How the Earth Works Exam 3

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1. drainage basins (watersheds): an array of interconnecting streams that togeth-
er drain an area
2. Divides: a highland or ridge that separates one drainage basin from another
3. continental divide: separates the drainage of water between the Pacific and
Atlantic oceans
4. water as a resource: out of 2.59% of all water- we cannot use ~2.587%, there-
fore, we only have 0.003% of all water on Earth to use
5. Gradient: the change in the slope of a stream over a given distance
- source (head)- steep
- mouth- shallow
6. discharge: the volume of water in a conduit or channel passing a point in one
second
D= A x v (units are in ft^3/s or m^3/s
A = cross-sectional area
v = the average velocity of the stream
D = discharge
7. Stream Velocity: depends on the shape of the stream
- maximum velocity is in the center of the stream near the surface
- maximum velocity usually stays positioned over the deepest part of the channel
8. Eroded material is transported by streams in 3 different waves: 1) bed load
2) suspended load
3) dissolved load
9. bed load: large particles, such as sand, pebbles, or cobbles, that bounce or roll
along a stream bed. most of the bedload only moves during periods of high discharge
10. suspended load: tiny solid grains carried along by a stream without settling to
the floor of the channel
11. dissolved load: ions dissolved in a stream's water
12. saltation: the movement of a sediment in which grains bounce along their
substrate, knocking other grains into the water column (or air) in the process
13. competence: is the maximum size of particle (clay, silt, sand, etc.) that a stream
can carry. high versus low
14. capacity: the amount of material a stream can carry. depends on competence
and discharge
15. meandering streams: consist of fine grained particles that are transported
16. meanders: sweeping bends in a stream form by lateral erosion. occurs when
stream reaches a gradient when deepening no longer occurs
17. oxbow lakes: formed by cut off meanders
18. point bar: deposited sediment on the inside curves of river banks
19. cut bank: erosion on outside curves of streams
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20. floodplain: the flat land on either side of a stream that becomes covered with
water during times of high discharge
21. natural levees: form by sediment dropped by river when it tops its channel. they
are built by successive flooding over many years.
22. valley deepening: in youth, a steep gradient allows for downward erosion to
dominate
- rapids
- waterfalls
streams are relatively straight
23. valley widening: as the gradient becomes less steep, streams begin to mean-
der and erode laterally
- floodplain development
24. continued widening: in old age, the gradient becomes even less steep, larger
meanders, greater lateral erosion
- wider floodplain
- oxbow lakes
25. floods and flood control: floods occur as the discharge of a stream/river
becomes larger then the channel can hold
produced by:
- melting of snow and heavy rains in spring
- extremely heavy rains over a very short period of time
- ground already saturated with water
- ice-jams building up along a river in the winter
- human activity
26. Flood control: - engineering efforts
1- artificial levees
2- flood-control dams
3- channelization
- nonstructural approach through
27. Recurrence Interval: a flood of a given size is defined as the average number
of years between successive floods of at least this size
28. evaluating flood hazards: - recurrence interval
- flood risks are calculated as probabilities
- discharges plotted on semi-logarithmic paper against recurrence intervals yield a
straight line
- the probability of a given discharge, as. % chance of occurrence, can be determined
by graph inspection
29. point source: discharge pollution from specific locations
- factories, power plants, drain pipes
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30. nonpoint source: scatter or diffuse, having no specific location of discharge
- agricultural fields, feedlots, golf courses, residential construction sites
31. pore: an open space in soil or rock
32. porosity: total volume of rock that consists of pore space
- primary- original open pore space in soil or rock after it forms
- secondary- open space that forms after soil or rock is "created"
33. high porosity: clay particles do not fit tightly; rounded, sorted clasts do not fit
tightly
34. low porosity: crystals in granite fit tightly; poorly sorted clasts fit more tightly
35. permeability: the ability of a material to allow fluid (groundwater) to flow through
it (hydraulic conductivity)
36. impermeable: material that does not have inter-connected pore space, thus not
allowing water to flow through it
37. permeable: material that has interconnected pore space which allows water to
flow through it
38. permeability depends on: - number of available conduits
- size of conduits
- straightness of conduits
39. high permeability: -granite with many fractures
- loosely cemented gravels
40. low permeability: - compact-ed clay (shale)
- porous volcanic rock with separate pores
41. groundwater: water that resides under the surface of the earth within the zone
of saturation. It occurs within soil, bedrock, or in caves
42. aquifer: rock and/or sediment that is saturated with groundwater, and is suffi-
ciently permeable to allow economically viable quantities of groundwater to wells
and springs
43. aquitard: sediment or rock with low permeability, regardless of porosity
44. unconfined aquifer: formations that are exposed to atmospheric pressure
changes and that can provide water to wells by draining adjacent saturated rock
or soil
45. confined aquifer: saturated groundwater that is enclosed by impermeable lay-
ers both below and above it. artesian wells are an example
46. potentiometric surface: is the elevation that confined groundwater would rise,
due to pressure, but it is not allowed because of aquitards
47. water table: rock under the surface of the earth that separates fully saturated
soil/rock from partially saturated soil/rock
48. zone of aeration: zone above water table where infiltration occurs. includes
capillary fringe and belt of soil moisture (BoSM)
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49. zone of saturation: zone where pore space is filled with groundwater
50. wells: bring groundwater to the surface through pumping or natural means
51. ordinary well: base of the well penetrates an aquifer below the water table
52. dry well: a well that does not supply water because the well has been drilled into
an aquitard or into rock that lies above the water table
53. artesian well: penetrates a confined aquifer in which water has enough pres-
sure to rise on its own to a level above the top surface of the aquifer
54. cone of depression: cone shaped depression in the water table due to draw-
down
55. drawdown: lowering of the water table due to well pumping
56. Groundwater mining: amount of water withdrawn from an aquifer exceeds the
aquifer's sustained yields
- causes shallow wells to go dry
- increases cost of lifting water to the surface as water levels drop
- may cause ground subsidence
57. San Joaquin Valley, California: - withdrawal began in the mid 1920's
- land subsidence exceeded 28 feet by 1970
- subsidence decreased for a few years
drought 1976-1977 cause subsidence to resume
-- half the entire valley affected
-- damaged buildings, highways, bridges, water lines and wells
58. groundwater contamination: addition to the groundwater, mostly through an-
thropogenic means, of elements that are harmful and make the groundwater dan-
gerous to consume
59. injection wells: wells that discharge waste from industrial areas (either chemi-
cals or hot water) deep into aquifers
60. groundwater contamination: - trillions of gallons of contaminating liquids enter
the groundwater in the US every year
61. groundwater contaminates: - agricultural waste (fertilizers, pesticides)
- industrial waste (dangerous chemicals)
- effluent from Septic Tanks and Landfills (includes bacteria and viruses)
- Petroleum products (leaking storage tanks)
- radioactive waste
- acid from some coal and metal mines
62. karst topography: an area that is full of caves, sinkholes, valleys and disap-
pearing streams
63. glaciers are parts of two basic cycles: - hydrologic cycle
- rock cycle

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64. glacier: a thick mass of ice that originates on land from the accumulation,
compaction, and recrystallization of snow
- accumulate, transport, and deposit rocks and sediment
65. mountain glaciers: - can be very small
- occur in mountainous areas
- when glaciers erode stream valleys, they both deepen and straighten them
66. continental glaciers: - enormous glaciers that flow out in all directions from on
or more snow-accumulation centers
- completely bury underlying landscape
- two left today
-- greenland
--antartica
67. how glaciers move: powerpoint slide 31
- friction between rock and the bottom and sides of the glacier causes the bottom
and sides to move slower than other parts
68. Budget of a Glacier: - zone of accumulation
- zone of wastage
- glacial budget
69. zone of accumulation: area where snow and ice build up
70. zone of wastage: area where snow and ice are melting
71. glacial budget: balance between accumulation and wastage
72. advancing: glaciers moving forward
73. retreating: glaciers melting back
74. ablation: melting back of a glacier from a solid to a liquid
75. sublimation: melting back of a glacier from a solid to a gas
76. what direction is ice within a glacier moving: forward
77. plucking: ice loosens, lifts, and incorporates rock as it moves
78. abrasion: ice and the debris within it grind the Earth like sandpaper
79. glacial erosion: occurs along the bottom of a glacier
80. glacial striations: an example of a glacier eroding by abrasion
81. types of glacial drift: sediments of glacial origin
- till
- stratified drift
82. till: unsorted sediment deposited directly by the glaciers
83. stratified drift: sorted sediments deposited by glacial meltwater
84. erratic-large boulders: found in glaciated areas that the rock type of the erratic
usually does not match the local bedrock type
85. moraines: piles of glacial derived sediment that forms layers or ridges
86. lateral moraine: a moraine that forms along the sides of a valley glacier
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87. medial moraine: formed by the joining of two or more lateral moraines. parallel
to the direction of ice motion
88. end (terminal) moraine: a low sinuous ridge of glacial till that forms when a
glacier stops moving forward. state of equilibrium between ablation and ice accu-
mulation
89. recessional moraine: any moraine deposited behind the end moraine
90. ground moraine: gently rolling layer of till deposited as the ice front recedes.
Has a leveling effect
91. Fjord: a deep glacially carved U-shaped valley that was flooded by rising sea
levels. Formed by valley glaciers
92. when did glaciers leave Ohio: about 14,000 years ago
- more information on slide 39
93. what causes glaciers to form?: - plate tectonics
- variations in the Earth's orbit over time
94. Plate tectonics: - ice ages occur when plates move from tropical latitudes to
colder higher latitudes
- increased volcanic activity
- mountain belts change atmospheric patterns
- doesn't account for last glacial maximum
95. Variations in the Earth's Orbit: Milankovic Cycles
96. eccentricity: every 100,000 years the Earth's orbit becomes more elliptical and
then returns back to more of a circle
97. obliquity: the tilt of the Earth changes from ~21.5 degrees to ~24.5 degrees
every 41,000 years
98. precession: or the wobble of the Earth's axis occurs during a 26,000 year period
99. Changing albedo: reflecting more sunlight
100. interrupting the global heat conveyor: cooling temperatures yield less evap-
oration. Decrease in ocean salinity might stop the system of currents that bring warm
water to higher latitudes
101. biological processes that change carbon dioxide concentration: organ-
isms that extract carbon flourish resulting in lower greenhouse gasses
102. solar variability: changes in radiation output by the sun
103. renewable energy resources: energy resources that can be replaced at a rate
equal to, or faster than they are consumed
- includes solar, water, wood, wind, tidal forces, and geothermal
104. nonrenewable energy resources: energy resources that can not be replaced
at a rate equal to, or faster than they are consumed
- includes oil, natural gas, coal, and radioactive material

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105. hydrocarbon compounds: chemical compounds that consist of hydrogen and
carbon
106. petroleum: - also known as crude oil
- a hydrocarbon with the chemical formula ranging from C5H12 to C18H38
- short chain molecules tend to be less viscous and more volatile
107. oil and gas formation: forms after organic material (plants not animals) is
chemically transformed by heat and pressure over long periods of time after it was
quickly buried
108. oil and gas formation: organic matter --> kerogen -> oil and gas
109. Hydrocarbon resources: - conventional
- unconventional
110. conventional: hydrocarbon reserve that can be extracted by pumping from a
reservoir rock
111. unconventional: an accumulation of hydrocarbons that are too viscous to flow,
and/or that occur in impermeable rock, so that they cannot be pumped by drilling a
well (tar sand, oil shale, shale oil/gas)
112. source rock: the rock where the organic material is chemically turned into oil
and natural gas.
- permeable enough to allow the hydrocarbons to migrate upward
113. reservoir rock: a porous rock layer where oil and natural gas are stored due
to an impermeable caprock above it
114. coal: fossilized plant material preserved by burial in sediments and compacted
and condensed by geological forces into carbon-rich fuel
115. Carboniferous period: - most coal laid down during this time
- 286 million to 360 million years ago
116. lignite coal: has undergone low degrees of metamorphism; therefore, it has a
high volatile content
117. anthracite coal: has undergone high degrees of metamorphism; therefore, it
has a low volatile content and burns "hot and clean"
118. rank of coal: Peat ’ Lignite ’ Subbituminous ’ Bituminous ’ Anthracite
119. finding and mining coal: powerpoint slide 50
120. nuclear fission: when struck by neutrons, radioactive uranium atoms undergo
nuclear fission, releases energy and more neutrons
121. chain reaction: nuclear fission triggers nuclear chain reaction
122. geothermal energy: tapping natural underground reservoirs of steam and hot
water
123. geothermal steam: few places have geothermal steam but can use Earth's
warmth everywhere by pumping water through buried pipes using heat
- more information slide 52
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124. solar heating passive: no mechanical assistance
125. solar heating active: mechanical circulation of solar-heated water
126. solar heating: the invention of amorphous silicon collectors has allowed pro-
duction of lightweight, cheaper cells
127. photovoltaic cells: capture solar energy and convert it directly to electrical
current by separating electrons from parent atoms and accelerating them across a
one-way electrostatic barrier
128. Miscanthus x giganteus: elephant grass, comes from Asia and may be an
excellent biofuel crop
129. how much biomass can miscanthus produce: 5x as much per acre as corn
130. miscanthus: more info on cellulosic ethanol on slide 54
131. algae: might be a better biofuel crop
- growing in a photobioreactor could theoretically produce more biofuel (30x) than
miscanthus
- could be grown next to conventional power plants where carbon dioxide from
burning fossil fuels could be captured and used for algae growth
132. hydroelectric power: generated by turning turbines with falling water
- no emissions, but, must build dams which can alter ecosystems by reducing water
temperature
- in 1925, falling water generated 40% of world's electric power
- hydroelectric production capacity has grown 15-fold but fossil fuel use had risen
so rapidly that hydroelectric only supplies 20% of electrical generation
133. wind power: generates electricity by wind turning blades, which turn an elec-
tromagnet which generates electricity
- taller towers and larger blades generate more electricity
- there are an estimated 80 million Mega Watts of wind power could be commercially
tapped worldwide
- this is five times the total current global electrical generating capacity
134. Dams: provide most of hydropower in recent years (enormous dams)
135. dams cause the following unwanted effects: - human displacement
- ecosystem destruction
- wildlife losses
- large-scale flooding due to dam failures
- sedimentation
- herbicide contamination
- evaporative losses
- nutrient flow retardation

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136. wind power pros: - no fuel costs or emissions
- generates income for farmers who rent land for turbines or sell electricity
- short planning and construction time
137. wind power cons: - intermittent source
- not enough wind everywhere
- bird mortality
- power lines needed to transmit the electricity
138. weather: short-lived, local patterns temperature and precipitation due to circu-
lation of the troposphere
139. climate: long term patterns of temperature and precipitation
140. evidence for a lack of free oxygen in earth's early atmosphere: - lack of
oxidized iron in the oldest sedimentary rocks
- uraninite and pyrite are readily oxidized today but are found unoxidized in Precam-
brian sedimentary rocks
- Archean sedimentary rocks are commonly dark due to the presence of carbon,
which would have oxidized if oxygen had been present
141. formation of an oxygen-rich atmosphere: photosynthesis
142. photochemical dissociation: breaking up of water molecules into H and O in
the upper atmosphere, caused by ultraviolet radiation from the sun
143. banded iron formations: appear in the Precambrian. Cherts alternating lam-
inations of red oxidized iron and gray unoxidized iron
- formed in association with blue-green algae
- signifies a change in the atmosphere
- major source of iron mined in the world
144. biochemical cycles: passage of chemicals among living and non-living reser-
voirs in the Earth System
145. carbon cycle: - intake of CO2 during photosynthesis. carbon atoms are incor-
porated into sugar which is eventually released by cellular respiration either in the
plant or in organisms that consumed it
- burning of coal and oil as well as deforestation releases carbon dioxide into the
atmosphere. some carbon is also locked in calcium carbonate
146. greenhouse effect: carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gasses prevent
infrared radiation form escaping the Earth's atmosphere
147. greenhouse gases: water vapor H2O, carbo dioxide CO2, methane CH4,
nitrogen oxides (NOx), and chlorofluorocarbons CFC
148. growth rings and microfossils: - the changing proportion of spruce pollen to
grass pollen in a sedimentary sequence records changes in vegetation linked to
change in climate

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- spruce forests grew much farther south 12,000 years ago
- different plant species live in different climates
149. tree rings: one growth ring per year
thick rings- good growing condition (warm and wet year)
thin ring- not ideal growing condition (cold and dry year)
150. oxygen-isotope ratios: ratio is larger in snow that forms in warmer air and
smaller in colder air
- more information on slide 66
151. anthropogenic climate change: most important environmental issue of our
time
152. recent climate changes are usually rapid: increases in carbon dioxide con-
centration since the beginning of the industrial revolution appear to exceed the range
of natural fluctuations that occurred during the last 800,000 years
153. Mauna Loa volcano: earliest data from an observatory in 1957
- carbon dioxide levels increasing at 0.5% per year since data collection began
154. methane: ruminants and rice paddies are sources
- microbial decay in anoxic conditions
155. nitrous oxide: vehicle engines, agriculture processes are major sources
- the relative effects of each greenhouse gas can be seen by converting them to CO2
equivalents
156. Reasons for Climate Change: - Milinkovic Cycles
- Geologic Activity
- Surface Albedo
- Effects of organisms
- concentration of Greenhouse gasses
157. Milinkovic cycles: variations in the earth's orbit
- amount of solar radiation
158. geologic activity: - plate tectonics- continents at higher or lower latitudes
- volcanic activity- aerosols in the atmosphere
- ocean currents- distribute heat
159. surface albedo: more = cooling
less = warming
160. effects of organisms: cyanobacteria and humans
161. concentration of greenhouse gasses: fluctuations in certain gas concentra-
tions will have a warming or cooling effect
162. observations of climate change: - melting of Greenland, Ice Sheets, and
Arctic Sea Ice
- Sea level rise
- acidification of ocean waters
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-- coral bleaching
- change in growing season length
-- drought

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