
neglected.
L
ΔP M2
Ue= U i =∫ dx
Ue = Ui and 2 0 2 EI or
L 2
ΔP ∫ M dx
2 = 0 2 EI (16)

Consider a beam loaded by a couple moment M0

L L
1 M2 1 M2
U e = Mθ U i =∫ dx Mθ ∫ 2 EI dx
2 , 0 2 EI then 2 =0

Examples:
1. Determine the displacement of the load P
2. The SSB is subjected to a vertical force F. What is the beam deflection at the point where
F is applied?

PRINCIPLE OF VIRTUAL WORK

Consider a body subjected to the real loads P1, P2, P3. These loads cause no movement of
the supports; they can strain the material beyond the elastic limit. For determining of the
displacement Δ of point A on the body caused by these loads, we place an imaginary or
virtual force P’ on the body at point A; such that P’ acts in the same direction as Δ. This load
P’ is applied to the body before the real loads are applied and we choose this virtual force
P’ = 1. The term virtual is used to describe the load because it is imaginary and does not
actually exist as part of the real loading. P’ creates an internal virtual load u in a
representative element of the body. Also because of P’, the body and the element will each
undergo a virtual displacement. Once the virtual load is applied and then the body is
subjected to the real loads P1, P2, P3, point A will be displaced dL. As result, the external
virtual force P’ and internal virtual load u ride along by Δ and dL and therefore, perform
external virtual work of 1.Δ on the body and internal virtual work of u . dL on the element.

Therefore, we can write the virtual work equation as

1 . Δ = ∑u dL, ∑u – virtual loads

P’ = 1 – external virtual unit load acting in the direction of Δ

u – internal virtual load acting on the element

 Δ- external displacement caused by the real loads

dL – internal displacement of the element in the direction of u caused by the real loads.

For a rotational displacement or slope of the tangent at appoint on the body is to be

determined, a virtual couple moment M’, having a unit magnitude is applied at the point.
This couple moment causes a virtual load uθ in one of the elements of the body. Assuming
that the real loads deform the element an amount dL, the rotation θ can be found from the
virtual work equation.

1 . θ = ∑uθ dL

Here M’ = 1 – external virtual unit couple moment acting in the direction of θ

uθ - internal virtual load acting on the element

θ – external rotational displacement in radians caused by the real loads.

dL – internal displacement of the element in the direction of uθ, caused by the real loads.

The virtual work equation for a body subjected to a general loading can be written as

nN mM f fF tT
1 . Δ=∫ dx +∫ dx+∫ s dx +∫ dx
AE EI GA GI 0

Application of method of virtual forces to beams

L
mM
1 . Δ=∫ dx
0 EI where

1 – External virtual load

Δ – Displacement caused by real loads

m – Internal virtual moment caused by external virtual unit load

M – Internal moment in the beam caused by the real loads

In a similar manner, if the slope θ of the tangent at a point on the beam elastic curve is to be
determined,
L
mθ M
1 .θ=∫ dx
0 EI
CASTIGLIANO THEOREM

 The displacement is equal to first partial derivative Of the strain energy in the
body with respect to force acting at the point and in the direction of displacement.

 The slope of the tangent at a point in a body is equal to the first derivative of the
strain energy in the body with respect to a couple moment acting at the point and
in the direction of the slope angle.

L
M2
Δ= ∂ ∫ dx
∂ P 0 2 EI
Rather than squaring the expression for internal moment M, integrating , and then
taking the partial derivative , it is generally easier to differentiate prior to
integration.
L
Δ=∫ M
0
( ∂∂MP ) dxEI
Where Δ – displacement of the point caused by the real loads acting on the beam
P – external force applied to the beam in the direction of Δ
M – internal moment in the beam, expressed as function of x
E–
I–
If the slope of the tangent θ at a point on the elastic curve is to be determined, the
partial derivative of the internal moment M with respect to an external couple
moment M’ acting at the point must be found
L
θ=∫ M
0
( ) ∂ M dx
∂ M ' EI