MIEG 6421 - Mechanical Behavior of Materials

FORMING & ADVANCED JOINING PROCESSES
(MIEG 6421)
Getasew Ashagrie (Ph.D.)

School of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering
Office: 348
E-mail: getasew.taddese@aau.edu.et
December 2023
AAU / AAiT SCHOOL OF MECHANICAL AND INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERING AAU / AAiT
Mechanical behavior of Materials
Associated to forming
AAU / AAiT SCHOOL OF MECHANICAL AND INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERING 2

Contents
 Introduction
 Plastic deformation and Yield criteria
 Engineering aspects of fracture
 High temperature behavior of metals
 Concepts related to forming
 Fundamental metallurgical concepts of punch and die materials.

Expected understanding level
 How to control mechanical behaviors of metals during forming?
 What causes property variation in formed objects due to variation in working

temperature?
(for better tolerance, higher surface finish for minimized machining requirements, desirable
directional properties, minimized force and power requirement for minimized fuel, electricity
costs, prediction and preventing defects, etc.)
 How to optimize parameters (F, V) for easy flow (without damage) and acceptable
surface finish in bulk and sheet metal forming processes?
 Relationship (behavior) between stress and strain during plastic deformation.

Introduction
Manufacturing processes
Processing operations Assembly operations
Solidification processing
Permanent joining processes
Particulate processing
Shaping processes
Deformation processes
Welding
Material removal
Brazing and soldering
Adhesive bonding
Properly enhancing Heat treatment processes

processes
Mechanical fastening
Cleaning & surface Threaded fasteners

Surface processing treatment
operations Permanent fastening
Coating & deposition
processes

Introduction
Material properties in metal forming
 Desirable material properties
 Low yield strength

 High ductility
 These properties are affected by temperature
 Ductility increases and yield strength decreases

when work temperature is raised.
 The effect of temperature gives rise to distinctions

between cold, warm and hot working.
 Other factors
 Strain rate and friction
 Metal forming processes can be classified into

two basic processes: bulk deformation process
and sheet metalworking.

Introduction
Fundamentals of Metal Forming
 A metal forming (working) operation is

a plastic deformation process in which
the volume and mass of metal are
conserved and the metal is displaced
from one location to another.
 The primary objective of a metal

forming process is to convert cast
products like ingots and billets into
square cross-sections as bloom, slab
or billet which will be further processed
to useful shapes such as rails, rods,
sheets, etc through bulk deformation
processes.
 Equally important is the control of

mechanical properties by the metal
working processes.

Introduction
Classification of forming processes
 Based on the final product, forming processes can be divided into two
categories as;
 Primary mechanical working processes or bulk forming processes - Reducing an

ingot or a billet into standard shapes or semi-finished products such as sheets,
plates, rods, tubes and wires.
 Example – Rolling, Forging, Extrusion, Drawing, etc.
 Sheet metal forming processes - Used to produce finished products from thin
sheets.
 Example – Bending, Deep drawing, Punching, Shearing, Blanking, etc.
 Based on the working temperature, metal forming is classified into three as;
 Cold working
 Warm working
 Hot working
Introduction
 Bulk forming
 It is a severe deformation process resulting in significant

deformations and massive shape change.
 The surface area-to-volume of the work is relatively small.
 Mostly done in hot working conditions.
 The term ‘bulk’ describes workparts with relatively low surface

area-to-volume ratios.
 Basic bulk deformation processes include rolling, forging,

extrusion, and drawing.

Introduction
 Rolling
 In this process, the workpiece in the form of slab

or plate is compressed between two rotating rolls
in the thickness direction, so that the thickness is
reduced. The rotating rolls draw the slab into the
gap and compresses it. The final product is in
the form of sheet.
 Forging
 The workpiece is compressed between two dies

containing shaped contours. The die shapes are
imparted into the final part.

Introduction
 Extrusion
 The workpiece is compressed or pushed

into the die opening to take the shape of
the die hole as its cross section.
 Wire (rod) extrusion
 Similar to extrusion, except that the

workpiece is pulled through the die
opening to take the cross-section.

Introduction
Classification of sheet forming processes
 Sheet metal forming
 Involves forming and cutting operations performed on

metal sheets, strips, and coils, often as cold working.
S piece
 The surface area-to-volume ratio of the starting metal is (a)  Very low
relatively high compared to bulk deformation V piece
processes.
 It is accomplished using a set of tools called a punch

and a die, where the punch is the positive portion and
the die is the negative portion of the tool set.
S piece
 Press working – a term often applied to sheet metal
(b)  High
V piece
operations since the machines used to perform these
operations are presses. Surface area-to-volume ratio of
metal forming processes
 A part produced in sheet metal operation is often called (a) Bulk deformation
stamping. (b) Sheet metal forming

Introduction
 Bending
 In this, the sheet material is strained by punch to

give a bend shape (angle shape) usually in a
straight axis.
 Deep (cup) drawing
 In this operation, forming of a flat metal sheet into a

hollow or concave shape like a cup, It is performed by
stretching the metal in some regions.
 A blank-holder is used to clamp the blank on the die,

while the punch pushes into the sheet metal.
 The sheet is drawn into the die hole taking the shape of (a) bending
the cavity. (b) deep drawing

Introduction
 Shearing
 This is nothing but cutting of sheets

by shearing action.
 The nature of shearing is not a

forming process. However, it is
added in this section to show that it
is a very common operation in sheet
metal working.
 Force and relative motion in these

operations are indicated by “F” and
“V”
(1) Shearing as punch first contacts the sheet
(2) Shearing after cutting.

Introduction
 Cold working - Generally done at or slightly above room temperature.
 Advantages
 Closer tolerances can be achieved

 Good surface finish
 Higher strength and hardness is seen in part (due to the strain hardening)
 Grain flow during deformation provides the opportunity for desirable directional
properties
 Furnace, fuel, electricity costs are minimized (because there no need to heat the work)
 Machining requirements are minimum resulting in possibility of near net shaped
forming.
 Disadvantages
 Higher forces and power are required;

 Strain hardening of the work metal limit the amount of forming that can be done;
 Sometimes cold forming-annealing-cold forming cycle should be followed;
 The work piece may not ductile enough to be cold worked.

Introduction
 Warm working
 Forming is performed at temperatures just above room temperature but

below the recrystallization temperature1. The working temperature is
taken to be 0.3 Tm. Where Tm is the melting point of the workpiece.
 Advantages
 Enhanced plastic deformation properties

 Lower forces required
 Intricate work geometries possible
 Annealing stages can be reduced

Introduction
 Hot working - Involves deformation above recrystallization temperature,

between 0.5Tm to 0.75Tm.
 Advantages
 Significant plastic deformation can be given to the sample

 Significant change in workpiece shape
 Lower forces are required
 Materials with premature failure can be hot formed
 Absence of strengthening due to work hardening
 Disadvantages
 Shorter tool life

 Poor surface finish
 Lower dimensional accuracy
 Sample surface oxidation

Introduction
Analysis of metal forming processes
 Analytical studies of metal forming processes have advantages of;
 Determination of the forces required for producing the desired

deformation.
 Selection and design of the equipment/tools for a particular job.
 Prediction and prevention of defects during forming.
 Prediction of the limiting deformation at which fracture will occur.
Activity
 How to produce a desired shape through minimized force (power)?

 How to select tools (equipment) for a particular job?
 How to minimize defects (list the defects) during forming?
 Extending the limit of deformation without fracture

Introduction
Important considerations during metal forming
 Properties of material
 Flow stress1 and its dependence on strain, strain rate and temperature.
 Deformation zone
 Distribution of stress, strain and particle velocities, overall pressure

required to perform the operations, applied forces, metallurgical
phenomena such as strain hardening, recrystallization etc. are important.
 Friction and lubrication
 Contact between workplace and tools, type of friction and mechanism of

lubrication.
1- The instantaneous value of stress required to continue

plastically deforming a material - to keep it flowing.

Introduction
Important considerations during metal forming ...contd.
 Heat flow
 Heat transfer during deformation.
 Tool wear and too life
 Friction, lubrication, forces applied, tool material, surface quality of

deforming material.
 Product
 Surface finish, dimensional accuracy and properties.

Plastic deformation and Yield criteria
Elastic and Plastic behavior
 Experience shows that all solid

materials can be deformed when
subjected to external load.
 It is further found that up to

certain limiting loads a solid will
recover its original dimensions
when the load is removed.
 The recovery of the original

dimensions of a deformed body
when the load is removed is
known as elastic behavior.
 The limiting load beyond which

the material no longer behaves
elastically is the elastic limit.

Elastic and Plastic behavior ...contd.
 If the elastic limit is exceeded, the

body will experience a permanent
set or deformation when the load
is removed.
 A body which is permanently

deformed is said to have
undergone plastic deformation.
 For most materials, as long as the

load does not exceed the elastic
limit, the deformation is
proportional to the load. This
relationship is known as Hooke's
law (more frequently stated as
stress is proportional to strain).

 Hooke's law requires that the

load-deformation relationship
should be linear. However, it
does not necessarily follow that
all materials which behave
elastically will have a linear
stress-strain relationship.
 Rubber is an example of a
material with a nonlinear stress-
strain relationship that still
satisfies the definition of an
elastic material.

 The proportional connection between

stresses and deformation according
to Hook’s law σ = ϵE (where Е is the
modulus of elasticity) is taking place
at the 0-1 area.
 The stress at the point 1 is called the

proportional limit and designated as
σprop.
 At the area 1-2 the deformations are

elastic (that is, they disappear after
removing the load), but the
connection between the stresses and
deformations becomes nonlinear.

 The stress at point 2 is called

elastic limit and designated σel.
 After point 2 the plastic (residual)

deformation is beginning and in
point 3 runs up to 0.2%.

 The stress corresponding to the

position of point 3 is called
conventional yield strength and
designated as σ0.2.
 The further deformation at the area

3-4 is accompanied by increasing of
conventional stress (the effect of
metal hardening during the process
of deformation).
 If to relieve the load at any point A in

the area 3-4, the total deformation
ЄA will be decreased for value Єel
and the beginning of the diagram
will move to point О'.

 During the next loading the limit of

material plasticity is increasing and
the plastic deformation begins only
in the point А'. The variable value of
stresses in the area 3-4 is called
yield stresses σyield.
 On reaching the maximum of

conventional stresses in the point 4
the specimen deformation becomes Stress-Strain at tensile test
irregular: the local reduction of cross
section (the neck) is forming,
conventional stresses are reduced
and the destruction is taking place
in the point 5. This stress called the
stress of breaking (separating) σsep.

The theory of plasticity
 The theory of plasticity deals with the

behavior of materials in the region of strain
beyond which Hooke's law is no longer
valid.
 Plastic deformation is much more

complicated than elastic deformation since
in the plastic region of strain, there is no
simple relationship between stress and
strain as there is for elastic deformation.
Stress-Strain at tensile test
 Elastic deformation depends only on the

initial and final states of stress and is
independent of the loading path, but for
plastic deformation the plastic strain
depends not only on the final load but also
on the path by which it was reached.

The theory of plasticity ...contd.
 The theory of plasticity is concerned with

a number of different types of problems.
 From the viewpoint of design, plasticity is

concerned with predicting the maximum
load which can be applied to a body
without causing excessive yielding.
 The yield criterion must be expressed in

terms of stress in such a way that it is
Stress-Strain at tensile test
valid for all states of stress.
 The designer is also concerned with For example

plastic deformation in problems where the
body is purposely stressed beyond the  Plasticity must be considered in
yield stress into the plastic region. designing for processes such as
autofrettage, shrink fitting, and the
over speeding of rotor disks.

The flow curve
 The stress-strain curve obtained by

uniaxial loading, as in the ordinary
tension test, is of fundamental
interest in plasticity when the curve is
plotted in terms of true stress and
true strain.
 A true stress-strain curve is

frequently called a flow curve
because it gives the stress required
to cause the metal to flow plastically
to any given strain. Typical true stress-strain curves
for a ductile metal.
 The true stress-strain curve for a
typical ductile metal, such as
aluminum, is shown in the figure.

The flow curve ...contd.
 Hooke's law is followed up to some

yield stress.
 Beyond yield stress, the metal

deforms plastically.
 Most metals strain-harden in this

region (strained beyond the yield
point), so that increases in strain
require higher values of stress than
the initial yield stress. However,
unlike the situation in the elastic Typical true stress-strain curves
region, the stress and strain are not for a ductile metal.
related by any simple constant of
proportionality.

 If the metal is strained to point A,

when the load is released the total
strain will immediately decrease by
Єe by an amount σ/E.
 The strain decrease Єe is the

recoverable elastic strain. Єp is the
inelastic strain. σ0 is the stress at
initial yield.
 However, the strain remaining is not

all permanent plastic strain. Typical true stress-strain curves
 Generally the stress-strain curve on
unloading from a plastic strain will not
be exactly linear and parallel to the
elastic portion of the curve.

 Many attempts have been made to fit

mathematical equations to this curve.
The most common is a power
expression of the form
Where;
K is the stress at Є=1.0 and called as
strength coefficient and n, the strain-
hardening exponent, is the slope of a log-
log plot.
 This equation can be valid only from

the beginning of plastic flow to the
maximum load at which the specimen
begins to neck down.
Typical true stress-strain curves
 Typical values of K and n for different metals at room temperature.

Flow stress
 The flow curve describes the

stress-strain relationship in the
region in which metal forming takes
place.
 It indicates the flow stress of the

metal, the strength property that
determines forces and power
required to accomplish a particular
forming operation.
 For most metals at room

temperature, the stress-strain plot
indicates that as the metal is
deformed, its strength increases
due to strain hardening.
Flow stress
 The stress required to continue

deformation must be increased to
match this increase in strength.
 Is the instantaneous value of stress

required to continue deforming the
material.
 It is the yield strength of the metal Note:

as a function of strain, which can
be expressed:  In the individual forming
operations, the instantaneous
flow stress can be used to
analyze the process as it is
occurring.
Where: Yf = flow stress in MPa
Average flow stress
 Is the average value of stress over

the stress strain curve from the
beginning of strain to the final
(maximum) value that occurs
during deformation.
 In operations such as forging,

analysis is based on the average
stresses and strains that occur
during deformation rather than
instantaneous values.
= Average Flow Stress
= Maximum strain during deformation process

Yielding
 For ductile material under simple tension, stress no longer proportional to

strain.
 Plastic (irreversible) deformation (permanent molecular rearrangement)

once a certain level of stress is reached.
 Highly material dependent.
 When understanding yielding is important?
 Understanding yielding is important for designing a pressure vessel,

rotating disc, crank shaft, ... that does not allow any irreversible strain,
i.e. material must remain plastic, since elastic strain is reversible.

Fracture Vs Yield
 Fracture
 Driven by normal stresses, acting to separate one atomic plane from

another.
 Broken atomic bonds are not allowed to reform in new positions.
 Yield
 Driven by shear stresses, sliding one plane along another.
 Broken atomic bonds are allowed to reform in new positions.

Engineering aspects of Fracture
Introduction
 Historical failures  Causes for birth of Fracture Mechanics
 Why many structural failures happened?
 Studies of strength of materials assumed that the material was

homogeneous (uniform composition), and continuum ( made up of a
continues mass rather than discrete particles).
 Many structural failures that have occurred were due to existing

flaws/defects.
 Inception and growth of these flaws during the life time of the structure
 Fracture mechanics – evolved through lessons of structural failures due

to inherent flaws.

Introduction
 Historical failures – causes for birth of Fracture Mechanics
 The Boston Molasses disaster – January 15, 1919
 Failure of the Liberty ship
 Comet disaster
 Aloha Airlines Fuselage failure

Introduction
 The Boston Molasses disaster

(January 15, 1919)
 A large tank filled with 12,000 tons of

molasses burst.
 Wave of molasses rushed through the
streets at 56 km/h
 Killed 21, injured 150.
 Causes
 Poor construction and insufficient

testing.
 The failure occurred from a manhole
cover near the base of the tank.
 A fatigue crack there possibly grew to
the point of criticality.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jmdEzJWgNfM

Introduction
 Failure of the Liberty ship

(January 16, 1943)
 An explosive boom shattered the cold

night that had settled over the Swan
Island shipyard outside Portland, Oregon.
 Causes
 Caused by low notch toughness at low

temperature of steel at welded joint – A
brittle fracture failure.
 Started at weld cracks (stress

concentration points) and propagates until
failure.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jxSKhoaLRkQ

Introduction
 The Comet disaster

(January 10 1954)
 On this date, after departing from Ciampino Airport

in Rome to London, had climbed 26,000 feet en-
route to its assigned altitude of 36,000 feet when it
plunged into the sea.
 Witnesses in the island of Elba in Italy saw the

aircraft fall into the sea in flames. All 29
passengers and 6 crew members were killed.
Fuselage failure at the corner of
 Causes a “square” escape window
 Metal fatigue caused by the repeated pressurization

and depressurization of the aircraft cabin. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_BZnn5OYcBc
 Exacerbated by the squarish window design.

Supports around the window were riveted, not glued. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YVvKk-rGJME

Introduction
 Aloha Airlines Fuselage failure

(April 28, 1988)
 Aloha Airlines Flight 243 was a flight

between Hilo and Honolulu in Hawaii.
 There was one fatality (of one of the

flight attendant) and another 65
passengers and crew were injured
 Causes Aloha Airlines flight 243 fuselage failure
 The failure occurred after the structure

had been in service for 19 years https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QzfQXBLxSdo
(design was for 20 years).
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YYa7Fq5Ec6c
 Following the investigation, it was
concluded that widespread corrosion
was the main cause
Introduction
 Lessons learnt
 Boston molasses tank failure
 Importance of structural health monitoring..

 Understanding behavior of rapidly propagating cracks in brittle steels.
 Composition of steel for ductile behavior.
 Liberty ship failure
 Importance of temperature effect on fracture toughness and marked the birth of fracture
mechanics.
 Comet disaster
 Cracks could occur in stress concentration zones and grow in service due to fatigue loading
causing failure.
 Aloha Airlines fuselage failure
 Marks importance of stress corrosion cracking.

 Impetus to improved design approaches for corrosion prevision and control.

Why we study fracture?
 The failure of engineering materials is almost always an undesirable event for

several reasons; these include human lives that are put in jeopardy, economic
losses, and the interference with the availability of products and services.
 Even though the causes of failure and the behavior of materials may be
known, prevention of failures is difficult to guarantee.
 The usual causes are improper materials selection, processing and

inadequate design of the component or its misuse.
 It is the responsibility of the engineer to anticipate and plan for possible failure
and, in the event that failure does occur, to assess its cause and then take
appropriate preventive measures against future incidents.

Why we study fracture?
 The design of a component or structure often calls upon the engineer to

minimize the possibility of failure.
 It is important to understand the mechanics of the various failure modes - i.e.,

fracture, fatigue, and creep and etc.
 To be familiar with appropriate design principles that may be employed to

prevent in-service failures.
 For that, it is also important to have detail understandings of
 Material selection (structure & properties) and

 Processing issues relating to the failure of a product while designing for a
product.

Ductile Vs Brittle fracture
 Simple fracture is the separation of a body into two or more pieces in

response to an imposed stress that is static (i.e., constant or slowly changing
with time) and at temperatures that are low relative to the melting temperature
of the material.
 The applied stress may be tensile, compressive, shear, or torsional.
 Based on the ability of a material to experience plastic deformation, fracture

can be classified as:
 Ductile fracture and

 Brittle fracture.

 Ductile materials
 Ductile materials typically exhibit substantial plastic deformation with high

energy absorption before fracture.
 On the other hand, there is normally little or no plastic deformation with

low energy absorption accompanying a brittle fracture.
 Any fracture process involves two steps:
1. Crack formation
2. Crack propagation
 The mode of fracture is highly dependent on the mechanism of crack

propagation.

 Ductile fracture
 It is characterized by extensive plastic deformation in the vicinity of

an advancing crack.
 Furthermore, the process proceeds relatively slowly as the crack

length is extended. Such a crack is often said to be stable.
 That is, it resists any further extension unless there is an increase in

the applied stress.

 Almost always, preferred for two reasons
1. Brittle fracture occurs suddenly and catastrophically without any

warning; this is a consequence of the spontaneous and rapid
crack propagation.
2. On the other hand, for ductile fracture, the presence of plastic

deformation gives warning that fracture is imminent, allowing
preventive measures to be taken.

 Ductile fracture surfaces will have their own distinctive features on

both macroscopic and microscopic levels.
Ductile fracture Brittle fracture

a) Highly ductile fracture

b) Moderately ductile fracture
c) Brittle fracture
Highly ductile fracture occurs in extremely soft

metals, such as pure gold and lead at room
temperature, and other metals, polymers, and
inorganic glasses at elevated temperatures.
(a) (b) (c)

 Stages in ductile fracture
1. Necking begins, after necking small cavities, or micro voids, form in the
interior of the cross section.
2. As deformation continues, these micro voids enlarge, come together, and

coalesce to form an elliptical crack, which has its long axis perpendicular
to the stress direction. The crack continues to grow in a direction parallel
to its major axis by this micro void coalescence process.
3. Finally, fracture ensues by the rapid propagation of a crack around the

outer perimeter of the neck due shear deformation resulting in fracture of
the part.

 Stages in ductile fracture
a. Initial cracking
b. Small cavity formation
c. Coalescence of cavities to
form a crack
d. Crack propagation
e. Final shear failure at a 45

angle.

 An important characteristic of ductile

fracture is that it occurs through a slow
tearing of the metal with the expenditure of
considerable energy.
 The fracture of ductile materials can also

explained in terms of work-hardening
coupled with crack-nucleation and growth.
 The initial cavities are often observed to

form at foreign inclusions where gliding
dislocations can pile up and produce
sufficient stress to form a void or micro- Stages in ductile fracture
crack.

 Consider a specimen subjected to slow increasing tensile load. When the

elastic limit is exceeded, the material beings to work harden.
 Increasing the load, increases the permanent elongation and simultaneously

decreases the cross sectional area.
 The decrease in area leads to the formation of a neck in the specimen, as

illustrated earlier.
 The neck region has a high dislocation density and the material is subjected to a
complex stress.
 The dislocations are separated from each other because of the repulsive inter
atomic forces.
 As the resolved shear stress on the slip plane increase, the dislocation comes
closed together.

 The crack forms due to high shear stress and the presence of low angle grain
boundaries.
 Once a crack is formed, it can grow or elongated by means of dislocations which is

slipping.
 Crack propagation is along the slip plane for this mechanism.
 Once crack grows at the expense of others and finally cracks growth results in
failure.
 Sometimes a fracture having this characteristic surface contour is termed a cup

and- cone fracture because one of the mating surfaces is in the form of a cup, the
other like a cone.

 In this type of fractured specimen , the central interior region of the surface has an
irregular and fibrous appearance, which is indicative of plastic deformation.
Cup and cone fracture in Al Brittle fracture in mild steel

metal

 Brittle fracture
 Cracks may spread extremely rapidly, with very little accompanying plastic
deformation.
 Such cracks may be said to be unstable, and crack propagation, once started,
will continue spontaneously without an increase in magnitude of the applied
stress.
 Brittle fracture takes place without any appreciable deformation, and by rapid
crack propagation.
 The direction of crack motion is very nearly perpendicular to the direction of

the applied tensile stress and yields a relatively flat fracture surface.

 For example, in some steel pieces, a series of V-shaped ‘‘chevron’’ markings

may form near the center of the fracture cross section that point back toward
the crack initiation site.
 Other brittle fracture surfaces contain lines or ridges that radiate from the
origin of the crack in a fanlike pattern.
 For most brittle crystalline materials, crack propagation corresponds to the

successive and repeated breaking of atomic bonds along specific
crystallographic planes; such a process is termed cleavage.
 This type of fracture is said to be transgranular (or transcrystalline), because

the fracture cracks pass through the grains.

 Macroscopically, the fracture

surface may have a grainy or
faceted texture (Figure), as a Intergranular fracture
result of changes in (between grains)
orientation of the cleavage
planes from grain to grain.
 In some alloys, crack

propagation is along grain
boundaries; this fracture is
termed intergranular.
Intra granular or
 This type of fracture normally transgranular fracture
results subsequent to the (within grains)
occurrence of processes that
weaken or embrittle grain
boundary regions.

Fractographic observations
 High energy is absorbed by

micro void coalescence during
ductile failure. Ductile fracture
 It is called a high energy

fracture mode.
 Less catastrophic.
Fractography of the ductile fracture on the outer surface

of 316L stainless steel at different magnifications

Fractographic observations
 Low energy is absorbed

during transgranular
cleavage fracture.
 It is called a Lowe energy

fracture mode.
 More catastrophic.
(a) A V-shaped “Chevron”

markings characteristics
of brittle fracture
(b) A brittle fracture surface

showing radial fan-
shaped ridges. Arrows
indicate origin of cracks.

Factors affecting modes of fracture
Factor Brittle fracture Ductile fracture
 Metallurgical aspect Large grain materials with Fine grained materials without
grain boundary (GB) GB particles.
particles.
 Temperature Low temperature High temperature
 State of stress Triaxial state of stresses Absence of notch

(notch effect) (notch effect)
 Strain rate High strain rate Low strain rate
 Loading condition Hydrostatic pressure

(suppresses crack initiation)

Comparison between Brittle and ductile fracture
Ductile fracture Brittle fracture

Material fractures after plastic deformation and Material fractures with very little or no plastic
slow propagation of crack deformation.
Surface obtained at the fracture is dull or Surface obtained at the fracture is shining and
fibrous in appearance crystalling appearance
It occurs when the material is in plastic It occurs when the material is in elastic
condition. condition.
It is characterized by the formation of cup and It is characterized by separation of normal to
cone tensile stress.
The tendency of ductile fracture is increased by The tendency brittle fracture is increased by
increasing dislocations and other defects in decreasing temperature, and increasing strain
metals. rate.
There is reduction in cross – sectional area of There is no change in the cross – sectional
the specimen area.

High temperature behavior of metals
Introduction
 High temperature behavior of metals is

necessary in several high temperature
applications
 These applications are subjected to high

stress at high temperature.
 Examples
 Steam power plant
 Oil refinery
 Steam turbine used in power plants
 Process plants

Introduction
 Effect of increasing temperature!
 Atoms move faster which will affect

mechanical properties of materials.
 Greater mobility of dislocations.
 Increased amount of vacancies.
 Deformation at grain boundaries.
 Metallurgical changes – phase
transformation, precipitation, oxidation,
recrystallization.
 High temperature materials / alloys
 Improved high temperature strength.

 Good oxidation resistance.
 Increase in temperature leads to the increase of

shear fracture and Kc.
 Effect on ductile-to-brittle transition temperature.

Creep test
 Is carried out by applying a constant load to a tensile specimen maintained at a

constant temperature
 Standard: ASTEM E139-70

Creep
 Creep is deformation at elevated temperature (T >0.4Tmelt) but under static mechanical

stress.
 Creep occurs when a metal is subjected to a constant tensile load at an elevated

temperature. It undergo a time-dependent increase in length.
 Deformation changes with time.
 Three regions
1. Primary creep – creep rate decreases
2. Secondary creep – steady-state creep
3. Tertiary creep – creep rate acceleration
 tr – Creep rupture time.

Creep curve

Creep
 At which temperature the material will creep?
 Since different materials have their own melting point, each will creep when the
homologous temperature >0.5.
 Homologous temp (TH)

Testing temperature
TH   0.5
Melting temperature
Creep Vs rupture test
 The creep test measures the dimensional

changes which occur when subjected to
high temperature.
 The rupture test measures the effect of Creep curve

temperature on the long-time load
bearing characteristics.
Slope – Creep rate

Creep test
 Effect of stress on creep curves at

constant temperature is shown in the
figure.
 The shape of creep curve will slightly

change according to the applied
stress at constant temperature.
 Applied stress (Increase)

 Temperature (Increase)
 Strain (Increase)
 Creep rate (Increase) Influence of stress and temperature on a
creep curve.
 At Temperature below 0.4Tm, and
after the initial deformation, the strain
is virtually independent of time.

The stress rupture test
 Is carried out in a similar

manner to the creep test but at
a higher stress level until the
specimen fails and the time at
failure is measured.
 Rupture strength and rupture

time are plotted, normally
showing a straight line.
 Changing of slope indicates

structural changes in the
material such as transgranular
 intergranular fracture,
oxidation, recrystallization,
grain growth, spheroidization
precipitation.
Stress Vs steady state creep rate (log-
log)
The stress rupture test
Creep test Stress rupture test

Load Low load High load
Creep rate Minimum creep rate High creep rate
Test period 2000-10,000h 1000h
Total strain 0.5% 50%
Strain gauge Good strain measuring devices Simpler strain measuring devices

Assignment 1 - Article review
Choose an article published on reputable scientific journal related to a

forming parameter (Eg. high temperature behavior) of metals associated to
one type of forming and report a maximum of three pages summary based
on:
 Objective (s)
 Problem
 Method of analysis
 Proposed solution.
 Your view (comment) related to what is covered in this course.

Concepts related to forming
Formability
 Formability
 It is a term applicable to sheet metal forming such as deep drawing, cup drawing,
bending etc involve extensive tensile deformation.
 Refers to a material’s suitability for plastic deformation processing. In other words, it is

defined as the measure of the ease with which a metal can be plastically deformed.
 Sheet metal operations
 The problems of localized deformation called necking and fracture due to thinning down
are common in many sheet forming operations.
 Formability is the ease with which a sheet metal could be formed into the required
shape without undergoing localized necking or thinning or fracture.
 Anisotropy also is a major concern in sheet metal operations.

Forming limit
 When a sheet metal is subjected to plane strain deformation, the critical

strain, namely, the strain at which localized necking or plastic instability occurs
can be proved to be equal to 2n, where n is the strain hardening exponent.
 For uniaxial tensile loading of a circular rod, the critical or necking strain is
given to be equal to n. Therefore, if the values of n are larger, the necking
strain is larger, indicating that necking is delayed.
 This is due to the biaxial or triaxial nature of stress acting on the sheet metal
during forming operations. Therefore, specific formability tests have been
developed, appropriate for sheet metals.
 Loading paths could also change during sheet metal forming. This may be
due to tool geometry or metallographic texture.

Forming limit diagram (FLD)
 A pattern is placed on the surface of a

sheet by scribing, printing, or etching,
with circles of 2.5 and 5mm diameters.
 During deformation, the circles convert

into ellipse, and the distorted pattern
can be measured and evaluated.
Typical pattern for sheet metal
deformation analysis

 This are locations where distortion

occur are locations of sheet thinning
and possible failure.
 The major strains (strain in the direction

of the largest radius or diameter) and
the associated minor strain (900 from
the major) can be determined for a
variety of locations. This is plotted on a
forming limit diagram, as shown.
 Fracture is expected when strains falls

above the lines.
Forming limit diagram used to determine whether
a metal can be deformed without risk of fracture

 If both major and minor strains are

positive (right-hand side of the diagram),
the deformation is known as stretching,
and the sheet metal will definitely
decrease in thickness.
 If the minor strain is negative, this

contraction may partially or wholly
compensate any positive stretching in the
major direction.
 The combination of tension and

compression is known as drawing,
thickness may decrease, increase, or stay
Forming limit diagram used to determine whether a
same, depending on the relative metal can be deformed without risk of fracture
magnitude of the two strains.

Non deformed Deformed Fracture

network network
By included experimental specimens is possible predict, during performance of experiment,

using the camera, start of local neck on material comparing deformation state on all the
three specimens.

 A typical Keeler-Goodwin diagram

is shown.
 The safe zone in which no failure

is expected is shown as shaded
region.
 Outside this zone there are

different modes of failure
represented at different
combinations of strains.
A schematic plot of forming limit diagram1
 The upper part of the safe zone 1. Surajit K. Paul, “Theoretical analysis of strain-
and stress-based forming limit diagrams
represents necking and fracture.

 Forming limit diagram is a very effective way of optimizing

sheet metal forming and other metal forming operations. It
helps to predict overall behavior of sheet metal forming.
 Procedures to develop FLD:
 A grid of circles is etched on the surface of a sheet metal. And the

sheet metal is subjected to deformation. Usually the sheet is
deformed by stretching it over a dome shaped die.
 Strips of different widths can be taken for the test, in order to

induce uniaxial or biaxial stress state.
 The circles deform into elliptic shapes.
 The strain along two principal directions could be expressed as

the percentage change in length of the major and minor axes.

 Procedures to develop FLD:
 The strains as measured near necks or

fracture are the strains for failure.
 A plot of the major strain versus minor strain

is then made. This plot is called Keeler-
Goodwin forming limit diagram. This plot
gives the limiting strains corresponding to
safe deformations.
 The FLD is generally a plot of the

combinations of major and minor strains
which lead to fracture.
 Combination of strains represented above the

limiting curves in the Keeler-Goodwin
diagram represent failure, while those below
the curves represent safe deformations.

Fundamental metallurgical concepts

for punch and die materials
 A die is a tool used in many

manufacturing industries and
extensively in sheet metal fabrication.
 Dies are used to cut or shape material

by using a press and are generally
customized for the specific item to be
created.
 Forming dies are typically made by tool

and die makers and put into production
after mounting into a press.
 The die is a metal block that is used for

forming materials like
sheet metal and plastic.

Fundamental metallurgical concepts for

punch and die materials
 For the forming of sheet metal, such

as automobile body parts, two parts
may be used:
 Punch - Performs the stretching,

bending, and/or blanking
operation.
 Die or die block or button –

Securely clamps the workpiece
and provides similar stretching,
bending, and/or blanking
operation.

Fundamental metallurgical concepts for

punch and die materials
 Vacuum forming (thermoforming)
 It is a forming process where a sheet

of plastic is heated to a forming
temperature, stretched onto a single-
surface mold, and forced against the
mold by a vacuum.
 Vacuum forming is considered

simple molding thermoforming proces
s but uses the same principles as die
forming.

Punch dies
 Punching is done by a punch

press which changes the shape of
metal to form and cut it.
 As metal is passed through the press,

it is cut and formed to pre-set shapes..
 A work piece may go through several

stages using different tools and
operations to obtain the final form.
 In the case of an automotive

Die operations are often named after the
component there will usually be a specific type of die that performs the operation.
shearing operation after the main
forming is done and then additional Sometimes operations are not limited to one
crimping or rolling operations to ensure specific die.
that all sharp edges are hidden and to
Some dies may use multiple operation types
add rigidity to the panel.

Punch dies
 Punching is done by a punch

press which changes the shape of
metal to form and cut it.
 As metal is passed through the press,

it is cut and formed to pre-set
shapes..
 A work piece may go through several

stages using different tools and
operations to obtain the final form.
Die operations
 In the case of an automotive
component there will usually be a Bending, blanking, broaching, coining,
shearing operation after the main compound operations, curling, cut off,
forming is done and then additional drawing, extruding, cold forming, roll
crimping or rolling operations to forming, morning, hydroforming, piercing,
ensure that all sharp edges are shaving, slagging, trimming, etc.
hidden and to add rigidity to the
AAUpanel.
/ AAiT SCHOOL OF MECHANICAL AND INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERING 91
Punch dies
 The selection of proper materials for die

components has become one of the important
aspects of die design because long die life has
become a necessity for achieving higher
productivity and reducing cost of sheet metal
component
 Selection of material for metal forming like

forging dies primarily depends on their
resistance to wear, plastic deformation and
fatigue (mechanical and thermal).
 To provide resistance to wear and plastic

deformation, the dies hardness should be as
high as possible. But the dies should also have
adequate toughness as the dies are subjected
to changes in pressures and temperatures.

Metallurgical issues
 Mechanical metallurgy is the area of metallurgy which is concerned primarily

with the response of metals to forces or loads.
 It is necessary to know something about the limiting values which can be

withstood without failure.
 A continuous body is one which does not contain voids or empty spaces of
any kind. A body is homogeneous if it has identical properties at all points.
 A body is considered to be isotropic with respect to some property when that

property does not vary with direction or orientation.
 A property which varies with orientation with respect to some system of axes
is said to be anisotropic.
 Metallurgical, tool materials are required to be of uniform composition and free

of any defects.

Metallurgical issues
 To optimize the material and its properties, other processes are required such
as:
 Steel refinement
 ESR – Electro slag re-melting
 Optimal heat treatment
 Treatments and coatings
 Powder Metallurgy

MIEG 6421 - Mechanical Behavior of Materials

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FORMING & ADVANCED JOINING PROCESSES

Getasew Ashagrie (Ph.D.)

AAU / AAiT SCHOOL OF MECHANICAL AND INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERING 2

 Plastic deformation and Yield criteria

 Engineering aspects of fracture

 High temperature behavior of metals

 Concepts related to forming

 Fundamental metallurgical concepts of punch and die materials.

AAU / AAiT SCHOOL OF MECHANICAL AND INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERING 3

 How to control mechanical behaviors of metals during forming?

 What causes property variation in formed objects due to variation in working

 Relationship (behavior) between stress and strain during plastic deformation.

AAU / AAiT SCHOOL OF MECHANICAL AND INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERING 4

Processing operations Assembly operations

Properly enhancing Heat treatment processes

Cleaning & surface Threaded fasteners

AAU / AAiT SCHOOL OF MECHANICAL AND INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERING 5

Material properties in metal forming

 Desirable material properties

 Low yield strength

 These properties are affected by temperature

 Ductility increases and yield strength decreases

 The effect of temperature gives rise to distinctions

 Strain rate and friction

 Metal forming processes can be classified into

AAU / AAiT SCHOOL OF MECHANICAL AND INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERING 6

Fundamentals of Metal Forming

 A metal forming (working) operation is

 The primary objective of a metal

 Equally important is the control of

AAU / AAiT SCHOOL OF MECHANICAL AND INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERING 7

Classification of forming processes

 Primary mechanical working processes or bulk forming processes - Reducing an

 Example – Rolling, Forging, Extrusion, Drawing, etc.

 Example – Bending, Deep drawing, Punching, Shearing, Blanking, etc.

Classification of forming processes

 It is a severe deformation process resulting in significant

 The surface area-to-volume of the work is relatively small.

 Mostly done in hot working conditions.

 The term ‘bulk’ describes workparts with relatively low surface

 Basic bulk deformation processes include rolling, forging,

AAU / AAiT SCHOOL OF MECHANICAL AND INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERING 9

Classification of forming processes

 In this process, the workpiece in the form of slab

 The workpiece is compressed between two dies

AAU / AAiT SCHOOL OF MECHANICAL AND INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERING 10

Classification of forming processes

 The workpiece is compressed or pushed

 Wire (rod) extrusion

 Similar to extrusion, except that the

AAU / AAiT SCHOOL OF MECHANICAL AND INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERING 11

Classification of sheet forming processes

 Sheet metal forming

 Involves forming and cutting operations performed on

 It is accomplished using a set of tools called a punch

AAU / AAiT SCHOOL OF MECHANICAL AND INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERING 12

Classification of sheet forming processes

 Sheet metal forming

 In this, the sheet material is strained by punch to

 Deep (cup) drawing

 In this operation, forming of a flat metal sheet into a

 A blank-holder is used to clamp the blank on the die,

AAU / AAiT SCHOOL OF MECHANICAL AND INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERING 13