Unit V - Green Chemistry Composities

B.E.
I/II Semester (with effect from 2018-19) - Chemistry Notes: Unit V
UNIT-V: GREEN CHEMISTRY AND COMPOSITES (08 L)

Green Chemistry: Concept, Principles of green chemistry – Atom Economy, Catalysis and
examples of clean technology.
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Definition of green chemistry.

Green chemistry is the design of chemical products and processes that reduce or eliminate the use or
generation of hazardous substances. Green chemistry applies across the life cycle of a chemical product,
including its design, manufacture, use, and ultimate disposal.
Why do we need Green Chemistry?

• Chemistry is undeniably a very prominent part of our daily lives.
• Chemical developments also bring new environmental problems and harmful unexpected side
effects, which result in the need for ‘greener’ chemical products.
• A famous example is the pesticide DDT.
• It prevents pollution at the molecular level
• It is s a philosophy that applies to all areas of chemistry
• It Applies innovative scientific solutions to real-world environmental problems
• Results in source reduction because it prevents the generation of pollution
• Reduces the negative impacts of chemical products and processes on human health and the
environment
• Lessens and sometimes eliminates hazard from existing products and processes
• Designs chemical products and processes to reduce their intrinsic hazards
•
Green chemistry is not a solution to all environmental problems but the most fundamental approach
to preventing pollution.
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Dr. Ayub Hussain Khan, Professor & HOD, S, H & M
B.E. I/II Semester (with effect from 2018-19) - Chemistry Notes: Unit V
12 Principles of Green Chemistry

Developed by Paul Anastas and John Warner, the following list plans an early conception of what would make
a greener chemical, process, or product.
1. Prevention
it is better to prevent waste than to treat or clean up waste after it has been created.
2. Atom Economy
Synthetic methods should be designed to maximize the incorporation of all materials used in the
process into the final product.
3. Less Hazardous Chemical Syntheses

Wherever practicable, synthetic methods should be designed to use and generate substances that
possess little or no toxicity to human health and the environment.
4. Designing Safer Chemicals

Chemical products should be designed to affect their desired function while minimizing their toxicity.
5. Safer Solvents and Auxiliaries

The use of auxiliary substances (e.g., solvents, separation agents, etc.) should be made unnecessary
wherever possible and harmless when used.
6. Design for Energy Efficiency

Energy requirements of chemical processes should be recognized for their environmental and
economic impacts and should be minimized. If possible, synthetic methods should be conducted at
ambient temperature and pressure.
7. Use of Renewable Feedstocks

A raw material or feedstock should be renewable rather than depleting whenever technically and
economically practicable.
8. Reduce Derivatives
Unnecessary derivatization (use of blocking groups, protection/ deprotection, temporary modification
of physical/chemical processes) should be minimized or avoided if possible, because such steps
require additional reagents and can generate waste.
9. Catalysis
Catalytic reagents (as selective as possible) are superior to stoichiometric reagents.
10. Design for Degradation

Chemical products should be designed so that at the end of their function they break down into
innocuous degradation products and do not persist in the environment.
11. Real-time analysis for Pollution Prevention

Analytical methodologies need to be further developed to allow for real-time, in-process monitoring
and control prior to the formation of hazardous substances.
12. Inherently Safer Chemistry for Accident Prevention

Substances and the form of a substance used in a chemical process should be chosen to minimize the
potential for chemical accidents, including releases, explosions, and fires.
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Atom Economy
o Atom economy is the second principle of green chemistry developed by Barry Trost.
o Atom economy may be defined as number of atoms of the reactants combined into the final desired product
and number of atoms wasted (as byproducts)
o Atom economy is convenient method for assessing efficiency of a reaction and is expressed as a percentage
and calculated using this formula
 Atom economy is an important concept of green chemistry and widely used metrics for measuring the
"greenness" of a process or synthesis.
 The atom economy of a chemical reaction is a measure of the amount of reactants that become useful products.
 Higher Atom Economies: Efficient, useful processes have higher atom economies with more amounts of
unwanted byproducts
Examples of Higher atom economy reactions
 Diels-Alder reaction is an example of very good atom efficient reaction.
 Catalytic hydrogenation is also good efficient reaction.
 Atom economy can be improved upon by careful selection of starting materials and a catalyst system.
 Catalytic hydrogenolysis of an ester is the similar reaction with a high atom economy.
 Traditional synthesis of Ibuprofen drug involved six-step process using hazardous Aluminum chloride with
an atom economy 40% and wastage of 60% of raw materials. The Green Chemical process involves only
three steps with atom economy of 77% using recoverable acid catalyst HF and recoverable Metal catalysts,
Ni & Pd
 Lower Atom Economies: Inefficient, wasteful processes have low atom economies with less amounts of
unwanted byproducts
Examples of Low or Poor Atom Economy Reactions
 Poor atom economy is common in fine chemicals or pharmaceuticals synthesis.
 Cannizzaro reaction, where approximately 50% of the reactant aldehyde becomes byproduct.
 The Wittig reactions, where phosphorus reagents are used but finally become waste.
 Synthesis of Alcohol: where huge amount of aluminum salts are produced as by products along with
product Alcohol
 To improve Atom Economy, “synthetic methods should be designed to maximize the combination of all the reactants used in
the process into the final product”.
Explain atom economy with an example
Consider the following reaction
A+B→C+D
 It is fundamental in chemical reactions that two products are necessarily generated though product C may have been the
desired one and, D is considered a byproduct.
 As it is a significant goal of green chemistry to maximize the efficiency of the reactants and minimize the production of
waste, D must either be found to have use, be eliminated or be as insignificant and harmless as possible.
 With the new equation of the form A + B → C
 The first step in making chemical manufacturing more efficient is the use of reactions that resemble simple addition
reactions with the only other additions being catalytic materials
 By the conservation of mass, the total molecular mass of the reactants is the same as the total molecular mass of the
products.
 In an ideal chemical process, the amount of reactants equals the amount of all products generated and no atom is
wasted.
 In some processes, some of the reactant atoms do not become products. This causes the following:
Generation of byproducts, consumption of more raw materials, high cost of production, impact on environment,
problem of waste disposal.
 Atom economy is a different concern than chemical yield, because a high-yielding process can still result in substantial
byproducts.
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Role of catalysis in green chemistry

 Catalysis is the 9th of Principle Green Chemistry
 Catalytic reagents (as selective as possible) are superior to stoichiometric reagents.
 A catalyst is defined as “a substance that changes the velocity of a reaction without itself being
changed in the process”. It lowers the activation energy of the reaction and it is not consumed. It
can be used in small amounts and be recycled, it doesn’t generate any waste.
 A primary goal of green chemistry is the minimization or the elimination of waste in the
manufacture of chemicals and related products
 For example, the reduction of a ketone to the secondary alcohol using sodium borohydride or
molecular hydrogen as the reductant. Reduction with the former has an atom economy of 81%
while reduction with the latter are 100% that is everything ends up in the product and, in
principle, there is no waste.
 Hydrogen does not react with ketones under normal conditions. For this catalyst such as
palladium-on-charcoal is needed. Since molecular hydrogen is least expensive reductant, catalytic
hydrogenations are widely used in the petrochemical industry by the rise of green chemistry.
 Catalysis has been widely applied in the pharmaceutical and fine chemical industries to minimize
of waste generation by the use of stoichiometric inorganic reagents.
 Heterogeneous, Homogeneous, Organocatalysts, Enzyme Catalysis are used widely in green
chemistry based processes
 Enzymes are effective at catalyzing highly selective processes with complex substrates under
mild conditions and are widely used in the pharmaceutical and allied industries.
 Enzymes are expected to play an important role in the changeover from a chemical industry based
on non-renewable fossil fuels to renewable biomass - another noble goal of green chemistry.
 Green catalysts are the catalysts which are ecofriendly, can be regenerated
hence reused multiple times and thus minimize waste production during process.
 Green catalyst are used in Chemical processes to promote eco-friendly,
reusable, recyclable, waste-minimized toxic /hazardous-free products.
 It increases the rate of a chemical reaction without itself undergoing any
permanent chemical change.
 Their main objective is of sustainable green chemistry.
 E.g. Catalysts having a polar quaternary ammonium group, Alumina etc.
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Examples of Green Chemistry and Clean Technology

Examples of green chemistry activities listed below show how green chemistry influences a wide range of fields,
from pharmaceuticals to housewares, and offer a way to a better world.
Computer Chips
 To manufacture computer chips, many chemicals, large amounts of water, and energy are required. In a
study conducted in 2003, the industrial estimate of chemicals and fossil fuels required to make a computer
chip was a 630:1 ratio! That means it takes 630 times the weight of the chip in source materials just to
make one chip! Compare that to the 2:1 ratio for the manufacture of an automobile.
 Scientists at the Los Alamos National Laboratory have developed a process that uses supercritical carbon
dioxide in one of the steps of chip preparation, and it significantly reduces the quantities of chemicals,
energy, and water needed to produce chips.
Medicine
 Merck and Codexis developed enzymatic process green synthesis of sitagliptin, for type 2 diabetes.
Biodegradable Plastics
 Nature Works of Minnetonka, Minnesota, makes food containers from a polymer called polylactic acid
branded as Ingeo.
 BASF developed a compostable polyester film that called "Ecoflex®." And fully biodegradable bags,
"Ecovio®,"made from Ecoflex with cassava starch and calcium carbonate. These bags are tear-resistant,
puncture-resistant, waterproof, printable and elastic. Using these bags in the place of conventional plastic
bags, kitchen and yard waste will quickly degrade in municipal composting systems.
Paint
 Oil-based "alkyd" paints give off large amounts of hazardous volatile organic compounds (VOCs).
 Procter & Gamble and Cook Composites and Polymers made a mixture of soya oil and sugar that replaces
fossil-fuel-derived paint resins and solvents, cutting hazardous volatiles by 50 percent.
 Sherwin-Williams developed water-based acrylic alkyd paints with low VOCs that can be made from
recycled soda bottle plastic (PET), acrylics, and soybean oil. These paints combine the performance
benefits of alkyds and low VOC content of acrylics. In 2010, Sherwin-Williams manufactured new paints
to eliminate over 362,874 kgs of VOCs.
o Replacement of ozone depleting CFCs:
Green technology using CO2 completely replaced blowing agents such as CFCs and other
Hydrocarbons in the manufacture of Polystyrene
o Harpin Technology:
Harpin, a natural protein has been effectively replaced methyl bromide, an ozone depleting
fumigant
o Catalytic converters:
Use of catalytic converters fitted to automobile exhaust pipe has effectively converted NO x CO, HC to
green gases CO2, N2 and H2
o Super critical CO2
Use of Super critical CO2 as photoresist and/or resist remover in place of mineral acids and
halogenated hydrocarbons
o Energy Saving Catalytic Cracking in petroleum refineries
o Elimination of hazardous reagents for synthesis
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Biodiesel
Biodiesel: Sources, Concept of Trans esterification and carbon neutrality. Properties and
significance____________________________________________________________________
What is Biodiesel?
Biodiesel is a fuel made from vegetable oils or animal fats by a chemical process called as
Trans- esterification. It consists of long-chain alkyl esters (mixture of monoglycerides). It has
an acceptable viscosity and can be used in place of petroleum diesel.
What are the sources of biodiesel?

Biodiesel Fuel can be obtained from a variety of natural crops such as
 Rapeseed, Soybean,
 Mustard, flax, sunflower, canola, palm oil,
 Hemp, Jatropha
 Waste vegetable oils and also from
 Animal fats (bio lipids).
What is Transesterification?
Transesterification is the process of exchanging the organic group R″ of an ester with the
organic group R′ of an alcohol. These reactions are often catalyzed by the addition of
an acid or base catalyst or enzymes (biocatalysts).
The major components of vegetable oils and animal fats are Triglycerides. To obtain biodiesel,
the vegetable oil or animal fat is subjected to a chemical reaction termed transesterification.
(VEGETABLE OIL)
In this reaction, the vegetable oil or animal fat is reacted in the presence of an acid or base
catalyst with an alcohol (usually methanol) to give the corresponding Alkyl Esters (methyl, ethyl
or propyl esters).
Triglyceride is already an ester which on reaction with any alcohol e.g. methanol produces the
corresponding esters. In this process a vegetable oil or animal fat is reacted with methanol in
presence of an acid or base catalyst to get the methyl esters of the oil and Glycerin as a
byproduct.
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Properties of Biodiesel
 Biodiesel is a liquid which varies in color —between golden and dark brown.
 Biodiesel is immiscible with water, has a high boiling point and low vapor pressure.
 The flash point of biodiesel is significantly higher than that of petroleum diesel.
 Biodiesel has higher density than petroleum diesel.
 Biodiesel has much higher cetane ratings and better lubricating properties than petroleum
diesel fuels
 Biodiesel reduces fuel system wear increases the life of the fuel injection equipment.
 Biodiesel gives better lubricity and more complete combustion thus increasing the engine
energy output than petroleum diesel.
 Biodiesel has virtually no sulphur content.
Significance of biodiesel
 Biodiesel reduces engine wear and produce less harmful emissions.
 Biodiesel is used as an alternative fuel source, but requires engine modifications.
 Biodiesel cuts down carbon dioxide pollution by about 75 percent and thus reduces global
warming
 Biodiesel does not emit sulphurous compounds (the cause of acid rain), and reduces smog-
causing pollutants and carbon monoxide by about 50 percent.
Differences between Bio diesel and Petroleum diesel

Bio Diesel Petroleum Diesel
Biodiesel is a fuel made from vegetable oils or Petroleum diesel is obtained from fractional
animal fats by a chemical process called as distillation of petroleum and also form cracking
trans-esterification of heavy oil.
Bio diesel consists of long chain alkyl esters Petroleum diesel consists of long chain linear
hydrocarbons(C15H32 to C18H38)
Bio diesel has better cetane rating than petroleum Petroleum diesel has lesser cetane rating than
diesel biodiesel
Petroleum diesel has flash point lesser than

Bio diesel has higher flash point biodiesel
Lubricity of petroleum diesel is lesser than

Bio diesel gives better lubricity biodiesel
Bio diesel emission does not contain sulphur Petroleum diesel emission contain sulphur
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Carbon neutral, also called carbon neutrality is a term used to describe the action of organizations,
businesses and individuals taking action to remove as much carbon dioxide from the atmosphere as
each put in to it. The overall goal of carbon neutrality is to achieve a zero carbon footprint. For example,
a business may plant trees in different places around the world to offset the electricity the business uses.
This practice is often called carbon offset or offsetting.
Carbon neutral is a term also used to describe carbon-based fuels that when burned will not increase
carbon dioxide (CO2) in the atmosphere. These fuels neither contribute to nor reduce the amount of
carbon (measured in the release of CO2) into the atmosphere.
 Carbon-neutral fuel is energy fuel or energy systems which have no net greenhouse gas emissions or
carbon footprint. Carbon –neutral fuels are
1. Synthetic fuel (including methane, gasoline, diesel fuel, jet fuel or ammonia)
2. Biofuels
3. Renewable energy sources such as wind turbines, solar panels, and hydroelectric power
Stations, etc.
 Carbon-Neutral fuels do not cause net increase in atmospheric greenhouse gases.
 Carbon-neutral fuels can be produced by the electrolysis of water to make hydrogen used in
the Sabatier reaction to produce methane to be used in power plants as synthetic natural gas,
transported by pipeline, truck, or tanker ship, or be used in gas to liquids processes such as
the Fischer–Tropsch process to make traditional fuels for transportation or heating.
The overall goal of carbon neutrality is to achieve a zero carbon footprint.
Characteristics of Carbon neutral fuels
 Carbon-neutral fuels do not result in a net increase in atmospheric greenhouse gases.
 Carbon neutral fuel synthesis is the primary means of carbon capture and utilization or recycling.
 Biofuels are said to be carbon-neutral because the carbon dioxide that is absorbed by the plants is
equal to the carbon dioxide that is released when the fuel is burned.
 For example, Biodiesel is a carbon neutral, because – the amount of carbon dioxide released
when it is used and the same amount is absorbed by the plants as they grew. So, this would
reduce the production of this greenhouse gas.
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Composites: Introduction to composites, composition and characteristic properties of composites.

Classification of composites based on matrix, reinforcement and ply. Applications of composites.
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Introduction to Composite Materials
A composite material can be defined as a combination of two or more materials that results in better properties than
those of the individual components used alone. Each of the composite material retains its separate chemical,
physical, and mechanical properties unlike alloys. The two constituents of the composite are reinforcement and a
matrix. The main advantages of composites are better combination of properties such as high strength, heat
resistance, and stiffness, combined with low density and reduced weight, when compared with bulk materials.
Define a composite material

Composite material is defined as multiphase material which is having 2 or more physically and/or
chemically distinct phases with an interface separating them. Examples: FRP or fiberglass etc.
1. Composite consists of two phases the Matrix phase and the Reinforcement Phase (or dispersed phase).
Constituents of composites:
Composites consist of body constituent or Matrix and structural constituent or Reinforcement
Matrix Phase (Continuous Phase)
 Matrix phase is continuous phase and body forming constituent.
 It encloses the composite and give it its bulk form
 It binds fibers and transmits load to the dispersed phase
E.g. of matrix phase: Thermoplastics, thermosets, rubber, metals, alloys, carbon etc.
Reinforcement (Dispersed Phase):
 Reinforcement phase or Dispersed phase is the structural constituent.
 It determines the internal structure of the composite
 It gives strength to the composite E.g. of Reinforcement or Dispersed Phase: Glass fiber, boron fiber,
alumina fiber, carbon fiber, asbestos
Interphase: The surface forming the common boundary between the matrix and dispersed phase is known as
interphase.
Matrix Phase (Continuous Phase) Reinforcement (Dispersed Phase):
The matrix phase is continuous phase and body Reinforcement phase or Dispersed phase is the
forming constituent. structural constituent
It surrounds and binds the Reinforcement phase It is distributed through the matrix
and acts as binder.
It gives shape to the composite and determines its
It determines the internal structure of the composite
surface quality
It encloses the composite and give it its bulk form It gives strength to the composite
It protects the reinforcement from mechanical, Dispersed phase consists of fibres or particles of
physical, chemical (and biological) degradation, different sizes or wires or meshes which is of
which would lead to a loss in performance discontinuous nature.
E.g. of matrix phase: Thermoplastics, thermosets, E.g. of Reinforcement Phase: Glass fiber, boron
rubber, Ceramics, metals, alloys, carbon etc. fiber, alumina fiber, carbon fiber, asbestos
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How composite acts? Explain

In fiber glass reinforced plastic (FRP), the plastics acts as the matrix and the fiber glass acts as the reinforcement
phase. The plastic is relatively weak and has a low elastic modulus, bends and stretches easily. The glass fibers
provide the strength and stiffness and elasticity. Glass fibers take most of the load when the composite is stretched
How are composites classified?

Composite materials are commonly classified into two distinct levels on the basis of matrix as well as
reinforcement phase present in them.
I. Classifications of composites on the basis of Matrix Phase
The first level of classification is on the basis of matrix constituent. The major composite classes include
1. Polymer Matrix Composites(PMCs) or Organic Matrix Composites (OMCs):

E.g.: Glass and Carbon fiber reinforced polymers
2. Metal Matrix Composites (MMC)
E.g.: Alumina reinforced aluminium composites
3. Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMC)
E.g.: Carbon fiber reinforced SiC composite
II. Classifications of composites on the basis of reinforcement phase:

The second level of classification refers to the reinforcement form:
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1. Fibre Reinforced Composites:

These consist of fibres embedded in matrix material. They are of two types:
a) Discontinuous Fibre Or Short Fibre Composite:
Properties of these composites vary with fibre length.
b) Continuous Fibre Reinforced Composite:
Properties of these composite do not vary with fibre length. Any increase in fibre length does not
increase the elastic modulus of the composite, Fibres are small in diameter when pushed axially,
bend easily although they have very good tensile properties.
2. Laminar Composites:
These composed of layers of materials held together by matrix. Sandwich structures fall under
this category.
3. Particulate Composites:
These composed of particles distributed or embedded in a matrix body. The particles may be
flakes or in powder form. Concrete and wood particle boards are examples of this category
What are Fibre Reinforced Composites? Explain.

Fibre Reinforced Composites
 Fibre Reinforced Composites are composed of fibres embedded in matrix material.
 When length of the fibre changes properties of the composite then it is considered as discontinuous fibre or
short fibre reinforced composite.
 When length of the fibre does not further increase the elastic modulus of the composite, the composite is
considered to be continuous fibre reinforced.
 Fibres are small in diameter and when pushed axially, they bend easily although they have very good tensile
properties. These fibres must be supported to keep individual fibres from bending and buckling.
Figure showing FRP
There are different types fibre reinforced composites such as 1. Glass fibre reinforced composites,
2.Carbon-fiber-reinforced composites 3. Aramid Fibre Reinforced Composites.
1. Glass fibre reinforced composites
 Glass-reinforced plastic (GRP) also known as glass fiber-reinforced plastic (GFRP) is a fiber
reinforced polymer made of a plastic matrix reinforced by fine fibers made of glass. It is also
known as fiberglass.
 GRP is a lightweight, strong material with many uses, including boats, automobiles, water tanks,
roofing, pipes, cladding and external door skins.
 The plastic matrix may be epoxy, a thermosetting plastic (most often polyester or vinyl ester) or
thermoplastic.
 Glass fibers (both long and short) are generally used for improving the properties of polyesters
and nylons.
Applications of Glass fibre reinforced composites:
 Automotive parts, Storage tanks, industrial floorings, Plastic pipes
 In Transportation industries to reduce vehicle weight and boost fuel efficiency
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2. Carbon-fiber-reinforced composites
 It is commonly known as carbon fiber or graphite fiber (by the name of its reinforcing fibers).
It consists of Carbon fibers reinforcing phase and polymers as matrix phase.
 Carbon fiber can be manufactured from polyacrylonitrile (PAN) fiber or pitch fiber. The PAN
fibers form honey combs networks similar to graphite
 Carbon-fiber-reinforced composite also known as carbon-fiber-reinforced plastic (CFRP or
CRP), is a very strong, light, and expensive composite material or fiber-reinforced polymer.
 The polymer is most often epoxy, but other polymers, such as polyester, vinyl ester or nylon, are
sometimes used. Some composites contain both carbon fiber and other fibers such as Kevlar,
aluminum, and fiberglass reinforcement.
Applications of Carbon-fiber-reinforced composites:
o Military and commercial aircrafts structural components such as wings, body of helicopters
o Sports goods like fishing rods, golf sticks.
o In Aerospace and automotive fields, in sailboats, and in modern bicycles and motorcycles,
o Common consumer items like laptops, tripods, etc.
3. Aramid Fibre Reinforced Composites: They consist of short and long s fibres. They show excellent
engineering properties. Short fibre aramids are used in automotive brakes and clutches. Long fibre
aramids are used in Aircraft and helicopter components such as wings, rotor blades etc.
What are Particulate Composites? Explain.

Particulate Composites are composed of particles distributed or embedded in a matrix body.
The particles may be flakes or in powder form.
Particulate composites are made by dispersing particles of varying size and shape of one material in a matrix of
another material.
These are made by adding particle to a liquid matrix material, which solidifies or may be pressed by the
powder process.
In this type of composites, the matrix and particulates share the load-bearing function
 Examples: Concrete, Wood particle boards and Cermets are most important Particulate composites.
Concrete is a good example of particulate composite consisting of aggregate of coarse rock or gravel
embedded in a matrix of cement. Gravel aggregate provide stiffness and strength and cement acts as
binder to hold the structure together.
 Cermets are ceramics bonded with metal.
These are of three types.
1. Oxide based Cermets: Consists of Al2O3 (72% by volume) dispersed in Cr matrix. It has good strength
Very good thermal resistance and shock resistance
2. Carbide based Cermets: Consists of WC dispersed in Co matrix. It has very good hardness. Used to
make wire drawing dies, valves and machine parts having very high surfaces hardness
3. Chromium and Cobalt Cermets: Consists of CrC dispersed in Co matrix. It has very high resistance to
abrasion and corrosion. Used to make valves, spray nozzle pump parts etc.
Characteristics of Particulate Composites
• The particulates are of macro-, micro- or nano-scopic scale
• The particulates contain very small particles (< 0.25 microns), chopped fibers (such as glass),
platelets, hollow spheres, or new materials such as Bucky balls or carbon nano-tubes.
• Strengthening occurs at atomic/molecular level
• The particulates provide desirable material properties and the matrix acts as binding medium
necessary for structural applications.
Particulate composites are of two types based upon orientation of particle in the matrix phase.
1. Random orientation: Orientation of particle is randomly distributed in all directions (e.g.: concrete)
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2. Preferred orientation: Particle orientation is aligned to specific directions(e.g.: extruded plastics

with reinforcement particles)
Particulate composites are of two types based upon strengthening mechanism:
1. Dispersion-strengthened 2. Particulate-reinforced composite
Advantages:
Particulate composites provide reinforcement to the matrix phase thereby strengthening the material.
Particulate composites articles can be made from low-cost injection molding methods
Particulate composites contain large amounts of coarse particles.
In Particulate composites, the particulates are harder and stiffer than the matrix material.
Particulate composites do not have high fracture resistance unlike fibrous composites
Particles tend to increase stiffness of the materials, but they do not impart strength
Particulate composites are used to enhance performance at high temperatures
These composites increase thermal and electrical properties
Various examples of Particulate Composites
Thoria (ThO2) dispersed Ni-alloys (TD Ni-alloys) with SAP (sintered aluminium powder) – where
aluminium matrix is dispersed with extremely small flakes of alumina (Al2O3) Silica epoxy composites
SiC, Al2O3 particles in Aluminum matrix or Cermets, Concrete
Figure showing articles made from particulate composites
Structural or Layered Composites:

• Layered Composites are composite material where different layers of materials give them the
specific character of a composite material having a specific function to perform.
• Layered Composites consists of reinforcing fibers of, glass, boron, and silicon carbide, and
matrix of epoxies, polyimides, aluminium, titanium, and alumina.
• Their properties depend upon the properties of the constituents and their geometrical design.
• Layered Composites are materials comprising of layers of materials bonded together. These may
be of several layers of two or more metals joined alternately or in a firm order more than once,
and in as many numbers as required for a specific purpose.
• Layered composites possess high strength in both directions of reinforcement but their shear
strength is comparatively low.
• Layered Composites provide required engineering properties, including in-plane stiffness,
bending stiffness, strength, and coefficient of thermal expansion.
• The individual layers consist of high-modulus, high-strength fibers in a polymeric, metallic, or
ceramic matrix material.
• Layers of different materials may be used, resulting in a hybrid laminate.
• The individual layers generally are orthotropic or transversely isotropic with the laminate then
exhibiting anisotropic, orthotropic, or quasi-isotropic properties. Quasi-isotropic laminates exhibit
isotropic inplane response but are not restricted to isotropic out-of-plane (bending) response.
• One of the well-known layered composite consists of alternating layers of rigidized felt and
graphite foil with foil facing on each side. This creates a very stiff and dimensionally stable
strong material that provides excellent erosion resistance the thermal uniformity, with great
machining capabilities.
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• Example: Plywood, Stainless steel cooling vessel with a copper clad bottom, stainless steel
bonding on both sides of copper case etc.
Figure showing articles made from layered composites
Advantages of composite materials or composites

Composite materials have the following advantages
 Light Weight.
 High Strength, Highest Strength to Weight Ratio
 Corrosion Resistance
 High-Impact Strength
 Design Flexibility Part Consolidation Dimensional Stability Nonconductive -.
 Nonmagnetic
 Radar Transparent.
 Low Thermal Conductivity.
 High Durability.
Explanation of the advantages of composite materials

Light Weight:
Composites are light in weight, compared to most woods and metals. Their lightness is important in automobiles and
aircraft, for example, where less weight means better fuel efficiency. Some modern airplanes are built with more
composites than metal including the new Boeing 787 Dreamliner.
High Strength:
Composites can be designed to be far stronger than aluminum or steel. Metals are equally strong in all directions.
But composites can be engineered and designed to be strong in a specific direction.
Highest Strength to Weight Ratio:

• Relation between strength and weight of material depends on its strength-to-weight ratio. Some materials are
very strong and heavy, such as steel. Other materials can be strong and light, such as bamboo poles.
• Composite materials can be designed to be both strong and light.
Corrosion Resistance:
Composites resist damage from the weather and from harsh chemicals. Composites are good choices where
chemicals are handled or stored. They withstand severe weather and wide changes in temperature.
High-Impact Strength:
Composites can be made to absorb impacts—the sudden force of a bullet or the blast from an explosion. Because of
this property, composites are used in bulletproof vests and panels, and to shield airplanes, buildings, and military
vehicles from explosions.
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Design Flexibility - Composites can be molded into complicated shapes more easily than most other materials. This
gives designers the freedom to create almost any shape or form.
Part Consolidation:
A single piece made of composite materials can replace an entire assembly of metal parts. Reducing the number of
parts in a machine or a structure saves time and cuts down on the maintenance needed over the life of the item.
Dimensional Stability
Composites retain their shape and size when they are hot or cool, wet or dry. For example, they are used in aircraft
wings, so that the wing shape and size do not change as the plane gains or loses altitude.
Nonconductive:
Composites do not conduct electricity. This property makes them suitable for such items as electrical utility poles
and the circuit boards in electronics.
Nonmagnetic:
Composites contain no metals; therefore, they are not magnetic. They can be used around sensitive electronic
equipment. The lack of magnetic interference allows large magnets used in MRI (magnetic resonance imaging)
equipment to perform better.
Radar Transparent:
Radar signals pass right through composites, a property that makes composites ideal materials for use anywhere
radar equipment is operating, whether on the ground or in the air. Composites play a key role in stealth aircraft, such
as the U.S. Air Force’s B-2 stealth bomber, which is nearly invisible to radar.
Low Thermal Conductivity:

Composites are good insulators. They are used in buildings for doors, panels, and windows where extra protection is
needed from severe weather.
Durable:
Structures made of composites have a long life and need little maintenance. Many composites have been in service
for half a century.
What are the general characteristics of composites?
Specific strength:
This is simply the rigidity or hardness of a material with regard to its weight. For example, a number of composites
such as fiberglass share comparable impact resistance with steel and titanium at a fraction of the weight employed.
Expense:
Many composites can be manufactured with less cost than their traditional metal counterparts.
Application:
Because composites are composed of 2 or more "phases", they can be formulated to meet the needs of a specific
application with considerable ease.
Processibility:
Metal processing requires high amounts of thermal energy (heat). Plastics and plastic based composites require less
heat to mold or process the products. Composites can be easily processed at moderate to low temperatures to make
impact resistant and heat resistant or fire retardant composites.
Functions of Composites
Composites or composite materials have to carry out the following functions:
 To enhance material properties
 To enhance performance efficiency
 To design materials to suit a specific applications
 Energy efficient
 Light weight and strong
 Corrosive resistant
 By proper orientation, directional properties can be achieved
115
Applications of Composites:
Composites are used in the following areas
 Automobile industries, Aerospace Engineering, Rockets and missiles
 Transportation industries
 Turbine engines, wire drawing dyes, valves
 Pump parts, storage tanks
 Fabrication of roofs and floors
 Furniture, sport goods (lawn tennis racket) and
 High speed machinery.
 Marine applications like propellers, shafts, ship hulls, spars(for racing boats)
Figure showing various parts of airplane are made of composites
116

Unit V - Green Chemistry Composities

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Unit V - Green Chemistry Composities

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B.E.

I/II Semester (with effect from 2018-19) - Chemistry Notes: Unit V

UNIT-V: GREEN CHEMISTRY AND COMPOSITES (08 L)

Definition of green chemistry.

Why do we need Green Chemistry?

12 Principles of Green Chemistry

3. Less Hazardous Chemical Syntheses

4. Designing Safer Chemicals

5. Safer Solvents and Auxiliaries

6. Design for Energy Efficiency

7. Use of Renewable Feedstocks

10. Design for Degradation

11. Real-time analysis for Pollution Prevention

12. Inherently Safer Chemistry for Accident Prevention

Role of catalysis in green chemistry

Examples of Green Chemistry and Clean Technology

What are the sources of biodiesel?

 Biodiesel has virtually no sulphur content.

Differences between Bio diesel and Petroleum diesel

Petroleum diesel has flash point lesser than

Lubricity of petroleum diesel is lesser than

Composites: Introduction to composites, composition and characteristic properties of composites.

Define a composite material

Matrix Phase (Continuous Phase) Reinforcement (Dispersed Phase):

How composite acts? Explain

How are composites classified?

1. Polymer Matrix Composites(PMCs) or Organic Matrix Composites (OMCs):

II. Classifications of composites on the basis of reinforcement phase:

1. Fibre Reinforced Composites:

What are Fibre Reinforced Composites? Explain.

Figure showing FRP

What are Particulate Composites? Explain.

2. Preferred orientation: Particle orientation is aligned to specific directions(e.g.: extruded plastics

Figure showing articles made from particulate composites

Structural or Layered Composites:

Figure showing articles made from layered composites

Advantages of composite materials or composites

Explanation of the advantages of composite materials

Highest Strength to Weight Ratio:

Low Thermal Conductivity:

Figure showing various parts of airplane are made of composites

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