MBC 341: NUTRITIONAL BIOCHEMISTRY

Lecture 1

Foods and Nutrients

What is Food?

Definition: Food is any substance consumed to provide nutritional support for an organism. It is
usually of plant or animal origin, and contains essential nutrients, such as carbohydrates, fats,
proteins, vitamins, or minerals. Foods also contain non nutrients that may be beneficial (such as
phytochemicals like antioxidants and zoo chemicals like omega-3 fatty acids or harmful (such as
cholesterol, dyes, and preservatives)

What is Nutrient?

Definition: Nutrients are molecules in food that all organisms need to make energy, grow,
develop, and reproduce. Nutrients are digested and then broken down into basic parts to be
used by the organism.

Chemically, there are six classes of nutrients: carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, water, vitamins,
and minerals. These classes can be grouped in a variety of ways—by whether they provide
energy to the body, by how much is needed in the diet, and by their chemical structure.

By Energy: Carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins provide energy and thus are referred to as
energy-yielding nutrients.
By how much they are needed: The energy-yielding nutrients constitute the major portion of
most foods and are required in relatively large amounts by the body. Therefore, they are referred
to as macronutrients (macro means large). Vitamins and minerals are classified as
micronutrients, because they are needed in small amounts in the diet (micro means small).
Structurally, carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and vitamins are organic molecules so they are
referred to as organic nutrients. Minerals and water are inorganic molecules so they are referred
to as inorganic nutrients.

There are two main types of nutrients, macronutrients and micronutrients.

Macronutrients -Nutrients that are needed in large amounts are called macronutrients e.g
Carbohydrates, protein, fat.

The amount of energy provided by the macronutrients varies: fat has 9 calories per gram, more
than twice the number of calories in carbs (4 grams) and protein (4grams).

Micronutrients- are nutrients required by the body in lesser amounts but are still essential for
carrying out bodily functions. Micronutrients include all the essential minerals and vitamins.
The amounts required are expressed in milligrams or micrograms

Macronutrients

The three main classes of macronutrients include

1. carbohydrate,
2. protein, and
3. Fat (Lipids).
These can be metabolically processed into cellular energy. The energy from macronutrients
comes from their chemical bonds. This chemical energy is converted into cellular energy that
is then utilized to perform work, allowing our bodies to conduct their basic functions. Their
requirements are measured in kilograms (kg) or grams (g).
 1. CARBOHYDRATES

Carbohydrates are organic molecules composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. There are
two basic forms: simple sugars and complex sugars. Carbohydrates are a type of macronutrient
used for quick energy in cells. The basic unit of carbohydrates is a monosaccharide. An example
of a monosaccharide is glucose or sugar. Carbohydrates are broadly classified into two forms
based on their chemical structure:

a. Fast-releasing carbohydrates often called simple sugars, and

b. Complex or slow-releasing carbohydrates also called polysaccharides or complex sugars.

Sources of carbohydrates:

The major Food sources of carbohydrates include roots and tubers (yams, cassava fufu, garri),
grains, milk, cereal, bread, beans, pasta, potatoes, cookies, spaghetti, corn, fruits and sweets
such as soda and candy and soft drinks, starchy vegetables like potatoes. Non starchy vegetables
also contain carbohydrates but in lesser quantities.

TYPES OF CARBOHYDRATES

1. monosaccharides
2. Disaccharides
3. Oligosaccharides
4. Polysaccharides

1. Monosaccharaides: Mono meaning one, saccharide meaning Sugar e.g of common

monosaccharides are Glucose, Fructose and Galactose. In Monosaccharaides each sugar
has a cyclic structure and is composed of Carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen in a ratio of
1:2:1respectively. The three most essential monosaccharides are glucose, fructose, and
galactose. These are known as ‘simple’ carbohydrates and are recognized by their sweet
taste.

Glucose is the body’s preferred type of carbohydrate and is usually the end product after
the body digests the more complex carbohydrates. Glucose is what we measure in blood
and therefore also serves as a transport molecule.
 Glucose is therefore easily used by the body and is typically applied in the following 3
step process:

a. Used for immediate energy,

b. Stored within muscle or liver cells,
c. Converted to triglycerides to be stored as body fat for later use.

Fructose is another monosaccharide that has to be metabolized within the liver for it to be

converted to glucose. This is found in many natural and artificial foods and is considered

the sweetest of the carbohydrates, hence the popularity in food manufacturing.

2. Disaccharides: Meaning two Sugars e,g Sucrose, Lactose and Maltose.

Disaccharides are formed by a condensation reaction where one molecule of
water condenses or is released during the forming of two (2) monosaccharides.
This type of bond that is formed between the two sugars is called a glycosidic
bond.

Sucrose is also known as table sugar and is, therefore, the most popular oligosaccharide.
This carbohydrate occurs naturally in many of our foods (fruits, vegetables, beet sugar,
cane sugar) and is essentially a combination of glucose and fructose.

Lactose is another common disaccharide yet it only exists in animal milk from lactating
animals, and is a combination of glucose and galactose. The body requires a particular
digesting enzyme called lactase to digest this type of carbohydrate.

Maltose is last important disaccharide, which is a combination of two glucose molecules.

In nature, this occurs during the sprouting of seeds, but it can also be artificially induced
(known as malting) by the introduction of heat. This process is usually seen in the
production of alcohol, as they use this carbohydrate to provide that sweet taste in
products.

3. Oligosaccharides: Usually have between 3 to 10 sugar units. Oligosaccharides is

formed by repeating units of glucose, galactose and fructose e.g Raffinose, and
 Stachyose. Oligosaccharides are found in beans and legumes. They are of
nutritional importance. Beacause of their unique glycosidic bonds, raffinose and
Stachyose cannot be broken down into their simple sugars. They therefore cannot
be absorbed by the small intestine and are metabolised by Bacteria in the large
intestine to form unwanted gaseous byproducts.
4. Polysaccharides: meaning a bonding of 10 or more molecules to form linear or
complex chains. Consist of thousands of repeating monosacchrides units. A
homopolysaccharide is one that is made of 10 or more monosaccharides of the same
type, e.g., all glucose. A heteropolysaccharide is one that is made of 10 or more
monosaccharides from two or more different monosaccharide types, e.g., glucose and
fructose. e.g Starch, Cellulose, Glycogen and Dietary fiber. Polysaccharides allow
for large storage of quantities of glucose. Starch is the major storage form of
carbohydrate in plants and have two different types namely amylose and
amylopectin. Although digestible alpha glycosidic bonds link both types of starch,
each type is unique in their branching of glucose. While amylose is a straight
chain polymer, amylopectin is highly branched. The difference account for the
fact that amylopectin can form stable starch gels which are able to retain water
whileamylose is unable to do so. Therefore, amylopectin is often used by
manufacturer to produce many different kinds of thick sauce and gravies. Food
Sources of Polysaccharides include Potatoes, beans, bread, pasta, rices

These four types of Carbohydrates are group into 2 namely

a. Simple carbohydrates e.g Monosaccharides and Disaccarides and
b. Complex carbohydrates e.g Oligosaccharides and Polysaccharides
 Importance of Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates have six major functions within the body:
1. Energy production- The primary role of carbohydrates is to supply energy to all
cells in the body. Many cells prefer glucose as a source of energy versus other
compounds like fatty acids. Some cells, such as red blood cells, are only able to
produce cellular energy from glucose. The brain is also highly sensitive to low
blood-glucose levels because it uses only glucose to produce energy and
function (unless under extreme starvation conditions). About 70 percent of the
glucose entering the body from digestion is redistributed (by the liver) back
into the blood for use by other tissues.
2. Energy storage- If the body already has enough energy to support its functions,
the excess glucose is stored as glycogen (the majority of which is stored in the
muscles and liver).
3. Sparing protein- In a situation where there is not enough glucose to meet the
body’s needs, glucose is synthesized from amino acids. Because there is no
storage molecule of amino acids, this process requires the destruction of
proteins, primarily from muscle tissue. The presence of adequate glucose
basically spares the breakdown of proteins from being used to make glucose
needed by the body.
 4. Building macromolecules- Although most absorbed glucose is used to make
energy, some glucose is converted to ribose and deoxyribose, which are
essential building blocks of important macromolecules, such as RNA, DNA, and
ATP.
5. Fat sparing- As blood-glucose levels rise, the use of lipids as an energy source is
inhibited. Thus, glucose additionally has a “fat-sparing” effect. This is because
an increase in blood glucose stimulates release of the hormone insulin, which
tells cells to use glucose (instead of lipids) to make energy. Adequate glucose
levels in the blood also prevent the development of ketosis. Ketosis is a
metabolic condition resulting from an elevation of ketone bodies in the blood.
Ketone bodies are an alternative energy source that cells can use when glucose
supply is insufficient, such as during fasting. Ketone bodies are acidic and high
elevations in the blood can cause it to become too acidic. This is rare in healthy
adults, but can occur in alcoholics, people who are malnourished, and in
individuals who have Type 1 diabetes.
6. Dietary fiber- Dietary Fiber is an essential component of carbohydrate food,
which is known to prevent recto-colon cancer and help digestion. The absence
of dietary fiber can cause constipation

Deficency of Carbohydrates- If the food is deficient in carbohydrates, the body

will utilize protein and fats for energy. Carbohydrates are the body’s most preferred source of
energy, and it is not recommended to avoid this group of foods.

How does carbohydrate deficiency occur? The carbohydrates consumed by us are broken
down by digestive enzymes into monosaccharides (glucose, fructose etc) and absorbed in the
intestine. Once in the blood, the glucose is used for energy production. The excess glucose is
taken to the liver and converted into glycogen for storage. Whenever energy needs arise,
glycogen is broken down and converted back to glucose. By carbohydrate deprivation in food,
the blood glucose, as well as the stored glycogen are depleted. In the absence of the availability
of glucose for energy production, fats and amino acids (basic components of proteins) are
utilized for energy. However this route of energy production results in acidosis, ketosis and loss
of cellular proteins. Prolonged deprivation leads to the symptoms and diseases connected with
severe carbohydrate short fall.

Symptoms and manifestations of carbohydrate deficiency

The symptoms include hypoglycemia, confusion, tremor, feverishness, giddiness, fatigue,

distress, delirium, muscles atrophy, loss of muscle tissue and reduces stamina.
Some people may also experience problems with a low-carbohydrate diet, including:

 nausea.
 dizziness.
 constipation.
 lethargy.
 dehydration.
 bad breath.
 loss of appetite.

Acidosis: In carbohydrate starvation, there is shift from glycolysis (breakdown of glucose) to

lipolysis (breakdown of lipids) and ketogenesis for energy needs. The resultant production of
ketoacids increases acidity in the blood and other body tissues. These changes in the pH of
arterial blood outside Ppo9H 7.35 to PH 7.45 result in irreversible cell damage.

Ketosis: During prolonged carbohydrate fasting or starvation, acetyl-CoA in the liver is used to
produce ketone bodies formed by the breakdown of fatty acids and by the deamination of amino
acids, leading to a state of ketosis.

Hypoglycemia: The non-availability of glucose due to severe lack of carbohydrate causes drop
in the blood sugar levels. Hypoglycemia occurs when blood glucose, levels drop under 70 mg/dL
with typical symptoms like giddiness, fatigue, distress and delirium.
Excess will lead to weight gain (Obesity), Non-insulin dependent diabetes mellitus (NIDDM),
cardiovascular disease, cancer, gastrointestinal diseases other than cancer, Dental caries.

2. PROTEINS

Proteins are a macronutrient that the cells in your body use for structure. Protein is very
important for building tissues, such as muscle. Muscle is mainly made up of proteins. Proteins
are made from smaller monomers called amino acids. Amino acids are simple subunits
composed of carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen. There are twenty amino acids that make
up all the kinds of protein our body needs plus a new one (the 21st ) known as selenocysteine.

Amino acids are classified into two groups:

1. Essential amino acids

2. Nonessential amino acid

 Essential amino acids- Means that our body cannot produce them and we must consume
them in our diet. There are nine that we must consume in our diet and they are known as
essential amino acids. The 9 essential amino acids are: histidine, isoleucine, leucine,
lysine, methionine, phenylalanine, threonine, tryptophan, and valine.

 Nonessential amino acids- Nonessential means that our bodies can produce the amino
acid, even if we do not get it from the food we eat. Nonessential amino acids include:
alanine, arginine, asparagine, aspartic acid, cysteine, glutamic acid, glutamine, glycine,
proline, serine, and tyrosine.
 Essential Amino acids (EAA) NON ESSENTIAL AMINO Acids
Isoleucine Alanine
Leucine Aspartic Acid
Histidine serine
Lysine Glutamic acid
Methionine Asparagine
Phenulalanine Arginine
Threonine Cysteine,
Tryptophan Glutamine
Valine tyrosine
glycine,
proline,
selenocysteine

FUNCTIONS OF PROTEIN

Every cell in your body contains protein, so meeting your protein requirement is essential
for your health.

1. Building Tissues and Muscles, Repair and Maintenance - Protein is termed the
building block of the body. It is called this because protein is vital in the maintenance of
body tissue, including development and repair. Hair, skin, eyes, muscles and organs are
all made from protein. This is why children need more protein per pound of body weight
than adults; they are growing and developing new protein tissue . Protein is necessary in
building and repairing body tissues. If you do not receive enough protein in your diet,
muscles wasting and other symptoms may result
2. Hormone Production- Protein is involved in the creation of some hormones. These
substances help control body functions that involve the interaction of several organs. E.g Insulin
and Oxytocin. Insulin, a small protein, is an example of a hormone that regulates blood sugar.
Oxytocin is another protein that play vital stimulating contractions during childbirth.
3. Enzymes-Enzymes are proteins that increase the rate of chemical reactions in the body. Most
of the necessary chemical reactions in the body would not efficiently proceed without enzymes.
They play a role in many activities such as digestion, muscle contraction and relaxation,
and nerve impulse transmissions.
4. Immune Function- Protein forms antibodies that help prevent infection, illness and
disease. These proteins identify and assist in destroying antigens such as bacteria and
viruses. Antibodies are specialized protein configurations that provide a specific immune
 defense against invaders. They are produced by the body once it's exposed to specific
antigens such as bacteria, viruses and fungi.
5. Energy- Protein is a major source of energy. If you consume more protein than you need for
body tissue maintenance and other necessary functions, your body will use it for energy. If it is
not needed due to sufficient intake of other energy sources such as carbohydrates, the protein
will be used to create fat and becomes part of fat cells. Protein is broken down into amino
acids during digestion and provides four calories per gram. Although protein can be used
as an energy source, the body's main energy source is carbohydrates.
6. Transportation and Storage of Molecules- Protein is a major element in transportation
of certain molecules. For example, hemoglobin is a protein that transports oxygen
throughout the body. Protein is also sometimes used to store certain molecules. Ferritin is
an example of a protein that combines with iron for storage in the liver

Deficiency of Proteins in the body

Protein deficiency can lead to symptoms such as

 Kwashiorkor,
 Marasmus,
 fatigue,
 insulin resistance,
 hair loss,
 loss of hair pigment (hair that should be black becomes reddish),
 loss of muscle mass (proteins repair muscle tissue),
 low body temperature, and
 Hormonal irregularities.
 Severe protein deficiency is fatal.

Excess protein can cause problems as well, such as causing the

 immune system to overreact,
 liver dysfunction from increased toxic residues,
 possibly bone loss due to increased acidity in the blood, and
 Foundering (foot problems) in horses.

SOURCES OF PROTEIN
Some sources of dietary protein include:

 Lean meat, poultry and fish.

  Eggs.
 Dairy products like milk, yoghurt and cheese.
 Seeds and nuts.
 beans and legumes (such as lentils and chickpeas)
 Soy products like tofu.

3. FATs

Fats are called lipids and are macronutrient and organic compounds composed of carbon,
hydrogen, and oxygen. They are insoluble in water. The three main types of lipids are
triglycerides (triacylglycerols), phospholipids, and sterols. Each type has different functions in
living things.

Sensu stricto (narrow or strict sense), lipids are defined as apolar natural products that can be
classified as fatty acids, whose derivatives are waxes, triacylglycerides, phospholipids,
sphingolipids and glycolipids

Types of fat

Fatty acids can be divided into four general categories:

 1. Saturated fats,
2. Unsaturated fats (monounsaturated, polyunsaturated),
3. Trans fats.
4. Total fats (Saturated, Monounsaturated, Polyunsaturated and Transfat)

The basic difference between each of these is the number of carbon atoms with or without two
hydrogen atoms bonded to them

Unsaturated Fats: Monounsaturated fats and polyunsaturated fats are considered healthy
because they lower disease risk e.g Vegetable oils such as( Olive oil, Canola oil, sunflower
oil and soy oil, corn oil), Nuts, seeds and fish

Monounsaturated fats

These fats get their name because they are not saturated with hydrogen molecules and because
they have a single carbon bond in the fat molecule (called a double bond). “They are liquid at
room temperature e.g Oleic acid. Examples are canola, peanut or olive oil

Polyunsaturated fats- Like monounsaturated fats, polyunsaturated fats are not saturated with
hydrogen molecules. They get their name from having more than one carbon bond (double bond)
in the fat molecule. They are liquid at room temperature. E.g Linoleic acid

Polyunsaturated fats are found mostly in plant food sources, such as soybeans and soybean oil,
sunflower oil, sunflower seeds, walnuts and flaxseeds

Polyunsatured fats have been shown to impact blood cholesterol levels leading to a decreased
risk of cardiovascular disease,” They also help with cell development and maintenance and add
vitamin E to your diet.

Saturated fats

Saturated fats and trans fats are considered to be unhealthy commonly associated with an
increased risk of coronary heart disease. Saturated fats are saturated with hydrogen molecules.
Saturated fat comes from animal sources, such as red meats, poultry and full-or-reduced fat dairy
products. “Saturated fats are solid at room temperature,” e.g Stearic acid

Trans Fat: The worst type of dietary fat is known as trans-fat. It is a byproduct of a process
called hydrogenation that is used to turn healthy oils into solid and to prevent them from
becoming rancid. Trans fat have no known health benefit and there is no safe level of
consumption e.g foods that contain transfat are Baked goods such as cakes, cookies,pie, frozen
pizza, shorteings, fried foods e.g French fries, doughnut, fried chicken.

Well-Known Fatty Acids

NUMBER OF ESSENTIAL FATTY COMMON
NAME CARBON ATOMS TYPE OF FATTY ACID ACID SOURCES
Lauric acid 12 Saturated No Coconut oil
Myristic Acid 14 Saturated No Palm oil, coconut
Palmitic acid 16 Saturated No oil, butter fat
Palm oil
Stearic acid 18 Saturated No Animal fat
Oleic acid 18 Monounsaturated No Olive oil
Linoleic acid 18 Polyunsaturated Yes Safflower oil
Linolenic acid ( Omega 3 18 Polyunsaturated Yes Soybean oil
fatty acid)
Arachidonic acid 20 Polyunsaturated No Meat, dairy
Eicosapentaenoic acid 20 Polyunsaturated No Fish oil
Docosahexaenoic acid 22 Polyunsaturated No Fish oil
Essential Fatty Acids: Only two fatty acids are known to be essential for humans: Alpha–
linolenic acid (an Omega 3 fatty acid) and Linoleic acid (Omega- 6 fatty acid). Our bodies cannot
produce the polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) linoleic acid (LA) and alpha linolenic acid (ALA). Without
these essential fatty acids some vital functions would be compromised, thus they must be provided by
the diet.

FUNCTIONS OF LIPID

1. The primary function of fat is as an energy reserve-The main function of fats in the body is to
provide energy. Fats on oxidation provide almost twice as much energy as that given by carbohydrates. -
Lipids provide more energy per gram than carbohydrates (nine kilocalories per gram of lipids
versus four kilocalories per gram of carbohydrates). In addition to energy storage,
2. Carrier of vitamins - Fats also carry the fats soluble vitamins A, D, E and K into the body and help
in the absorption of these vitamins in the intestines.

3. Structural component- In addition to supplying energy, fats also help in forming structural material
of cells and tissues such as the cell membrane. The membranes around the cells in our body
physically separate the inside from the outside of the cell, and control the movement of
substances in and out of the cells.

4. Insulates the Body

Your body uses its subcutaneous fat reserves as an insulator against extreme cold and heat,
helping to maintain body temperature and protect nerves from damage so that they may work at
optimal levels.

5. Cushioning Effect- It also protects organs by cushioning them.

6. Spares protein- By supplying energy, fats save proteins from being used for
energy and allow them to perform their more important role of building and
repairing tissues.
7. Other biological functions - Alpha–linolenic acid (an Omega 3 fatty acid) and
Linoleic acid (Omega- 6 fatty acid) are essential fatty acids involve in many
physiological processes such as blood clotting, wound healing and inflammation.

Sources of Fat (Lipids) – They are found predominately in butter, oils, meats, dairy

products, nuts, and seeds, and in many processed foods.

Derivatives of fatty acids

Two fatty acid derivatives that are endocannabinoid are

 anandamide (arachidonyl ethanolamide) and
 2- arichidony lglycerol. They were isolated from nerve and peripheral tissue

Endogenous cannabinoids or endocannabinooids, are naturally occurring, lipid-based

neurotransmitters. Neurotransmitters are chemical messengers in the body that send signals
between nerve cells. Endocannabinoids help with various bodily functions.