SAGA

- THE ORIGINAL - - Very low frequency (VLF) waves (aka

myriameter band)
---- frequencies range from 3 to 30 kHz
---- wavelengths range from 10 to 100 km

Study Assist and Guide for Academics ---- used for military communications with

SCIENCE 10 Q2 REVIEWER (BASED ON submarines (these are able to penetrate through

BOOK) saltwater up to certain depths)

CHAPT. 3 LESSON 1 - EM Waves and Light

Electromagnetic Waves (EM Waves) - Low-frequency (LF) waves

- transverse oscillating waves ---- frequencies range from 30 to 300 kHz

- composed of electric & magnetic fields ---- wavelengths range from 1 m to 10 km

- travel in a vacuum at the speed of 3.0 X 108 ---- used in long-distance communications

m/s
- can travel without a medium (i.e. vacuum) - Medium-frequency (MF) waves

- electric field is perpendicular to magnetic ---- frequencies range from 300 kHz to 3 MHz

field ---- wavelengths range from 100 m to 1 km

EM Spectrum ---- commonly used for amplitude modulation

- shows the different types of EM waves (AM) broadcasting & air traffic control

- EM waves are classified according to their

frequencies - High-frequency (HF) waves

-- Frequencies increase from left to right ---- frequencies range from 3 to 30 MHz

-- Wavelengths decrease from left to right ---- wavelengths range from 10 to 100 m
---- used in international broadcasting stations

- Very high frequency (VHF) waves

Types of EM Waves
---- frequencies range from 30 to 300 MHz
Radio Waves
---- wavelengths range from 1 to 10 m
- region in the EM spectrum with the longest
---- used in digital audio broadcasting & mobile
wavelength & lowest frequencies
radio systems
- wavelengths range from 1 cm to 1 km
- frequencies range from 30 gigahertz (GHz)
- Ultra-high frequency (UHF) waves
to 300 kilohertz (kHz)
---- frequencies range from 300 MHz to 3 GHz
Types (or Bands) of Radio Waves
---- wavelengths range from 10 cm to 1 m
- Extremely low frequency (ELF) waves
---- used in TV broadcasting, global positioning
---- frequencies are less than 3 kHz
systems (GPS), wireless fidelity (Wi-Fi), &
---- wavelengths are greater than 100km
Bluetooth technologies
---- naturally generated in the atmosphere

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 Microwaves
- frequencies are higher than those of radio
waves
- frequencies range from 300MHz to 300GHz
Sub-bands of Microwaves
- L-bands
---- used in GPS
- S, C, X, and K Bands
---- used for active remote sensing and RADAR
(Radio Detection and Ranging) systems
Infrared (IR waves)
- found between microwaves and visible light
- frequencies range from 3 x 1011 to 4 x 1014
- grouped into near, mid--, and far infrared
regions
- invisible to eyes but can be detected in the
form of heat
- In 1800: William Herschel first recorded the
thermal measurement at the far end of the red
spectrum, hence the name infrared (from prefix
‘infra’ meaning ‘below’)
- used in remote sensing
Ultraviolet (UV) Waves
- In 1801: John Ritter successfully proved the
existence of ultraviolet (due to it being beyond
the violet spectra of visible light)
- wavelengths range from 10 to 400 nm
Types of UV from the Sun
- UVA: least harmful
- UVB: can cause sunburn because it causes a
chemical reaction on the human skin, causing it
to burn or change color
- UVC: most harmful; absorbed by ozone layer
X-rays
- first observed and documented by Wilhelm
Conrad Roentgen in 1895
- between uv and gamma ray regions
- wavelengths are described in electron volts
(eV)
- carry 100 eV to 200 keV of energy
- can pass through human body
Two Classifications
- Soft x-rays
---- carry smaller amounts of energy
---- their energy allows them to penetrate through
matter
- Hard x-rays
Gamma rays
- found at the end of EM spectrum
- contain the highest energy of all
- range from 200 keV to about 200 MeV
- produced by objects with very high energy
- can be naturally produced by supernova
explosions, pulsars, neutron stars, and by the
decay of some radioactive elements
Two Classifications
- Soft x-rays
---- carry smaller amounts of energy
---- their energy allows them to penetrate through
matter
- Hard x-rays
Effect of EM Waves
Non-ionizing Radiation
- includes microwaves, radio waves, UR, visible
light, and UV
- cannot penetrate the cells of organisms
- some can produce electric current and heat
Ionizing Radiation
- includes x-rays and gamma rays
- can cause biological damage
- it can cause cells to die or mutate (example of
mutated cells are cancer cells)
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Effects of radiation depend on how much time a
person was exposed to it, the distance from the
source, and the kind of protection or shield
used.
The closer a person is to the source of radiation,
the greater the risk of exposure
Acute Exposure
- happens when you get high amounts of
radiation exposure over a very short period of
time (ex. person going through cancer treatment)
Chronic Exposure
- occurs when a person is exposed to a small
amount of radiation over a long period of time
(e.g. background radiation - comes from natural
sources like Earth materials or the food we eat)
Units of Measurement for Radiation
Curie (Ci) or Becquerel (Bq)
- to measure radioactivity
Roentgen (R) or coulomb per kilogram (C/kg)
- for radiation exposure or amount of radiation in
air
Radiation Absorbed Dose (Rad) or Gray (Gy)
- for absorbed doses or amount of radiation
absorbed by an object
Roentgen Equivalent Man (Rem) or Sievert
(Sv)
- for the dose equivalent or totality of the amount
of radiation actually absorbed
LESSON 2 - Reflection and Mirrors
Reflection
- property of light that occurs when light
bounces back as it hits a surface
- the reason why you are able to see objects
Refraction of Light
- states that the angle of reflection (θr) is the
same as the angle of incident (θi).
- when the light from a source hits a surface,
some of it is reflected back, and others are
absorbed.
- the direction of the reflected light depends on
where the incoming light hits the surface of a
reflecting object
Types of Reflection
Regular Reflection
- happens when light strikes a smooth surface
Diffused Reflection
- happens when light strikes a rough surface,
reflecting in many directions
Image Formation for Reflecting Surfaces
Mirrors
- reflective surfaces made up of glass
Virtual Images
-images formed behind the mirror
Plane Mirrors
- flat surfaces
- form an image of an object brought in front of it
- virtual images formed by these mirrors have
the same size as the real object
- the images they produce are laterally inverted
(referring to left-to-right reversal in mirrors)
Ray Diagramming Technique
- used to trace images formed by plane mirrors
- uses at least two rays to locate and describe
the image
Curved Mirrors
- are not plane mirrors; are curved mirrors
- can be concave or convex
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 Convex Mirrors
- have their reflective surfaces bent outward
- not entirely spherical; are spherical caps
---- pieces cut from a sphere
Concave Mirrors
- have their reflective surfaces bent inward
Points of Reflection
Principal Axis
- the line cutting through the center
Center of Curvature (c)
- center of the sphere from which the mirror is
taken
Vertex (v)
- actual physical center of the mirror
Radius of Curvature
- distance from the center of curvature to the
vertex of the mirror
Focus (f)
- midpoint of the radius of curvature
Focal Length
- distance of focus from the vertex
Third Ray
- passes through the focus and is reflected
parallel to the principal axis
Object Distance
- measured from the vertex of the mirror to the
location of the object

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 LESSON 3 - REFRACTION
(KASAMA PA BA ITO?)
nsin
1 θ1 = n 2 θ2
sin
Refraction
n1 = the index of refraction of the first medium
- the bending of light waves
n2 = the index of refraction of the second
Angle of Refraction
medium
- the bending of light waves
θ1 = angle of incidence
θ2 = angle of refraction
Snell’s Law
Lenses
The Law of Refraction
- transparent materials made of either glass or
- first observed by Willebrord Snellius (Snell)
plastic
---- Dutch physicist
- refract incoming light rays
- formula:

n =__vc
- refract light by bending it toward the thickest
part of the lenses
- can be converging or diverging
Converging or Convex Lenses
n = the index of refraction
- thick in the middle, thin at edges
c = the speed of light in vacuum (3 x 108m/s)
Diverging or Concave Lenses
v = speed of light in the material
- thin in the middle, thick at the edges
} Points of Refraction
Focus
- where light rays enter a convex lens and
converge at a single point (the focus)
Vertex
- intersection point of the vertical and principal
axis
Focal Length
- distance between focus and vertex
Optical Instruments
Camera
- produces an image that can be printed
Has the following:
Lens
- can be adjusted to get a clearer focus on the
object
Aperture
- controls the light entering the camera

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 Film - ratio of the focal length of the lens and of the
- produce the images eyepiece lens
Diaphragm and the Iris
- control the amount of light that gets the camera CHAPT. 4 LESSON 1 - MAGNETS AND
ELECTROMAGNETISM
Magnets
- produce magnetic field
- come in different shapes and sizes
- first discovered to have come from
lodestones
---- leonestone - comes from the Anglo-
Saxon word that means “leading stone”
- Used by the Chinese as a compass in the
middle ages
Permanent Magnets
- do not easily lose their magnetic properties; are
naturally occurring
Ferromagnets
- lose their magnetic properties after some time
Electromagnets
- produced by the electric current flowing
through a wire
Magnetic Field
Binocular
- region of space where magnetic force is felt
- an instrument consisting of two telescopes put
Magnetic field lines
together
- lines used to indicate the magnetic field
Has the following:
- always originate form the magnetic north pole
Ocular Lens
- the field lines don’t cross each other
- focuses and enlarges the image
- the closer the magnetic field lines are to one
- captures or collects light
another, the stronger the magnetic field
Prism
Attraction
- corrects orientation of the image
- happens when opposite poles of two magnets
Eyepiece Lens
are close to each other
- further corrects aberrations in the image
Repulsion
Collecting Lens
- happens when same poles of two magnets are
- allows light to get into the binoculars
close to each other
Magnification
Electric Fields

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- produced by positive and negative charges - when the electric current is turned off, the
- attraction happens between opposite charges magnetic field around the metal core is lost
- repulsion happens between like charges Principles of Electromagnetic Induction
Discovery of Electromagnetism Michael Faraday (1791-1867)
Hans Christian Ørsted (1777-1851) - formulated Faraday’s law of Electromagnetic
- accidentally discovered electromagnetism Induction
- Danish Scientist ---- denoted by:
- confirmed that electricity can cause magnetism
(OB) = B A
- while he was about to give a lecture to his
students, his compass deflected away from the
T
north (its normal position).
---- his student began to hold the wire near the
is the result of the magnetic field B
compass in a different direction
being perpendicular to magnetic field A
---- when he turned off the electric current, the
- if the magnetic flux changes, then
compass pointed back to its original position
electromagnetic induction occurs
Electromagnetism
successfully observed electromagnetic
- flowing charges produce current
induction by introducing a magnet into a coil of
- when a potential difference is set along a
copper wire
conductor, the particles in the conductor will
- a magnetic field is produced once the electric
flow, producing a current
current flows through the coil
- magnitude of the force can be determined
---- this magnetizes the core, which further
using
strengthens the magnetic field by a thousand-
F = ILB
fold
F is the magnitude of the force in newton (N)
- when the electric current is turned off, the
I is the current in amperes (A)
magnetic field around the metal core is lost\
L is the length of the wire in meters (m)
Electromotive Force (EMF)
B is the strength of the magnetic field in tesla (T)
- voltage induced by the changing magnetic
where 1 T = 1 N/A X m
field, causing the current to flow through the
How an Electromagnet works
wire
- a coil made up of several turns of copper wire
Heinrich Friedrich Emil Lenz (1804-1865)
is wounded around a metal core, usually a
- German scientist
ferromagnet like iron
- formulated Lenz’s Law of Electromagnetic
- a magnetic field is produced once the electric
Induction
current flows through the coil
---- states that the direction of the current is
---- this magnetizes the core, which further
indeed in a conductor by a changing magnetic
strengthens the magnetic field by a thousand-
field
fold
Application of Magnetic Field Forces

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 Loudspeaker - works in reverse; uses mechanical energy to
- a very common equipment that comes in produce electrical energy
different sizes, from the speakers in our phones Hard Discs or Hard Drives
to home- and cinema-quality speakers - devices used to store information
How speakers work - invented by the International Business
- these use the principle of electromagnetic Machines (IBM) Corporation in 1953
induction to produce sound waves The components
The components Magnetic Disc or Platter
Cone - used to store data/information
- connected to the electromagnet - made up of magnetic materials divided into
Electromagnet billions of parts called bits
- produces a magnetic field and interacts with - the storing of info uses the binary system; the
the permanent magnet drive reads only 1 and 0
- creates motion that produces the sound Spindle
vibrations we hear - rotates the magnetic disk on the precise
Permanent Magnet location of the space when the information
Electric Motor should be stored
- device that converts electrical energy to Read/Write Heads/Arms
mechanical energy - used to add data/info on the platters
- applies the principle of electromagnetic - locate bits and store the info in it
induction Generators
The components Electric Generator
Armature (Rotating Coil) - device that converts mechanical energy to
- connected to the electromagnet electrical energy
Permanent Magnet (Source of Magnetic - unlike electric motors, they operate induction in
Field) reverse: if the motors move a coil within a
- produces a magnetic field and interacts with magnetic field, electric generators move a
the permanent magnet magnet within a wire
- creates motion that produces the sound The components
vibrations we hear Shaft
Brushes - connected to the motor or propellers
- carry the current to the commutator responsible for mechanical input

Commutator
- reverses the current Stator
Generator - a stationary magnetic field with copper
windings

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 Armature
- spins inside the stator to create - A typical hydroelectric power plant has a
electromagnetic induction reservoir that stores water.
Commutator - Water from this reservoir, when released, turns
- collects electricity and sends it to the brushes a turbine that is connected to the generator.
Brushes - The generator produces the electrical power.
- send the current inside - Power plants do not produce the same amount
Direct Current (DC) Generator of electrical power from the generators
- the armature os connected to the shaft, moved
by an external mechanical source, connected to
a turbine run by fuel, SteamTM, or water
Alternating Current (AC) Generator
- these generators are capable of reversing the
flow of current periodically
Hydroelectric Power Plants
Power Plants
- industrial facilities that generate electricity
using electric generators
Hydroelectric Power Plant or Hydropower
Plant
- a power plant that uses the gravitational
potential energy of falling water to generate
electricity
The Parts of these Plants
Storage Hydropower
- uses a dam or reservoir to store water
---- releasing the water produces electrical
energy
Run-of-river Hydropower
- channels water from a river through a canal
---- the water is used to run a turbine to generate
electricity

Pumped Storage Hydropower

- harnesses water which is cycled between the
lower and upper reservoirs through pumps