MEE2263 ADVANCED FLUID MECHANICS

Level 2 Advanced Fluid Mechanics (6)

Syllabus:
Viscous Flow – Fluid motion including the affects of friction, often important.
Viscous Laminar and Turbulent Flow
Pipe Flow System
Flow around Objects

Aims of this lecture:

1. Introduction to external flows and boundary layers.
2. Behaviour of laminar and turbulent boundary layers.
3. Frictional drag due to boundary layers.

6.1 Introduction

6.1.1 Flow around Objects – External Flows

Internal flows are those confined by surfaces, e.g. flow in a pipe.
External flows are those that are not confined, e.g. flow around an aeroplane. We are interested in
flow around objects immersed in a fluid (usually air or water) which is not confined by surfaces.
This has wide application, for example
Aerodynamics (Aeroplanes)
Hydrodynamics (ships)
Transportation (road vehicles / trains)
Civil/environmental (e.g. fluid loads on buildings/bridges, oil platforms)

Flow in pipes has mostly been considered for fully developed flow, flow velocity that is not varying
in the streamwise (flow) direction. With external flow, there is always a variation in the flow
direction and in other directions also.
 A body moving through a fluid experiences a drag force, which is usually divided into two
components: frictional drag, and pressure drag.

We shall consider two types of bodies:

 Streamlined bodies – these tend to
be long and this, aligned with the flow
direction. Frictional drag comes
from friction between the fluid and the surfaces over which it is flowing. This friction is
associated with the development of boundary layers, and it scales with Reynolds
number as we have seen above
e.g. an aeroplane wing or a fish. Most of the drag is due to frictional drag on the surfaces.

 Blunt bodies – these are short and wide, e.g. a football or motor bus. Much of the drag comes
from a low pressure behind the body in the wake – known as pressure drag or form drag.
Pressure drag comes from the eddying motions that are set up in the fluid by the passage of
the body. This drag is associated with the formation of a wake, which can be readily seen
behind a passing boat, and it is usually less sensitive to Reynolds number than the frictional
drag

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+ -
+ -
+High Low -
+Pressure Pressure -
+ -
-

In reality, all bodies experience both types of drag – it is a matter of which is the more important.
Formally, both types of drag are due to viscosity (if the body was moving through an an inviscid
fluid there would be no drag at all), but the distinction is useful because the two types of drag are
due to different flow phenomena. Frictional drag is important for attached flows (that is, there is no
separation), and it is related to the surface area exposed to the flow. Pressure drag is important for
separated flows, and it is related to the cross-sectional area of the body.

6.2. Boundary Layer

The region adjacent to a surface over which the velocity changes from the freestream
value (with respect to the object) to zero at the surface. This region, which is generally
very thin, occurs because of the viscosity of the fluid.

Simply, the boundary layer of a flowing fluid is the thin layer close to the wall. In a flow field,
viscous stresses are very prominent within this layer. Although the layer is thin, it is very important
to know the details of flow within it.

In the region, very near to the surface (in the thin layer), there is friction in the flow which signifies
that the fluid is retarded until it adheres to the surface (no-slip condition)

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Inviscid flow
In many engineering Viscous, boundary
applications, the effects of layer flow
viscosity are confined to a Viscous, wake flow
local region around a body
(e.g. flow past an aircraft wing
section). Inviscid flow

 du 
The key difference is the difference of velocity gradient (recall      for a parallel flow)
 dy 
1). Velocity must be zero on the stationary surface and changes vary rapidly over a thin-layer in the
near wall region.
2). Outside the near wall region, there is little velocity gradient in the main flow region.

 The concept of Boundary Layer (Prandtl, 1875-1953) – Split the flow into two regions:
1. The boundary layer where viscous effects are important.
2. Far away from the body where the flow is effectively inviscid (frictionless).

6.2.1 Boundary Layer over a Flat Plate

A flat plate whose surface is parallel to the velocity of a uniform fluid flow will cause a boundary
layer to grow due to the wall friction.
In the same way as p, ufs
the flow in a pipe Turbulent
can be turbulent or Transition
y
laminar, the Laminar δ
boundary layer can u
be turbulent or x
laminar. xT

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General Features:
 Uniform (constant) main free stream velocity and pressure.
 Boundary layer starts to grow in a laminar state from a leading edge (x = 0).
 It may develop into a turbulent state some distance downstream, (x = xT).

Flow parameters of interest:

1. w - wall shear stress
2. δ - B.L. thickness, normal distance from wall to a position where local velocity is 99% of the
free stream velocity.

With increasing distance y from the surface, the x velocity component of the fluid, u, must
then increase until it approaches the free stream value u . The subscript  is used to
designate conditions in the free stream outside the boundary layer.
The quantity  is termed the boundary layer thickness, and it is typically defined as the
value of y for which u=0.99 u .

Governing Parameter (Reynolds number)

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Boundary layer parameters are influenced by fluid density, ρ, free-stream velocity, ufs, streamwise
distance, x, and fluid viscosity, μ:
 = f(ρ, um, x, μ);  w = f(ρ, um, x, μ)

For each functional relation: 5 variables and 3 dimensions - Dimensional Analysis gives 2
dimensionless groups:
 w
 f Re x  ;  f Re x  ,
x 1
2
u fs2
u m x
where: Re x  (local Reynolds Number based on ‘x’) (6.1)

Class Question: Why the ½ in the dimensionless wall shear stress?

 A w C
A typical form (laminar or turbulent B. L.):  and 
x (Re x )B 1
2
ufs Re x D
2

6.2.2 Calculation of Boundary Layer over a Flat Plate

Laminar Boundary Layer over a flat plate (Rex < 5x105)

(theoretical solution by Blasius):
 4. 9
 ; (6.2a)
x Re x
w 0.664
 , (6.2b)
0.5 u m
2
Re x

Transition (Over a flat plate, approximately at a position with Rex ~ 5x105)

u m x tr
i.e. Re xtr   5.x10 5 (6.3)


Turbulent Boundary Layer over a smooth flat plate (for 5x105 < Rex < 107)
(empirical correlation of experimental data):
 0.37
 (6.4a)
x (Re x )0.2
w 0.058
 (6.4b)
0.5 u m (Re x )0.2
2

Notes:
1. B. L. thickness:
Laminar (thin):   x 0.5 (increase with ‘x’ in a parabolic manner)
Turbulent (thick):   x 0.8 (grows with ‘x’ more quickly)

2. Surface shear stress:

Laminar (low):  w  x 0.5 (decrease in velocity gradient with
increase in B.L. thickness downstream)
1.0
Turbulent (high):  w  x 0.2 (decrease with x, but more slowly)
y
3. Velocity distributions: 
Turbulent B.L. has a fuller velocity profile
The turbulent motion transfers momentum in the ‘y’ direction, Laminar
bringing high velocity fluid towards the wall. Profile
Turbulent
Profile
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u 1.0
ufs
 MEE2263 ADVANCED FLUID MECHANICS

This results in the high shear stress (friction drag)

Class Exercise 6.1: Calculate the boundary layer thickness at the end of a flat plate of length 0.8
m, set in an air stream of 15 m/s if
a) The boundary layer is laminar.
b) The boundary layer is turbulent.
Assume the kinematic viscosity of air ν = 1.6 x 10-5 m/s2

u fs L 15  0.8
Answer: First need Reynolds Number, ReL    7.5  10 5 (Transitional)
 1.6  10 5

 4.9 4.9
a) Laminar, using (6.2a):    5.66  10 3 . So with L = 0.8 m, δ = 4.53 mm
L ReL 7.5  10 5

 0.37 0.37
b) Turbulent, using (6.4a):    0.0247 So with L = 0.8 m, δ = 19.9 mm
x (Re x )0.2 (7.5  10 5 )0.2

Note: Boundary layers are very thin! But turbulent is much thicker than laminar.

6.2.3 Calculation of Frictional Drag

Total Friction Force (from x=0 to x = L for a width b in the 3rd dimension)

ufs
δ
δ(x), Boundary Layer u

-Df, Drag Force

Integrate the local surface shear stress distribution:

L
Df  b   w dx (6.5)
0
Fully Laminar using (6.2a):
L
u  L  0 .5  um2  bL
Df = b  ( w )laminar dx  b fs 0.664
u fs 0
x dx = 1.328   (6.6)
2  2  (Re )0.5
0   L

Df 1.328
Or the Drag Coefficient, CDf   (6.6a)
 u 2  (ReL )0.5
bL m 

 2 
u m L
where ReL 


Laminar and Turbulent:

X tr L
Df=  ( w )laminar bdx +  ( w )turbulent bdx (6.7)
0 X tr

Fully Turbulent :

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At a high Reynolds number (e.g. ReL > 5.x106), the laminar part is relatively small, and its contribution can
be neglected, i.e. assume a transition at the leading edge. Then we can use Eqn. (7.4b:)
L
 u 2   0.2 L  u 2  bL
Df =  ( w )turbulent bdx = 0.058  fs b 0.2  x  0.2dx  0.072  m  0.2
(6.8)
 2  ufs  2  (ReL )
0
0
Df 0.072
Or the Drag Coefficient, CDf   (6.8a)
 um  (ReL )0.2
2
bL 

 2 
(Smooth Surface – Rough surface gives more drag)
Class Example 6.2: L
A smooth surface hydrofoil with a length ufs
of 0.5 m and a width of 2 m is moving in water
( = 1000kg/m3,  = 1.1x10-3 kg/ms) at a speed
of 15 m/s, Estimate the frictional drag.

Answer:
Known: L = 0.5m, b = 2m (3rd dimension),
In the relative frame of reference fixed with the hydrofoil, water flows at ufs= 15m/s
Assume flat plate boundary layers on both upper and lower surfaces,
ufs L 1000 x15 x 0.5
ReL  = = 6.8x106 (>>5x105)
 1.1x10  3
We can neglect the laminar part and treat the boundary layer as fully turbulent.

 u 2  bL  1000 x15 2  2 x 0.5

Use Eq.6.8: Df = 0.072  m 
 (Re )0.2 = 0.072



 6 0.2
= 348 N
 2  L  2  (6.8 x10 )

 Total friction drag (on the two surfaces) = 2 x 348 = 696 N

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