The Unifying Characteristics of Living Organisms

● In order for something to be considered 'living', it must fulfill specific criteria that are true of all living organisms
● These criteria can be remembered using the acronym MRS C GREN
○ Movement
○ Respiration
○ Sensitivity
○ Control
○ Growth
○ Reproduction
○ Excretion
○ Nutrition
● If something does not carry out all of these life processes, it is either dead or non-living
● Viruses are a good example of non-living particles/agents

Nutrition
● Organisms must obtain food to provide energy
○ Energy is necessary to carry out life processes e.g. movement, respiration and excretion

Nutrition in plants
● Plants use sunlight, carbon dioxide and water to produce oxygen and glucose in the process of photosynthesis
● Because plants create their own food for energy, they are described as being autotrophic

Nutrition in animals
● Animals consume other living organisms in order to obtain the energy they require
● They break down larger complex molecules into simpler molecules through the process of digestion
● As animals obtain their food from a range of different sources, they are described as being heterotrophic

Use this image

Autotrophs make their own food whereas heterotrophs obtain it from a range of food sources.
Exam Tip
Sometimes understanding the origin of a word can help us to remember the meaning, for example: Autotroph comes from:

● 'auto' = 'self'
● 'trophic' = 'feeding'

Heterotroph comes from:

● 'hetero' = 'different'
● 'trophic' = 'feeding'
Respiration
● Respiration is a chemical reaction carried out in all living organisms
● Energy is released from glucose either in the presence of oxygen (aerobic respiration) or the absence of oxygen
(anaerobic respiration)
● The reactions ultimately result in the production of carbon dioxide and water as waste products
● Energy is transferred in the form of ATP

Use this image

The equation for aerobic respiration

Exam Tip
Make sure not to confuse respiration with gas exchange. Gas exchange involves getting oxygen into the cells and carbon dioxid e
out. Respiration uses the oxygen supplied from gas exchange to release energy in the form of ATP.

Excretion
● Chemical reactions that take place inside living cells are described as metabolic reactions
● Metabolic reactions produce waste products, some of which may be toxic
● These toxic products must be eliminated from the body
● Excretion is the removal of toxic materials and substances from organisms

Excretion in animals
● Waste products excreted by animals include:
○ Carbon dioxide from respiration
○ Water from respiration and other chemical reactions
○ Urea which contains nitrogen resulting from the breakdown of proteins
 Use this image

Excretion in humans, the waste products and organs involved.

Excretion in plants
● Waste products excreted by plants include:
○ Oxygen from photosynthesis
○ Carbon dioxide from respiration
○ Water from respiration and other chemical reactions

Use this image

Excretion in plants, the waste products and the difference between day and night.

Exam Tip
Excretion is often confused with egestion. Remember that the waste products removed through excretion have originated from
chemical reactions in the cells. However, the waste products produced in egestion are in the form of faeces and originate from
the remains of the substances not absorbed during digestion.
Response to Surroundings
● The sensitivity of an organism refers to its ability to detect and respond to stimuli in its surroundings
 ● Responding to the environment around them gives an organism the best chances of survival

Sensitivity responses in animals

● In humans, the nervous system provides a complex system of receptors, neurones and effectors which detect and
respond to different stimuli using electrical impulses
● The endocrine system also allows a response to stimuli using chemical messengers, which travel in the blood, called
hormones

Use this image

The nervous system and endocrine system allow humans to respond to their environment.

Sensitivity responses in plants

● In plants, responses are controlled by chemicals and are usually much slower
○ Geotropism describes a plants response to gravity which causes the roots to grow down into the soil
○ Phototropism describes a plant's response to light which causes shoots to grow towards sunlight

Use this image

Phototropism and geotropism allow plants to respond to their environment.

Movement
 ● Movement is an action by an organism causing a change of position or place
● The movement of an organism from place to place is called locomotion
● Plants cannot move from place to place but can change their orientation
○ For example, sunflowers track the sun and so change their orientation throughout the day

Use this image

Sunflowers track the sun throughout the day.

Control
● Living organisms must control their internal environment in order to keep conditions within required limits
● This is called homeostasis

Homeostasis in humans
● Thermoregulation refers to the control of body temperature
● The optimum human body temperature is 37°C
○ If body temperature increases e.g. during exercise, mechanisms for control will be initiated to return the
temperature back to the optimum
○ Mechanisms include sweating or vasodilation
● Other homeostatic mechanisms in humans include glucoregulation (control of blood glucose levels) and
osmoregulation (control of water levels)
 Use this image

Thermoregulation is an example of homeostasis required to maintain a body temperature of 37°C.

Homeostasis in plants
● Plants use transpiration to maintain a suitable temperature
● Water evaporates from the stomata on the underside of the leaf, leading to heat loss

Use this image

Plants maintain an optimum temperature through transpiration

Reproduction
● Reproduction is the process that leads to the production of more of the same kind of organism
● Reproduction is fundamental to the survival of a population and ultimately, the species
● There are different types of reproduction: sexual and asexual

Sexual Reproduction
● In this type of reproduction, the male and female gametes fuse together
○ In humans, the male gamete is the sperm and the female gamete is the egg
○ In plants, the male gamete is in the pollen grains and the female gamete is the ovule
● The DNA of the offspring is composed of both maternal and paternal DNA
 Sexual reproduction involves the fusing of two gametes to form a zygote that contains DNA from both parents.

Asexual reproduction
● Cells or whole organisms can also reproduce using asexual reproduction
● Mitosis is an example of asexual reproduction
● There is only one parent involved so an exact clone is produced
● The DNA of offspring is identical to parental DNA
○ Plants can reproduce asexually through tubers, budding or runners
○ Single-celled organisms such as bacteria or amoeba reproduce asexually
 Asexual reproduction in bacteria involves creating exact copies of the parent cell.

Growth
● Growth is defined as a permanent increase in size
● In animals, an individual grows larger between the zygote and adult stage with changes in proportion or shape
● In plants, an individual grows larger throughout their whole life with new shoots, leaves, branches etc forming year
after year

Common Features of Eukaryotic Organisms: Basics

● All living organisms can be grouped or 'classified' using a classification system that consists of five kingdoms. These five
kingdoms are:
○ Animals
○ Plants
○ Fungi
○ Protoctists
○ Prokaryotes
● The first four kingdoms in this list (the animals, plants, fungi and protoctists) can actually be grouped together, as they
are all eukaryotic organisms (also known as eukaryotes)
 Animals, plants, fungi and protoctists are all eukaryotes.

● Eukaryotic organisms can be multicellular or single-celled and are made up of cells that contain a nucleus with a distinct
membrane

An animal cell (left) and plant cell (right) as seen under a light microscope. They are both eukaryotic cells as they both have a
distinct membrane-bound nucleus.

● Prokaryotic organisms (also known as prokaryotes) are in a separate kingdom and are different from eukaryotes as they
are always single-celled and do not contain a nucleus (instead, the nuclear material of prokaryotic cells is found in the
cytoplasm)
○ Bacteria are prokaryotic organisms
● Prokaryotic cells are substantially smaller than eukaryotic cells

Animals
● The main features of animals:
○ They are multicellular
○ Their cells contain a nucleus with a distinct membrane
○ Their cells do not have cellulose cell walls
○ Their cells do not contain chloroplasts (so they are unable to carry out photosynthesis)
○ They feed on organic substances made by other living things
○ They often store carbohydrates as glycogen
○ They usually have nervous coordination
○ They are able to move from place to place
 A typical animal cell

Cell Structures Found in Both Animal and Plant Cells Table

Plants
● The main features of plants:
○ They are multicellular
○ Their cells contain a nucleus with a distinct membrane
○ Their cells have cell walls made out of cellulose
○ Their cells contain chloroplasts (so they can carry out photosynthesis)
○ They feed by photosynthesis
○ They store carbohydrates as starch or sucrose
○ They do not have nervous coordination

A typical plant cell

Cell Structures Found Only in Plant Cells Table

Exam Tip
You need to be able to recognise, draw and interpret images of cells, so practice drawing and labelling animal and plant cells as
part of your revision.
Fungi
● Main features of fungi:
○ They are usually multicellular but some are single-celled (e.g. yeast)
○ Multicellular fungi are mainly made up of thread-like structures known as hyphae that contain many nuclei and
are organised into a network known as a mycelium
○ Their cells contain a nucleus with a distinct membrane
○ Their cells have cell walls made of chitin (chitinous cell walls)
○ Their cells do not contain chloroplasts (so they cannot carry out photosynthesis)
○ They feed by secreting extracellular digestive enzymes (outside the mycelium) onto the food (usually decaying
organic matter) and then absorbing the digested molecules. This method of feeding is known as saprotrophic
nutrition
○ Some fungi are parasitic and feed on living material
○ Some fungi store carbohydrates as glycogen
○ They do not have nervous coordination
○ Examples of fungi include: moulds, mushrooms, yeasts
 A typical fungal cell.

The typical structure of a multicellular fungus e.g. Mucor (bread mould).

Protoctists
● Main features of protoctists:
○ The protoctists are a very diverse kingdom of organisms that don't really belong in any of the other eukaryotic
kingdoms (animals, plants and fungi)
○ They are mainly microscopic and single-celled but some aggregate (group together) into larger forms, such as
colonies or chains of cells that form filaments
○ Their cells contain a nucleus with a distinct membrane
○ Some have features making them more like animal cells e.g. Plasmodium (the protoctist that causes malaria)
○ Some have features, such as cell walls and chloroplasts, making them more like plant cells e.g. green algae,
such as Chlorella
○ This means some protoctists photosynthesise and some feed on organic substances made by other living
things
○ They do not have nervous coordination
○ Examples of protoctists include: amoeba, Paramecium, Plasmodium, Chlorella
 Two examples of protoctist cells

Exam Tip
You need to be able to recognise, draw and interpret images of cells, so practice drawing and labelling fungal cells and
protoctist cells as part of your revision.

Prokaryotes
● All living organisms can be grouped or ‘classified’ using a classification system that consists of five kingdoms. These five
kingdoms are:
○ Animals
○ Plants
○ Fungi
○ Protoctists
○ Prokaryotes
● The prokaryotes are different from the other four kingdoms (which are all eukaryotes) as prokaryotic organisms are
always single-celled and do not contain a nucleus
● Instead, the nuclear material of prokaryotic cells is found in the cytoplasm
● Bacteria are prokaryotic organisms

Bacteria
● Bacteria, which have a wide variety of shapes and sizes, all share the following biological characteristics:
○ They are microscopic single-celled organisms
○ They have a cell wall (not made of cellulose), cell membrane, cytoplasm and plasmids
○ They lack a nucleus but contain a circular chromosome of DNA
○ They lack mitochondria and other membrane-bound organelles found in eukaryotic cells
● Examples of bacteria include:
○ Lactobacillus (a rod-shaped bacterium used in the production of yoghurt from milk)
○ Pneumococcus (a spherical bacterium that acts as the pathogen causing pneumonia)
● Bacteria feed in different ways:
○ Some bacteria can carry out photosynthesis despite having no chloroplasts. This is because they still possess
chlorophyl and enzymes necessary to synthesize sugars from carbon dioxide.
○ Most feed on other living or dead organisms (if they feed on dead organic matter then they are known as
saprobionts or decomposers)
 A typical bacterial cell

Prokaryotic Cells Table

Types of Pathogen
● A pathogen is any microorganism that causes disease in another organism (e.g. in plants or animals)
● Many microorganisms are pathogens including:
○ Bacteria
○ Fungi
○ Protoctists
○ Viruses
 ● Not all species within these groups (apart from the viruses) are pathogens, as many bacteria, fungi and protoctists are
harmless and do not cause disease
● However, all viruses are pathogenic as they can only exist by living inside the living cells of other organisms (or by using
these cells to create more viruses)

Pathogenic bacteria
● Pathogenic bacteria do not always infect the hosts of cells, they can remain within body cavities or spaces
● M. tuberculosis causes tuberculosis (TB) in humans
○ The bacteria infect the lungs, causing a chronic cough and bloody mucus
○ It is a disease often associated with poor hygiene and sanitation
○ M. bovine in cows can also transmit to humans to cause TB
● N. meningitidis causes bacterial meningitis in humans
○ Very few bacteria can cross the barrier created by the meninges (the tissue that surrounds the brain and spinal
cord) however N. meningitidis crosses this barrier to cause acute inflammation
○ Inflammation of the meninges causes symptoms such as fever, headache, neck stiffness and a characteristic
rash

Pathogenic fungi
● Fungal diseases are much more common in plants than animals
● Cattle ringworm and athletes foot are fungal diseases that exist on the surface of the skin
● Fungal diseases in plants tend to be much more serious and can threaten entire crops
● Black Sigatoka is a fungal disease in bananas
○ It spreads through the leaves of the plant, reducing its ability to photosynthesise
○ The lack of photosynthesis causes parts of the leaf to die; producing black streaks
○ Eventually, the whole leaf dies

Pathogenic protoctists
● Plasmodium falciparum is a protist that causes severe forms of malaria in humans
○ The parasite is spread by mosquitoes
○ Infected individuals experience fever, chills and fatigue
● P. infestans causes the infamous potato blight
○ The pathogen is unusual as it has some fungal characteristics
○ It is transmitted via spores
○ The first signs of potato blight are small, dark brown marks on the leaves which quickly increase in size and
number
○ The protist destroys potato and tomato crops leaving them completely inedible

Viruses
● Viruses are not usually included in the classification of living organisms as they are not considered to be alive
○ This is due to the fact that viruses do not carry out the 8 life processes for themselves
● In fact, the only life process they seem to display is reproduction but even to carry out this process they must take over
a host cell’s metabolic pathways in order to make multiple copies of themselves
● Viruses, which have a wide variety of shapes and sizes, all share the following biological characteristics:
○ They are small particles (always smaller than bacteria)
○ They are parasitic and can only reproduce inside living cells
○ They infect every type of living organism
 ○ They have no cellular structure but have a protein coat and contain one type of nucleic acid, either DNA or
RNA

Structure of a typical virus

● Examples of viruses include:

○ The tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) causes discolouring of the leaves on tobacco plants by preventing the
formation of chloroplasts
○ The HIV virus causes AIDS
○ The influenza virus causes the ‘flu’

Tobacco mosaic virus

● Tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) was the first virus to be isolated by scientists
● It is a widespread plant pathogen that infects about 150 species of plants including tomato plants and cucumbers

TMV Table
HIV
● HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus) is a virus that can eventually lead to Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome
(AIDS)

HIV Table

Influenza virus
● Three different influenza viruses infect humans to cause the flu
○ Influenza A, influenza B and influenza C infect the cells that line the airways
○ They cause a high temperature, body aches and fatigue
○ Influenza A is the virus that causes the most cases of flu globally

Cells, Tissues, Organs & Organ Systems

● Cells are the basic building blocks of all living organisms
● Unicellular organisms are made from one cell, whereas multicellular organisms are made up of collections of cells
● In complex multicellular organisms:
○ Cells are specialised to carry out particular functions
○ These specialised cells form tissues
○ The tissues form organs
○ The organs form organ systems
● In humans, the digestive system (provides the body with nutrients) and the respiratory system (provides the body with
oxygen and removes carbon dioxide) are examples of organ systems that provide dissolved materials that need to be
moved quickly around the body in the blood by the circulatory system
Multicellular organisms have many levels of organisation

Different Levels of Organisation Table

 Examples of Organ Systems in Animals & Plants Table

Identifying levels of organisation

● You should be able to identify the different levels of organisation in drawings, diagrams and images of familiar material
● An example of this is shown in the exam question below:
Typical levels of organisation question. The answer is B: 1 is the leaf organ, 2 is a palisade mesophyll cell and 3 is the spongy
mesophyll layer

Cell Structures
● Cells are separated from their surrounding environment by a cell membrane
● Within the cell membrane is the cytoplasm
● Eukaryotic cells have organelles contained within their cytoplasm

○ Organelles are subcellular compartments where specific processes take place within the cell
● Within the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells the following organelles are present
○ Nucleus
○ Mitochondria (singular mitochondrion)
○ Ribosomes
● Plant cells contain the following additional structures
○ Cell wall
○ Chloroplasts
○ Permanent vacuole
When viewed under a microscope the structures inside a plant cell are visible. Ribosomes and mitochondria are too small to
view under a light microscope but are visible with the higher resolution of an electron microscope.

Cell Structures & Functions

Cellular Structures & Functions Table
● The main subcellular structures in animal cells are:
○ The nucleus: contains genetic material
○ Cell membranes: controls what enters and leaves the cell
○ Mitochondria: site of aerobic respiration
○ Ribosomes: site of protein synthesis
○ Cytoplasm: chemical reactions take place in this jelly-like substance

Some cellular structures can only be seen when viewed with an electron microscope

● In addition to the subcellular parts found in animal cells, plant cells have:
○ A cell wall made of cellulose: gives the cell shape and protection
○ A permanent vacuole filled with cell sap: pushes the cytoplasm against the cell wall, keeping the cell turgid
○ Plant cells found in the leaf and stem may also contain chloroplasts: the site of photosynthesis
 The plant cell shown above contains chloroplasts, so it would be found in the leaves of a plant

Plant Cell Structure & Functions Table

Exam Tip
You need to be able to recognise, draw and interpret images of cells, so practice drawing and labelling animal and plant cells as
part of your revision.

Chemical Elements
● Most of the molecules in living organisms fall into three categories: carbohydrates, proteins and lipids
● These all contain carbon and so are described as organic molecules
 Large Molecules are Made from Smaller Molecules

Carbohydrates
● Carbohydrates contain the elements carbon, hydrogen and oxygen
● A monosaccharide is a simple sugar e.g. glucose (C 6H12O6) or fructose
○ Glucose molecules contain lots of energy which can be released in respiration by breaking the bonds between
the carbon atoms
● A disaccharide is made when two monosaccharides join together
○ Maltose is formed from two glucose molecules
○ Sucrose is formed from one glucose and one fructose molecule
● A polysaccharide is formed when lots of monosaccharides join together
○ Starch, glycogen or cellulose are all formed when lots of glucose molecules join together
○ Polysaccharides are insoluble and therefore useful as storage molecules

Glycogen, cellulose and starch are all made from glucose molecules

Fats
 ● Most fats (lipids) in the body are made up of triglycerides
● Their basic unit is one glycerol molecule chemically bonded to three fatty acid chains
● The fatty acids vary in size and structure
● Lipids are divided into fats (solids at room temperature) and oils (liquids at room temperature)

The structure of a triglyceride

Proteins
● Proteins are formed from long chains of amino acids
● There are 20 different amino acids
● When amino acids are joined together a protein is formed
● Amino acids can be arranged in any order, resulting in hundreds of thousands of different proteins
○ Examples of proteins include enzymes, haemoglobin, ligaments and keratin

Amino acids join together to form proteins

Protein shape
● Different proteins have different amino acid sequences resulting in them being different shapes
● Even a small difference in the amino acid sequence will result in a completely different protein being formed
● The different sequences of amino acids cause the polypeptide chains to fold in different ways and this gives rise to the
different shapes of proteins
● In this way, every protein has a unique 3-D shape that enables it to carry out its function
● The shape of a protein determines its function
● For example:
○ Enzymes have a specifically shaped active site - this is where a specific substrate molecule fits in order for a
reaction to take place
○ If the shape of the active site does not match the shape of the molecule that fits into it, the reaction will not
take place
○ Antibodies are proteins produced by certain types of white blood cells that attach to antigens on the surface of
pathogens
○ The shape of the antibody must match the shape of the antigen so that it can attach to it and signal it for
destruction

Every enzyme has a different shaped active site-specific to one substrate

Exam Tip
You should be able to explain the importance of sugars, amino acids, fatty acids and glycerol in the synthesis and breakdown of
carbohydrates, proteins and lipids. There will be many examples of each of these molecules throughout the course.
 Practical: Food Tests

Preparing a sample
● Before you can carry out any of the food tests described below, you may need to prepare a food sample first (especially
for solid foods to be tested)
● To do this:
○ Break up the food using a pestle and mortar
○ Transfer to a test tube and add distilled water
○ Mix the food with the water by stirring with a glass rod
○ Filter the mixture using a funnel and filter paper, collecting the solution
○ Proceed with the food tests

Test for glucose (a reducing sugar)

● Add Benedict's solution to the sample solution in a test tube
● Heat in a boiling water bath for 5 minutes
● Take the test tube out of the water bath and observe the colour
● A positive test will show a colour change from blue to orange / brick red

The Benedict's test for glucose

Test for starch using iodine

● We can use iodine to test for the presence or absence of starch in a food sample
● Add drops of iodine solution to the food sample
● A positive test will show a colour change from orange-brown to blue-black
 In the presence of starch, iodine will turn from brown to blue-black

Test for protein

● Add drops of Biuret solution to the food sample
● A positive test will show a colour change from blue to violet / purple

The Biuret test for protein

Test for lipids

● Mix the food sample with 4cm3 of ethanol and shake
● Allow time for the sample to dissolve in the ethanol
● Strain the ethanol solution into another test tube
 ● Add the ethanol solution to an equal volume of cold distilled water (4cm 3)
● A positive test will show a cloudy emulsion forming

The ethanol test for lipids

Food Test Results Table

Important hazards
● Whilst carrying out this practical you should try to identify the main hazards and be thinking of ways to reduce harm
● Biuret solution contains copper (II) sulfate which is dangerous particularly if it gets in the eyes, so always wear goggles
● Iodine is also an irritant to the eyes
● Sodium hydroxide in biuret solution is corrosive, if any chemicals get onto your skin wash your hands immediately
● Ethanol is highly flammable; keep it away from any Bunsen burner
● The Bunsen burner itself is a hazard due to the open flame

Worked example
Food tests: analysis

Write a conclusion to state which food groups are present one of the food samples you tested and an explanation of how you
know this.
Conclusion:

The apple contained both starch and sugar as it tested positive for both the iodine test (orange → blue - black) and the
benedict's test (blue → orange).

The apple did not contain protein or lipid (fat) as the biuret and emulsion tests were both negative.

Applying CORMS to practical work

● When working with practical investigations, remember to consider your CORMS evaluation.

CORMS evaluation
 ● In this investigation, your evaluation should look something like this:
○ C - We are changing the type of food in the sample
○ O - This is not relevant to this investigation as we aren't using an organism
○ R - We will repeat the investigation several times for each food sample to ensure a reliable result
○ M1 - The presence of the specific biological molecule in each food type by noting the colour change
○ M2 - ....after testing with each specific testing agent
○ S - We will control the volume of each testing agent used, the quantity of the food sample, the concentration
of the testing agents, the temperature of the water bath for the Benedicts test. There may be other examples
that you can think of

Exam Tip
When describing food tests in exam answers, make sure you give the starting colour of the solution and the colour it changes to
for a positive result.
Test yourself
Next topic

Enzymes as Biological Catalysts

Enzymes
● Enzymes are proteins that act as biological catalysts to speed up the rate of a chemical reaction without being changed
or used up in the reaction
● They are biological because they are made in living cells
● Enzymes are necessary to all living organisms as they maintain reaction speeds of all metabolic reactions at a rate that
can sustain life
○ For example, if we did not produce digestive enzymes, it would take around 2 - 3 weeks to digest one meal;
with enzymes, it takes around 4 hours
○ Often the products of one reaction are the reactants for another (and so on)

The mechanism of enzyme action

● Enzymes are specific to one particular substrate(s) as the active site of the enzyme, where the substrate attaches, is a
complementary shape to the substrate
● When the substrate moves into the enzyme’s active site they become known as the enzyme-substrate complex
● After the reaction has occurred, the products leave the enzyme’s active site as they no longer fit it and it is free to take
up another substrate
○ Step One: Enzymes and substrates randomly move about in solution
○ Step Two: When an enzyme and its complementary substrate randomly collide an enzyme-substrate complex
forms, and the reaction occurs
○ Step Three: A product (or products) forms from the substrate(s) which are then released from the active site.
The enzyme is unchanged and will go on to catalyse further reactions
 How enzymes work

Factors Affecting Enzyme Action: Temperature

● Enzymes are proteins and have a specific shape, determined by the amino acids that make the enzyme and held in
place by bonds
● This is extremely important around the active site as the specific shape is what ensures the substrate will fit into the
active site and enable the reaction to proceed
● Enzymes work fastest at their ‘optimum temperature’
○ In the human body, the optimum temperature is 37⁰C
● Heating to high temperatures (beyond the optimum) will break the bonds that hold the enzyme together and it will
lose its shape
○ This is known as denaturation
● Substrates cannot fit into denatured enzymes as the shape of their active site has been lost
● Denaturation is irreversible - once enzymes are denatured they cannot regain their proper shape and activity will stop
 Effect of temperature on enzyme activity

● Increasing the temperature towards the optimum increases the activity of enzymes as the more kinetic energy the
molecules have the faster they move and the number of collisions with the substrate molecules increases, leading to a
faster rate of reaction
● This means that low temperatures do not denature enzymes, they just make them work more slowly due to a lack of
kinetic energy
 Graph showing the effect of temperature on the rate of enzyme activity

Practical: Enzymes & Temperature

● Amylase is an enzyme that digests starch (a polysaccharide of glucose) into maltose (a disaccharide of glucose)
● The effect of temperature on the activity of amylase can be investigated

Apparatus
● Spotting tile
● Measuring cylinder
● Test tube
● Syringe
● Pipette
● Stopwatch
● Water
● Thermometer
● Water bath
● Iodine
● Starch solution
● Amylase solution

Method
● Add 5cm3 starch solution to a test tube and heat to a set temperature using beaker of water with a Bunsen burner
● Add a drop of Iodine to each of the wells of a spotting tile
● Use a syringe to add 2cm3 amylase to the starch solution and mix well
 ● Every minute, transfer a droplet of solution to a new well of iodine solution (which should turn blue-black)
● Repeat this transfer process until the iodine solution stops turning blue-black (this means the amylase has broken
down all the starch)
● Record the time taken for the reaction to be completed
● Repeat the investigation for a range of temperatures (from 20°C to 60°C)

Investigating the effect of temperature on enzyme activity

Results and Analysis

● Amylase is an enzyme which breaks down starch
● The quicker the reaction is completed, the faster the enzyme is working
● This investigation shows:
○ At the optimum temperature, the iodine stopped turning blue-black the fastest
■ This is because the enzyme is working at its fastest rate and has digested all the starch
○ At colder temperatures (below optimum), the iodine took a longer time to stop turning blue-black
■ This is because the amylase enzyme is working slowly due to low kinetic energy and few collisions
between the amylase and the starch
○ At hotter temperatures (above optimum) the iodine turned blue-black throughout the whole investigation
 ■ This is because the amylase enzyme has become denatured and so can no longer bind with the starch
or break it down

Limitations
● Note that there are several different ways in which the temperature could be controlled. The method described above
is not very precise, an improvement would be to use water baths kept at each temperature
● The starch and amylase solutions that need to be used should be placed in a water bath and allowed to reach the
temperature (using a thermometer to check) before being used
● A colorimeter can be used to measure the progress of the reaction more accurately
○ A solution containing starch will be darker than a solution containing glucose (as a result of the colour change
of iodine)
○ The absorbance or transmission of light through the coloured solution can be measured using a colorimeter

Applying CORMS to practical work

● When working with practical investigations, remember to consider your CORMS evaluation

CORMS evaluation

● In this investigation, your evaluation should look something like this:

○ C - We are changing the temperature in each repeat
○ O - This is not relevant to this investigation as we aren't using an organism
○ R - We will repeat the investigation several times to make sure our results are reliable
○ M1 - We will measure the time taken
○ M2 - for the iodine to stop turning black
○ S - We will control the concentration and volume of starch solution, iodine and amylase used in the
investigation

Exam Tip
Describing and explaining experimental results for enzyme experiments is a common type of exam question so make sure you
understand what is happening and can relate this to changes in the active site of the enzyme when it has denatured, or if it is a
low temperature, relate it to the amount of kinetic energy the molecules have.

Factors Affecting Enzyme Action: pH

● The optimum pH for most enzymes is 7
 ○ Some enzymes that are produced in acidic conditions, such as the stomach, have a lower optimum pH (pH 2)
○ Some that are produced in alkaline conditions, such as the duodenum, have a higher optimum pH (pH 8 or 9)
● If the pH is too high or too low, the bonds that hold the amino acid chain together to make up the protein can be
disrupted/destroyed
● This will change the shape of the active site, so the substrate can no longer fit into it, reducing the rate of activity
● Moving too far away from the optimum pH will cause the enzyme to denature and activity will stop

Effect of pH on enzyme activity

Graph showing the effect of pH on the rate of activity for an enzyme from the duodenum

Exam Tip
Remember the terminology when writing about enzymes is very important. Make sure you refer to an enzyme becoming
'denatured' not 'dying'.Being able to describe AND explain the effect of each environmental condition on enzyme action is
key.Practise describing and explaining using the graphs and then check your descriptions against your notes.
 Practical: Enzymes & pH
● Amylase is an enzyme that digests starch (a polysaccharide of glucose) into maltose (a disaccharide of glucose)
● The effect of different pH levels on the activity of amylase can be investigated

Apparatus
● Spotting tile
● Measuring cylinder
● Test Tube
● Syringe
● Pipette
● Stopwatch
● Buffer solutions
● Iodine
● Starch solution
● Amylase solution

Method
● Add a drop of iodine to each of the wells of a spotting tile
● Use a syringe to place 2 cm3 of amylase into a test tube
● Add 1cm3 of buffer solution (at pH 2) to the test tube using a syringe
● Use another test tube to add 2 cm3 of starch solution to the amylase and buffer solution, start the stopwatch whilst
mixing using a pipette
● Every 10 seconds, transfer a droplet of the solution to a new well of iodine solution (which should turn blue-black)
● Repeat this transfer process every 10 seconds until the iodine solution stops turning blue-black (this means the
amylase has broken down all the starch)
● Record the time taken for the reaction to be completed
● Repeat the investigation with buffers at different pH values (ranging from pH 3.0 to pH 7.0)
 Investigating the effect of pH on enzyme activity

Results and Analysis

● Amylase is an enzyme which breaks down starch
● When the iodine solution remains orange-brown, all the starch has been digested
● This investigation shows:
○ At the optimum pH, the iodine stopped turning blue-black and remained orange-brown within the shortest
amount of time
■ This is because the enzyme is working at its fastest rate and has digested all the starch
● At higher or lower pH's (above or below the optimum) the iodine took a longer time to stop turning blue-black or
continued to turn blue-black for the entire investigation
○ This is because on either side of the optimum pH, the enzymes are starting to become denatured and as a
result are unable to bind with the starch or break it down
Limitations
● The starch and amylase solutions that need to be used should be placed in a water bath at optimum temperature
before being used
● A colorimeter can be used to measure the progress of the reaction more accurately by measuring the
absorbance/transmission of light through the coloured solution
○ A control of iodine solution would be used for comparison

A graph showing the optimum pH for an enzyme from a region of the small intestine

Applying CORMS to practical work

● When working with practical investigations, remember to consider your CORMS evaluation

CORMS Evaluation

● In this investigation, your evaluation should look something like this:

○ C - We are changing the pH of the environment
 ○ O - This is not relevant to this investigation as we aren't using an organism
○ R - We will repeat the investigation several times to ensure reliability
○ M1 - We will measure the time taken for
○ M2 - the iodine to stop turning black
○ S - We will control the concentration and volume of the amylase, iodine and starch solution used in the
investigation

Exam Tip
When describing the effect of pH on enzyme activity, it is important to remember that any pH outside of the optimum can lead
to the enzyme becoming permanently denatured.

Diffusion Theory
● Diffusion is the movement of molecules from a region of its higher concentration to a region of its lower concentration
● Molecules move down a concentration gradient, as a result of their random movement

Diffusion across the cell membrane

Diffusion in living organisms

● For living cells, the principle of the movement down a concentration gradient is the same, but the cell is surrounded by
a cell membrane, which can restrict the free movement of the molecules
● The cell membrane is a partially permeable membrane - this means it allows some molecules to cross easily, but others
with difficulty or not at all
○ The simplest sort of selection is based on the size of the molecules (i.e. smaller molecules can diffuse across
the membrane but larger molecules cannot)
● Diffusion helps living organisms to:
○ Obtain many of their requirements
○ Get rid of many of their waste products
○ Carry out gas exchange for respiration

Examples of diffusion in living organisms

● You will need to learn examples of substances that organisms obtain by diffusion
Exam Tip
Remember that diffusion is a passive process, so when it occurs in a living organism, the cells of that organism do not provide
the particles involved with energy to diffuse. The particles that are moving about randomly have their own kinetic energy.

Osmosis Theory
● All cells are surrounded by a cell membrane which is partially permeable
● Water can move in and out of cells by osmosis
● Osmosis is the net movement of water molecules from a region of higher water potential (dilute solution) to a region of
lower water potential (concentrated solution), through a partially permeable membrane
● In doing this, water is moving down its concentration gradient
● The cell membrane is partially permeable which means it allows small molecules (like water) through but not larger
molecules (like solute molecules)

Osmosis and the partially permeable membrane

 ● It can get a little confusing to talk about the 'concentration of water' when we also talk about solutions being
‘concentrated’ (having a lot of solute in them) so instead, we can say that a dilute solution has a high water potential
(the right-hand side of the diagram below) and a concentrated solution has a low water potential (the left-hand side of
the diagram below):

How osmosis works

Exam Tip
Osmosis refers only to the movement of water molecules, so if in an exam you are talking about the movement of water, make
sure you mention osmosis as this will often earn you a mark.The best explanations to do with osmosis will refer to water
potential, so if you are aiming for a 7, 8 or 9 you will need to understand the concept and use it in your explanations.
Osmosis in Animal Cells
● Animal cells lose and gain water as a result of osmosis
● As animal cells do not have a supporting cell wall, the results of osmosis can be severe
● If an animal cell is placed into a strong sugar solution (with a lower water potential than the cell), it will lose water by
osmosis and become crenated (shrivelled up)
● If an animal cell is placed into distilled water (with a higher water potential than the cell), it will gain water by osmosis
as it has no cell wall to create turgor pressure
● It will continue to gain water until the cell membrane is stretched too far and it bursts
 Effect of osmosis on animal cells

Osmosis and the human body

● It is important that osmosis is carefully controlled in organisms to avoid damage to cells through lysis
● The human body is adapted to maintain the optimum osmotic balance using processes such as sweating or increasing
and decreasing urine concentration
○ This is all part of osmoregulation

Osmosis in Plant Cells

● Plant cells lose or gain water as a result of osmosis
● As plant cells have a supporting cell wall, they are protected from cell lysis
● If a plant cell is placed into a strong sugar solution (with a lower water potential than the cell), it will lose water by
osmosis
○ The vacuole gets smaller and the cell membrane shrivels away from the cell wall
○ It becomes flaccid or plasmolysed (shrivelled up)
● If a plant cell is placed into distilled water (with a higher water potential than the cell), it will gain water by osmosis
○ The vacuole gets bigger, pushing the cell membrane against the cell wall
○ The plant cell is described as being turgid or as containing a high turgor pressure (the pressure of the
cytoplasm pushing against the cell wall)
 The effect of osmosis on plant cells

Osmosis and plant cells

● Water entering the cell by osmosis makes the cell rigid and firm
● This is important for plants as the effect of all the cells in a plant being firm is to provide support and strength for the
plant - making the plant stand upright with its leaves held out to catch sunlight
● If plants do not receive enough water the cells cannot remain rigid and firm (turgid) and the plant wilts

Active Transport Theory

● Active transport is:

The movement of particles through a cell membrane from a region of lower concentration to a region of higher concentration
using energy from respiration

● Energy is needed because particles are being moved against a concentration gradient, in the opposite direction from
which they would naturally move (by diffusion)
● Active transport across the cell membrane involves protein carrier molecules embedded in the cell membrane
Active transport across the cell membrane - the molecules here are being transported against the concentration gradient, from
a region of lower concentration (outside the cell) to a region of higher concentration (inside the cell)

Active Transport in Organisms

Animals
● Food molecules (such as the sugar glucose) can be absorbed across the wall of the small intestine by diffusion, but this
is dependent on a concentration gradient existing between the lumen of the intestine and the bloodstream
● Active transport allows molecules such as glucose to be transported into the bloodstream from the lumen of the small
intestine (the gut) when the concentration of sugar molecules in the blood is higher
● The active uptake of glucose by epithelial cells in kidney tubules in the kidney nephron allows for the reabsorption of
glucose back into the blood so that none is lost in the urine
● Sugar molecules are used in respiration to release energy for cells to function

Plants
● Root hair cells lining the surface of plant roots need to move minerals such as magnesium ions from a region of lower
concentration (the very dilute solution of minerals in the soil surrounding the roots) to a region of higher concentration
(inside the cytoplasm of the cell)
● Mineral ions are needed by plants to function
○ Magnesium ions are required to make chlorophyll
○ Nitrate ions are needed to make amino acids for protein synthesis (and subsequently growth)

Factors that Influence Diffusion

Surface area to volume ratio

● The bigger a cell or structure is, the smaller its surface area to volume ratio is, slowing down the rate at which
substances can move across its surface
● Many cells which are adapted for diffusion have increased surface area in some way - e.g. root hair cells in plants
(which absorb water and mineral ions) and cells lining the ileum in animals (which absorb the products of digestion)
 Cell adaptations for diffusion

The highly folded surface of the small intestine increases its surface area

● You should be able to calculate and compare surface area to volume ratios
● You can model the effect of how increasing size affects surface area to volume ratio using simple cubes:
 Calculating the surface area to volume ratio

Diffusion distance
● The smaller the distance molecules have to travel the faster transport will occur
● This is why blood capillaries and alveoli have walls which are only one cell thick, ensure the rate of diffusion across
them is as fast as possible

Temperature
● The higher the temperature, the faster molecules move as they have more energy
● This results in more collisions against the cell membrane and therefore a faster rate of movement across them

Concentration gradient
● The greater the difference in concentration on either side of the membrane, the faster movement across it will occur
● This is because on the side with the higher concentration, more random collisions against the membrane will occur
Summary of Diffusion Factors Table

Exam Tip
You should have carried out investigations into the factors that influence the rate of diffusion and as so should be able to use
the information above to explain experimental results in an exam. You should also be able to plan and carry out an experiment
which can investigate the effect of one of these factors.

Practical: Factors that Influence Diffusion

● Diffusion is the movement of molecules from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower concentration
● The rate of diffusion is influenced by several factors:
○ Temperature
○ Surface area
○ Concentration gradient
○ Diffusion distance
● You can investigate how temperature affects diffusion using beetroot
○ Beetroot cells contain a dark purple-red pigment
○ Heating above 45℃ can damage the cell membrane meaning that the pigment can leak out
○ The speed at which this pigment leaks out of the cell tells us about the rate of diffusion

Investigating the effect of temperature on diffusion

Apparatus
● Beetroot
● Knife
● Cork borer (optional)
● Cutting board
● Ruler
● Test tubes
● Water baths
● Stopwatch

Method
 ● Using a knife, cut 2 equally-sized cubes of beetroot
○ The pieces must have the same dimensions so that they all have equal surface areas and volumes, as these
factors could affect the rate at which the pigment leaks out
○ A cork borer can also be used, as long as the cores are cut to the same length
● Rinse the beetroot pieces
○ To remove any pigment released during cutting
● Put 5 cm3 of water into 2 test tubes labelled A and B
● Keep test tube A at room temperature and transfer test tube B to a hot water bath at 90℃
● Leave the test tubes for 2 minutes, then add a piece of beetroot into each test tube
● After 10 minutes, observe the colour of the liquid in both test tubes

Results and Analysis

● You should notice that at the higher temperature, more of the pigment has leaked out of the beetroot
● This is because:
○ The cell membrane of the beetroot cells has become damaged so more pigment can leak out
○ At higher temperatures, particles have more kinetic energy, this results in the faster movement of particles
compared to when they have less energy

Investigating the effect of temperature on diffusion in beetroot

Limitations
● The beetroot pieces may not be identical in size and shape, meaning one test tube could contain slightly more beetroot
tissue than the other
 ○ Solution: cut the beetroot as accurately as possible using a knife and ruler, and repeat each investigation
several times to find a mean
● Some parts of beetroot tissue could have more pigment in their cells than others
○ Solution: conduct several repeats, using different parts of the beetroot and find a mean
● Our results would be more reliable if we tested a range of temperatures rather than just testing 2
○ Solution: Set up 5 test tubes in water baths at different temperatures (e.g. 10℃, 20℃, 30℃, 40℃, 50℃)
● Observing the colour is a subjective measure which means it is difficult to really compare the differences in diffusion
between the test tubes
○ Solution: use a colorimeter to measure how much light is absorbed as it passes through each of the five
samples of coloured liquid

Applying CORMS to practical work

● When working with practical investigations, remember to consider your CORMS evaluation

CORMS evaluation

● In this investigation, your evaluation should look something like this:

○ C - We are changing the temperature of the environment
○ O - The beetroot cubes will all be taken from the same beetroot or beetroot of the same age
○ R - We will repeat the investigation several times to ensure our results are reliable
○ M1 - We will observe the colour change of the liquid
○ M2 - ...after 10 minutes
○ S - We will control the volume of water used, the dimensions of the beetroot cubes and each cube must be
blotted before it is weighed each time

Practical: Factors that Influence Osmosis

● Osmosis is the diffusion of water molecules from a dilute solution (high concentration of water) to a more
concentrated solution (low concentration of water) across a partially permeable membrane
 Osmosis in cells

● We can investigate osmosis using cylinders of potato and placing them into distilled water and sucrose solutions of
increasing concentration

Apparatus
● Potatoes
● Cork borer
● Knife
● Sucrose solutions (from 0 Mol/dm3 to 1 mol/dm3)
● Test tubes
● Balance
● Paper towels
● Ruler
● Test tube rack

Method
● Prepare a range of sucrose (sugar) solutions ranging from 0 Mol/dm 3 (distilled water) to 1 mol/dm3
● Set up 6 labelled test tubes with 10cm3 of each of the sucrose solutions
● Using the knife, cork borer and ruler, cut 6 equally-sized cylinders of potato
● Blot each one with a paper towel and weigh on the balance
● Put 1 piece into each concentration of sucrose solution
● After 4 hours, remove them, blot with paper towels and reweigh them
 Experimental method for investigating osmosis in potato cylinders

Results and analysis

● The percentage change in mass can be calculated for each piece of potato

Calculating percentage change in mass

 ● The potato cylinder in the distilled water will have increased its mass the most as there is a greater concentration
gradient in this tube between the distilled water (high water potential) and the potato cells (lower water potential)
● This means more water molecules will move into the potato cells by osmosis, pushing the cell membrane against the
cell wall and so increasing the turgor pressure in the cells which makes them turgid - the potato cylinders will feel hard
● The potato cylinder in the strongest sucrose concentration will have decreased its mass the most as there is a greater
concentration gradient in this tube between the potato cells (higher water potential) and the sucrose solution (lower
water potential)
● This means more water molecules will move out of the potato cells by osmosis, making them flaccid and decreasing the
mass of the cylinder - the potato cylinders will feel floppy
● If looked at underneath the microscope, cells from this potato cylinder might be plasmolysed, meaning the cell
membrane has pulled away from the cell wall

Plasmolysed red onion cells

● If there is a potato cylinder that has not increased or decreased in mass, it means there was no overall net movement
of water into or out of the potato cells
● This is because the solution that the cylinder was in was the same concentration as the solution found in the cytoplasm
of the potato cells, so there was no concentration gradient

Limitations
● Slight differences in potato cylinders may mean that results aren't reliable or comparable
○ Solution: for each sucrose concentration, repeat the investigation with several potato cylinders. Making a
series of repeat experiments means that any anomalous results can be identified and ignored when a mean is
calculated

Applying CORMS evaluation to practical work

● When working with practical investigations, remember to consider your CORMS evaluation
 CORMS evaluation

● In this investigation, your evaluation should look something like this:

○ C - We are changing the concentration of sucrose solution
○ O - The potato cylinders will all be taken from the same potato or potatoes of the same age
○ R - We will repeat the investigation several times to ensure our results are reliable
○ M1 - We will measure the change in mass of the potato cylinders
○ M2 - ...after 4 hours
○ S - We will control the volume of sucrose solution used, the dimensions of the potato cylinders and each
cylinder must be blotted before it is weighed each time

Exam Tip
Questions involving osmosis experiments are common and you should be able to use your knowledge of these processes to
explain the results.Don’t worry if it is an experiment you haven’t done – simply figure out where the higher concentration of
water molecules is – this is the solution with the higher water potential - and explain which way the molecules move due to the
differences in water potential.

Photosynthesis Theory
● Photosynthesis is an endothermic reaction in which energy from sunlight is transferred to the chloroplasts in green
plants
○ Energy from sunlight is absorbed by chlorophyll, a green pigment found inside chloroplasts
○ Green plants use this energy to make the carbohydrate glucose from the raw materials carbon dioxide and
water
○ At the same time, oxygen is made and released as a waste product
● Photosynthesis can be defined as the process by which plants manufacture carbohydrates from raw materials using
energy from light
● Plants are
○ Autotrophs – they can make complex molecules (glucose) from simple molecules (carbon dioxide and water)
○ Producers - they can make their own food and so are the first organism at the start of all food chains

The products of photosynthesis

● Plants use the glucose they make as a source of energy in respiration
● They can also use it to
 ○ Produce starch for storage
○ Synthesise lipids for an energy source in seeds
○ To form cellulose to make cell walls
○ Produce amino acids (used to make proteins) when combined with nitrogen and other mineral ions absorbed
by roots

The fate of glucose produced in photosynthesis

Exam Tip
If asked for the raw materials required for photosynthesis, the answer is carbon dioxide and water.Although required for the
reaction to take place, light energy is not a substance and therefore cannot be a raw material.

Photosynthesis Equation
● Photosynthesis can be summarised in a word equation as shown below:

Word equation for photosynthesis

 Where do the reactants come from and where do the products go?

● This equation can also be shown as a balanced chemical equation

○ Six carbon dioxide molecules combine with six water molecules to make one glucose molecule and six oxygen
molecules

The balanced chemical equation for photosynthesis

Exam Tip
The photosynthesis equation is the exact reverse of the aerobic respiration equation so if you have learned one you also know
the other one! You will usually get more marks for providing the balanced chemical equation than the word equation.

Limiting Factors
● Plants do not have unlimited supplies of their raw materials so their rate of photosynthesis is limited by whatever
factor is the lowest at that time
● So a limiting factor can be defined as something present in the environment in such short supply that it restricts life
processes
● There are three main factors that limit the rate of photosynthesis:
○ Temperature
○ Light intensity
○ Carbon dioxide concentration
 ● Although water is necessary for photosynthesis, it is not considered a limiting factor as the amount needed is relatively
small compared to the amount of water transpired from a plant so there is hardly ever a situation where there is not
enough water for photosynthesis
● The number of chloroplasts or the amount of chlorophyll in the chloroplasts can also affect the rate of photosynthesis

Temperature
● The temperature of the environment affects how much kinetic energy all particles have – so temperature affects the
speed at which carbon dioxide and water move through a plant
● The lower the temperature, the less kinetic energy particles have, resulting in fewer successful collisions occurring over
a period of time
● Increasing temperature increases the kinetic energy of particles, increasing the likelihood of collisions between
reactants and enzymes which results in the formation of products
● At higher temperatures, however, enzymes that control the processes of photosynthesis can be denatured (where the
active site changes shape and is no longer complementary to its substrate) – this reduces the overall rate of
photosynthesis

The effect of temperature on the rate of photosynthesis

Light intensity
● The intensity of the light available to the plant will affect the amount of energy that it has to carry out photosynthesis
● The more light a plant receives, the faster the rate of photosynthesis
● This trend will continue until some other factor required for photosynthesis prevents the rate from increasing further
because it is now in short supply
 Graph showing the effect of light intensity on the rate of photosynthesis. At low light intensities, increasing the intensity will
initially increase the rate of photosynthesis. At a certain point, increasing the light intensity stops increasing the rate. The rate
becomes constant regardless of how much light intensity increases as something else is limiting the rate.

Carbon dioxide concentration

● Carbon dioxide is one of the raw materials required for photosynthesis
● This means the more carbon dioxide that is present, the faster the reaction can occur
● This trend will continue until some other factor required for photosynthesis prevents the rate from increasing further
because it is now in short supply

A graph showing the effect of the concentration of carbon dioxide on the rate of photosynthesis

Chlorophyll
● The number of chloroplasts (as they contain the pigment chlorophyll which absorbs light energy for photosynthesis)
will affect the rate of photosynthesis
● The more chloroplasts a plant has, the faster the rate of photosynthesis
 ● The amount of chlorophyll can be affected by:
○ Diseases (such as tobacco mosaic virus)
○ Lack of nutrients (such as magnesium)
○ Loss of leaves (fewer leaves means fewer chloroplasts)

Exam Tip
Interpreting graphs of limiting factors can be confusing for many students, but it’s quite simple. In the section of the graph
where the rate is increasing (the line is going up), the limiting factor is whatever the label on the x axis (the bottom axis) of the
graph is. In the section of the graph where the rate is not increasing (the line is horizontal), the limiting factor will be something
other than what is on the x axis – choose from temperature, light intensity or carbon dioxide concentration.
Leaf Structure
● Plant leaves have complex structures with layers of different tissues containing specially adapted cells
● The table below describes the different structures in a leaf and their functions

Leaf Structures Table

 Diagram showing the cross-section of a leaf

● The specialised cells in leaves have adaptive features which allow them to carry out a particular function in the plant

Adaptations of Plant Leaves for Photosynthesis Table

 Mineral Ions
● Photosynthesis provides a source of carbohydrates, but plants contain and require many other types of biological
molecule; such as proteins, lipids and nucleic acid (DNA)
● As plants do not eat, they need to make these substances themselves
● Carbohydrates contain the elements carbon, hydrogen and oxygen but proteins, for example, contain nitrogen as well
(and certain amino acids contain other elements too)
● Two fundamental mineral ions required by plants are nitrogen and magnesium, without a source of these elements,
plants cannot photosynthesise or grow properly
● Plants obtain these elements in the form of mineral ions actively absorbed from the soil by root hair cells
● ‘Mineral’ is a term used to describe any naturally occurring inorganic substance
 Mineral Ion Function and Deficiencies in Plants Table

The effect of mineral deficiencies on plants

Practical: Evolution of Oxygen

● We can demonstrate the evolution of oxygen (from the process of photosynthesis) using water plants such as Elodea or
Cabomba - types of pondweed
● As photosynthesis occurs, oxygen gas produced is released
● As the plant is in water, the oxygen released can be seen as bubbles leaving the cut end of the pondweed

Apparatus
● Beaker
● Water plant
● Funnel
● Boiling tube
● Splint
● Bunsen burner (for the oxygen test)
● Heat proof mat

Method
 ● Take a bundle of shoots of a water plant
● Submerge them in a beaker of water underneath an upturned funnel
● Fill a boiling tube with water and place it over the end of the funnel
● As oxygen is produced, the bubbles of gas will collect in the boiling tube and displace the water

Results and analysis

● Show that the gas collected is oxygen by relighting a glowing splint

Experiment to show the evolution of oxygen from a water plant

Practical: Investigating Light & Photosynthesis

● Although plants synthesise glucose during photosynthesis, their leaves cannot be tested for its presence as the glucose
produced is quickly used up, converted into other substances and transported or stored as starch.
● Starch is stored in the chloroplasts where photosynthesis occurs so testing a leaf for starch is a reliable indicator of
which parts of the leaf are photosynthesising

Apparatus
● Beakers
● Leaf tissue
● Bunsen burner
● Tripod
● Gauze platform
● Prongs
● Ethanol
● Apron
● Safety goggles
● Gloves
● Iodine solution
● White tile

Investigating the requirement for light in photosynthesis

● Before testing for starch, complete the following procedure:
Method Part 1
● Destarch the plant by placing it in a dark cupboard for 24 hours
○ This ensures that any starch already present in the leaves will be used up and will not affect the results of the
experiment
● Following de-starching, partially cover a leaf of the plant with aluminium foil and place the plant in sunlight for a day
● Remove the covered leaf and test for starch using iodine using the method below

Method Part 2 - Testing the leaf for starch

● Drop the leaf in boiling water
○ This kills the tissue and breaks down the cell walls
● Transfer the leaf into hot ethanol in a boiling tube for 5-10 minutes
○ This removes the chlorophyll so colour changes from iodine can be seen more clearly
● Rinse the leaf in cold water
○ This is done to soften the leaf tissue after being in ethanol
● Spread the leaf out on a white tile and cover it with iodine solution
 Testing a leaf for starch

Results and analysis

● In a green leaf, the entire leaf will turn blue-black as photosynthesis is occurring in all areas of the leaf
 ● The area of the leaf that was covered with aluminium foil will remain orange-brown as it did not receive any sunlight
and could not photosynthesise, while the area exposed to sunlight will turn blue-black
● This proves that light is necessary for photosynthesis and the production of starch

Photosynthesis cannot occur in sections of the leaf where light cannot reach the chloroplasts

Safety
● Care must be taken when carrying out this practical as ethanol is extremely flammable, so at that stage of the
experiment, the Bunsen burner should be turned off
● The safest way to heat the ethanol is in an electric water bath rather than using a beaker over a Bunsen burner with an
open flame

Applying CORMS evaluation to practical work

● When working with practical investigations, remember to consider your CORMS evaluation

CORMS evaluation
 ● In this investigation, your evaluation should look something like this:
○ C - We are changing whether there is light or no light
○ O - The leaves will be taken from the same plant or same species, age and size of the plant
○ R - We will repeat the investigation several times to ensure our results are reliable
○ M1 - We will observe the colour change of the leaf when iodine is applied
○ M2 - ...after 1 day
○ S - We will control the temperature of the room

Practical: Investigating Carbon Dioxide & Photosynthesis

● The iodine test for starch can be used to investigate the requirement for carbon dioxide in photosynthesis
● Before testing for starch, complete the following procedure:

Apparatus
● Conical flasks
● Potassium hydroxide solution
● Clamps
● Clamp stands
● A plant
● Beakers
● Bunsen burner
● Tripod
● Gauze platform
● Prongs
● Ethanol
● Apron
● Safety goggles
● Gloves
● Iodine solution
● White tile

Method
● Destarch the plant by placing it in a dark cupboard for 24 hours
○ This ensures that any starch already present in the leaves will be used up and will not affect the results of the
experiment
● Following destarching, enclose 1 leaf with a conical flask containing potassium hydroxide
○ The potassium hydroxide will absorb carbon dioxide from the surrounding air
● Enclose another leaf with a conical flask containing no potassium hydroxide (control experiment)
● Place the plant in bright light for several hours
● Test both leaves for starch using iodine solution
○ Drop the leaf in boiling water
○ Transfer the leaf into hot ethanol in a boiling tube for 5-10 minutes
○ Rinse the leaf in cold water
○ Spread the leaf out on a white tile and cover it with iodine solution
 Photosynthesis cannot occur without carbon dioxide

Results
● The leaf from the conical flask containing potassium hydroxide will remain orange-brown as it could not
photosynthesize due to lack of carbon dioxide
● The leaf from the conical flask not containing potassium hydroxide should turn blue-black as it had all necessary
requirements for photosynthesis

Applying CORMS evaluation to practical work

● When working with practical investigations, remember to consider your CORMS evaluation

CORMS evaluation

● In this investigation, your evaluation should look something like this:

○ C - We are changing whether there is carbon dioxide or no carbon dioxide
○ O - The leaves will be taken from the same plant or same species, age and size of plant
○ R - We will repeat the investigation several times to ensure our results are reliable
 ○ M1 - We will observe the color change of the leaf when iodine is applied
○ M2 - ...after 1 day
○ S - We will control the temperature of the room and the light intensity

Practical: Investigating Chlorophyll and Photosynthesis

● Starch is stored in chloroplasts where photosynthesis occurs so testing a leaf for starch is a reliable indicator of which
parts of the leaf are photosynthesizing
● This method can also be used to test whether chlorophyll is needed for photosynthesis by using a variegated leaf (one
that is partially green and partially white)

Apparatus
● Beakers
● Leaf tissue (leaves must be variegated)
● Bunsen burner
● Tripod
● Gauze platform
● Prongs
● Ethanol
● Apron
● Safety goggles
● Gloves
● Iodine solution
● White tile

Method
● Drop the leaf in boiling water
○ This kills the tissue and breaks down the cell walls
● Transfer the leaf into hot ethanol in a boiling tube for 5-10 minutes
○ This removes the chlorophyll so colour changes from iodine can be seen more clearly
● Rinse the leaf in cold water
○ This is done to soften the leaf tissue after being in ethanol
● Spread the leaf out on a white tile and cover it with iodine solution

Safety
● Care must be taken when carrying out this practical as ethanol is extremely flammable, so at that stage of the
experiment, the Bunsen burner should be turned off
● The safest way to heat the ethanol is in an electric water bath rather than using a beaker over a Bunsen burner with an
open flame

Results and analysis

● The white areas of the leaf contain no chlorophyll and when the leaf is tested only the areas that contain chlorophyll
stain blue-black
● The areas that had no chlorophyll remain orange-brown as no photosynthesis is occurring here and so no starch is
stored

Applying CORMS evaluation to practical work

 ● When working with practical investigations, remember to consider your CORMS evaluation

CORMS evaluation

● In this investigation, your evaluation should look something like this:

○ C - We are changing whether there is chlorophyll or no chlorophyll
○ O - The leaves will be taken from the same plant or same species, age and size of the plant
○ R - We will repeat the investigation several times to ensure our results are reliable
○ M1 - We will observe the colour change of the leaf when iodine is applied
○ M2 - ...after 1 day
○ S - We will control the temperature of the room and the light intensity

The Importance of a Balanced Diet

● A balanced diet consists of all of the food groups in the correct proportions
● The necessary key food groups are:
○ Carbohydrates
○ Proteins
○ Lipids
○ Dietary Fibre
○ Vitamins
○ Minerals (mineral ions)
○ Water

Malnutrition
● Having an unbalanced diet can lead to malnutrition
● Malnutrition can cause a variety of different health problems in humans

Causes & Effects of Malnutrition Table

Sources & Functions of Dietary Elements
Food Groups Functions & Sources Table
Vitamins and minerals are required for many specific functions of the body